Hijab

For the municipal company of Gothenburg, Sweden, see Higab.
Women wearing hijab

A hijab or ḥijāb (/hɪˈdʒɑːb/, /hɪˈdʒæb/, /ˈhɪ.dʒæb/ or /hɛˈdʒɑːb/;[1][2][3][4] Arabic: حجاب‎, pronounced [ħiˈdʒæːb] or [ħiˈɡæːb]) is a veil that covers the head and chest, which is particularly worn by some Muslim women beyond the age of puberty in the presence of adult males outside of their immediate family and non-muslims. It can further refer to any head, face, or body covering worn by Muslim women that conforms to a certain standard of modesty. Hijab can also be used to refer to the seclusion of women from men in the public sphere, or it may embody a metaphysical dimension – Al-hijab refers to "the veil which separates man or the world from God".[5]

Most often, it is worn by Muslim women as a symbol of modesty, privacy, and morality. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, modesty in the Quran concerns both men's and women's "gaze, gait, garments, and genitalia."[6] The Qur'an admonishes Muslim women to dress modestly.[7] Most Islamic legal systems define this type of modest dressing as covering everything except the face and hands in public.[5][8] These guidelines (for covering of the entire body except for the hands, the feet and the face) are found in texts of fiqh and hadith developed after the revelation of the Qur'an but, according to some, are derived from the verses (ayahs) referencing hijab in the Qur'an.[6] Many believe that the Qur'an itself does not mandate that women wear hijab.[9][10]

The term hijab in Arabic literally means “a screen or curtain” and is used in the Qur'an to refer to a partition. The Qur'an tells the male believers (Muslims) to talk to the wives of Muhammad behind a curtain. This curtain was the responsibility of the men and not the wives of Muhammad. This leads some to claim that the mandate of the Qur'an to wear hijab applies to the wives of Muhammad, not women generally.[11][12] Αlthough hijab is often seen by critics as a tool utilized by men to control and silence women, the practice is understood differently in different contexts.[13]

In Islamic texts

Quran

The Quran instructs both Muslim men and women to dress in a modest way, but it doesn't insist on covering the head:

"Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and be modest" (surah 24:30)

The clearest verse on the requirement of the hijab is surah 24:30–31, asking women to draw their khimār over their bosoms.[14][15]

And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their khimār over their breasts and not display their beauty except to their husband, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their (Muslim) women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. (Quran 24:31)

In the following verse, the wives of Muhammad are asked to wear clothes (when they go out), as a measure to distinguish themselves from others, so that they are not harassed. Surah 33:59 reads:[15]

Those who harass believing men and believing women undeservedly, bear (on themselves) a calumny and a grievous sin. O Prophet! Enjoin your wives, your daughters, and the wives of true believers that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad): That is most convenient, that they may be distinguished and not be harassed. [...] (Quran 33:58–59)


Alternative views

Types of clothes worn by religious Shia Muslims in the greater Iranian region

Some Muslims take a relativist approach to hijab. They believe that the commandment to maintain modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest or daring in one society might not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve.[16]

Along with scriptural arguments, Leila Ahmed argues that head covering should not be compulsory in Islam because the veil predates the revelation of the Qur'an. Head-covering was introduced into Arabia long before Muhammad, primarily through Arab contacts with Syria and Iran, where the hijab was a sign of social status. After all, only a woman who need not work in the fields could afford to remain secluded and veiled.[11][17]

Ahmed argues for a more liberal approach to hijab. Among her arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to "draw their Jilbabs (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them"[Quran 33:58–59] and "guard their private parts... and drape down khimar over their breasts [when in the presence of unrelated men]",[Quran 24:31] they urge modesty. The word "khimar" refers to a piece of cloth that covers the head, or headscarf.[18] While the term "hijab" was originally anything that was used to conceal,[19] it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house, specifically the headscarf or khimar.[20]

Other verses do mention separation of men and women.

Abide still in your homes and make not a dazzling display like that of the former times of ignorance[Quran 33:32–33]
And when ye ask of them [the wives of the Prophet] anything, ask it of them from behind a curtain.[Quran 33:53]

According to at least three authors (Karen Armstrong, Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed), the stipulations of the hijab were originally meant only for Muhammad's wives, and were intended to maintain their inviolability. This was because Muhammad conducted all religious and civic affairs in the mosque adjacent to his home:

People were constantly coming in and out of this compound at all hours of the day. When delegations from other tribes came to speak with Prophet Muhammad, they would set up their tents for days at a time inside the open courtyard, just a few feet away from the apartments in which Prophet Muhammad's wives slept. And new emigrants who arrived in Yatrib would often stay within the mosque's walls until they could find suitable homes.[11]

According to Ahmed:

By instituting seclusion Prophet Muhammad was creating a distance between his wives and this thronging community on their doorstep.[12]

They argue that the term darabat al-hijab ("taking the veil"), was used synonymously and interchangeably with "becoming Prophet Muhammad's wife", and that during Muhammad's life, no other Muslim woman wore the hijab. Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad's wives, who are revered as "Mothers of the Believers" in Islam,[11] and states "there was no tradition of veiling until around 627 C.E." in the Muslim community.[11][12]

Another interpretation differing from the traditional states that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind men and men lacking physical desire.[21][22][23]

Hadith

Young Somali women in Somalia wearing the hijab

The Arabic word jilbab is translated as "cloak" in the following passage. Contemporary Salafis insist that the jilbab (which is worn over the Kimaar and covers from the head to the toe) worn today is the same garment mentioned in the Qur'an and the hadith; other translators have chosen to use less specific terms:

Dress code required by hijab

Female art students in Afghanistan
Indonesian women in Hong Kong

Traditionally, Muslims have recognized many different forms of clothing as satisfying the demands of hijab.[24] Debate focused on how much of the male or female body should be covered. Different scholars adopted different interpretations of the original texts.

Women

Detailed scholarly attention has focused on prescribing female dress in conformity with hijab. The four major Sunni schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali) hold that the entire body of the woman, except her face and hands – though a few clerics say face, hands – must be covered during prayer and in public settings (see Awrah). There are those who allow the feet to be uncovered as well as the hands and face.[25][26]

It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body: either modest forms of western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditional jilbāb, a high-necked, loose robe that covers the arms and legs. A khimār or shaylah, a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face, is also worn in many different styles. Some scholars encourage covering the face, while some follow the opinion that it is only not obligatory to cover the face and the hands but mustahab (Highly recommended). Other scholars oppose face covering, particularly in the West, where the woman may draw more attention as a result. These garments are very different in cut from most of the traditional forms of ħijāb, and they are worn worldwide by Muslims.

Many Muslim scholars believe that it is a basic requirement of Islamic law that women keep their hair and bodies covered in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members (those close enough to be forbidden to marry—see mahram). These include the Iraqi Shia Marja' (Grand Ayatollah) Ali al-Sistani;[27] the Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia;[28] and others.[29] According to some interpretations, these requirements extend to non-Muslim women as well. Some believers go so far as to specify exactly which areas of the body must be covered. In some cases, this is everything but the eyes, but most require that women cover everything but the face and hands. In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are not required to wear a ħijāb. There is not a single agreed age when a woman should begin wearing a ħijāb—but in many Muslim cultures, puberty is the dividing line.

In private, and in the presence of close relatives (mahrams), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife.[30]

Garments

A Yemenite Muslim wearing the niqab

The burqa (also spelled burka) is the garment that covers women most completely: either only the eyes are visible, or nothing at all. Originating in what is now Pakistan, it is more commonly associated with the Afghan chadri. Typically, a burqa is composed of many yards of light material pleated around a cap that fits over the top of the head, or a scarf over the face (save the eyes). This type of veil is cultural as limited to the people of that part of the world.

It has become tradition that Muslims in general, and Salafis in particular, believe the Qur'an demands women wear the garments known today as jilbāb and khumūr (the khumūr must be worn underneath the jilbāb). However, Qur'an translators and commentators translate the Arabic into English words with a general meaning, such as veils, head-coverings and shawls.[31] Ghamidi argues that verses [Quran 24:30] teach etiquette for male and female interactions, where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the clothing of Arab women in the 7th century, but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way. Hence he considers head-covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the sharia (law).[32]

Men

Although certain general standards are widely accepted, there has been little interest in narrowly prescribing what constitutes modest dress for Muslim men. Many scholars recommend that men should cover themselves from the navel to the knees.[33] It is also widely accepted that male clothes should not be tight-fitting or "glamorous".[33]

According to some sources, Muslim men should not wear gold jewelry, silk clothing, or adornments that are considered feminine.[34][35]

Fadwa El Guindi, a prominent Islamic scholar, writes, “Confining the study of the veil, just like the study of women, to the domain of gender in lieu of society and culture narrows the scope in a way that limits cultural understanding and theoretical conceptualization”

Sartorial hijab as practiced

A young girl from the city of Ahwaz in Iran wearing a chador

In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, women, especially younger ones, have taken to wearing transparent and very loosely worn hijabs.

In Turkey, where the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools, 11% of women once wore it, though 60% wore traditional non-Islamic headscarves, figures of which are often confused with hijab.[36][37][38] However, the ban was lifted from universities in 2011, from government buildings in 2013,[39] and from schools in 2014.[40]

Historical and cultural explanations

History

The term hijab is never used in the Qur'an to describe an article of clothing.[41] The only verses in the Qur'an that specifically reference women’s clothing, are those promoting modesty, instructing women to guard their private parts and throw a scarf over their bosoms in the presence of men.[41] The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the “verse of the hijab” descended upon the community in 627 CE.[42] Now documented in Sura 33: 53 the verse states, “And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts”.[43] This verse, however, was not addressed to women in general, but exclusively to Muhammad’s wives. As Muhammad’s influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home. Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives’ apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers.[44] During Muhammad’s lifetime no other women in the Ummah (Muslim community) observed the hijab. Instead, the term for donning the veil, darabat al-hijab, was used interchangeably with “becoming Muhammad’s wife”.[45] As stated by Reza Aslan, “The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad’s death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet’s egalitarian reforms”.[44] Other scholars point out that the Qur'an does not require women to wear veils; rather, it was a social habit picked up with the expansion of Islam. In fact, since it was impractical for working women to wear veils, "A veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle."[46]

Young woman from Nablus in a hijab (ca. 1867-1885)

Pre-Islamic Veiling Practices

Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses precede all three Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), dating back as far as 2500 BCE.[47] Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status.[48] In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman’s class, rank, and occupation in society. Veiling was meant to “differentiate between ‘respectable’ women and those who were publicly available”.[48] Female slaves and unchaste women were explicitly forbidden to veil and suffered harsh penalties if they did so. Veiling was thus a marker of rank and exclusive lifestyle, subtly illustrating upper-class women’s privilege over women in lower classes in the Assyrian community.

Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were in place in Roman and Byzantine society as well. Between 550 and 323 B.C.E, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men.[49] These customs influenced the later Byzantine empire where proper conduct for girls entailed that they be neither seen nor heard outside their home. Like in Assyrian law, respectable women were expected to veil and low-class women were forbidden from partaking in the practice. In Classical Rome, the Emperor Augustus encouraged his citizens all around the Mediterranean to enter temples "capo velato" literally "with their heads veiled", by which he intended clothing that did not differ much from traditional Saudi clothing for men and women today. Augustus himself appeared like this in propaganda pictures and temple portraits (see the Ara Pacis temple in Rome). The Romans were embedded in a larger Mediterranean/Middle Eastern milieu with roots in Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Egypt, and they transmitted this legacy to both the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire, which today constitute approximately the Muslim Mediterranean (and parts of the Middle East) and Europe.

By the 5th and 6th centuries, societies of the Mediterranean Middle East were dominated by Christian and some Jewish populations. At the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling the head and face. In Judaic scripture, Genesis 24:65, Numbers 5:18 and Isaiah 47:2 are references in the Old Testament refer to a headcovering for women. Although there is no positive command for women to cover their heads in the Old Testament, there are non-canonical rabbinical writings on tzniut, meaning "modesty".[50]

There is also a tradition of Christian headcovering for women, rooted in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16 and supported by various early Church Fathers[51][52][53][54][55] Early Christian art shows women wearing headcoverings.[56] During the ensuing centuries, women wore headcoverings during the meetings of the church, but the style of the covering varied.[57] The practice of head-covering gradually disappeared from most churches over the course of the twentieth century, but still persists in the form of nuns "taking the veil," and many orders of nuns' religious habits resemble the chador, the full-body cloak that leaves only the face exposed, which is worn as a form of hijab by some women, particularly in Iran. Some think that the word habarah (a complex cloak and veil traditional in Egypt) itself derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary.”[58] Scholar Leila Ahmed argues that “Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam.”[59]

During the period directly preceding the Muslim conquest in 640 CE, the Sassanids ruled in Mesopotamia. Customs of Persian royalty at the time of the first Persian conquest of Mesopotamia continued to be practiced and became even more elaborate under the Sassanids. In addition to acknowledging the monotheistic religion of Zoroastrianism among the upper classes, such customs included large harems of women and, of most note for this article, veiling. Some scholars postulate that the customs of veiling and seclusion of women in early Islam were assimilated from the conquered Persian and Byzantine societies and then later on they were viewed as appropriate expressions of Quranic norms and values.

Thus, successive invasions during the Muslim conquest led to some synthesis in the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the regions.[58] Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety.[60] Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. It gradually spread among urban populations, becoming more pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle.[58] Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields.[61]

The mid-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of the westernization of Egypt under the rule of Gamal Abdel Nasser. The hijab, veil, often taken to mean suppression of the Islamic woman, began to symbolize a commitment to "the service of the Islamic call [to help] devastated families."[62] The veil became a liberating symbol of being an Islamic woman with a cause for social justice.

Overall, the hijab is meant to highlight the individual’s relationship with Allah. Many scholars believe that the hijab was a source of separation, in which to allow Muhammad’s wives to find oneness with Allah.

Contemporary context

A model displaying a fashionable hijab at "Moslema In Style Fashion Show" (show for Muslim women apparels) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

The mid-1970s marked a period in which college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith.[63][64] This movement was named the Sahwah,[65] or awakening, and was and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that spread across the east that was evident in every aspect of the believers life through the ways in which they chose to dress themselves.[63] The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an “al-jilbāb—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover resembling a nun's wimple that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back”.[63] In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (al-niqāb) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin.

Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice. Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women’s equality,[64] many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs.[63]

Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights. There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it.[63] Many instances, such as a period of forced veiling for women in Iran, brought these issues to the forefront and generated great debate from both scholars and everyday people.

As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty and Islamic identity towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Islamic nationalism and to resist western influences. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice.[64] They choose to cover because they believe it is liberating and allows them to avoid harassment. Many people (both Muslim and non-Muslim) are against the wearing of the hijab and argue that the hijab causes issues with gender relations, works to silence and repress women both physically and metaphorically, and have many other problems with the practice. This difference in opinions has generated a plethora of discussion on the subject, both emotional and academic, which continues today.

Ever since September 11, 2001, the discussion and discourse on the hijab has intensified. Many nations have attempted to put restrictions on the hijab, which has led to a new wave of rebellion by women who instead turn to covering and wearing the hijab in even greater numbers.[64][66] Some of the more notable events that have occurred in the recent past can be read about in the further reading section.

Modern practice

Wearing the hijab in Kazakhstan is not prohibited, but is widely criticized as a foreign custom (the traditional scarf worn by Central Asian married women resemble the bandana, not the hijab), because it was not practiced until the fall of the USSR and the arrival of foreign Islamic missionaries.

Governmental enforcement and bans

A map showing the prevalence of the Hijab

Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings.

Some Muslims believe hijab covering for women should be compulsory as part of sharia, i.e. Muslim law. Wearing of the hijab was enforced by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. The Taliban's Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan required women to cover not only their head but their face as well, because "the face of a woman is a source of corruption" for men not related to them.[67] Today, covering face by niqab is compulsory in many sacred places in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Turkey, Tunisia, and Tajikistan are Muslim-majority countries where the law prohibits the wearing of hijab in government buildings, schools, and universities. In Tunisia, women were banned from wearing hijab in state offices in 1981 and in the 1980s and 1990s more restrictions were put in place.[68] In 2008 the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court.[69] Though in December 2010, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities.[70]

Iran went from banning hijab in 1936 to making it compulsory in 1979. The tradition of veiling hair in Iranian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins,[71] but the widespread custom was forcibly ended by Reza Shah's regime in 1936, as it was incompatible with his modernizing ambitions. The police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it, and these policies outraged the Shi'a clerics, and ordinary men and women, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Many women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police.[72] Eventually rules of dress code were relaxed, and after Reza Shah's abdication in 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned. According to Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, between 1941 and 1979, wearing hejab [hijab] was no longer offensive, but still considered it to be a real hindrance to climbing the social ladder, a badge of backwardness and a marker of class. A headscarf, let alone the chador, prejudiced the chances of advancement in work and society not only of working women but also of men, who were increasingly expected to appear with their wives at social functions. At the time of the overthrow of the Shah's regime after Iranian Revolution of 1979, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini made a speech on the first International Women's Day declaring that women should wear the veil in state ministries.[73][74] This led to widespread demonstrations in March of 1979 by women all across the country by women opposed to the imposition of the veil.[73][74] However, legally-imposed veiling gradually took hold: women not covering their hair and body in hijab were first denied the right to enter governmental institutions and facilities, and hijab ultimately became universally mandatory in 1984.[74] Under Penal Code provisions, women who refuse to wear the prescribed hijab will be sentenced to 72 lashes.[74]

Some Iranian women wear their headscarves far back on their heads revealing most of their hair. More conservative types of hijab like kimars and chadors are still widespread in government institutions, mosques, sacred places and conservative areas.

On March 15, 2004, France passed a law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of Maaseik, Niqāb has been banned since 2006.[75] On July 13, 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. There were 335 votes for the bill and one against in the 557-seat National Assembly.

In 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was reported to have executed several women for not wearing niqab with gloves.[76]

In 2014 the Aceh Legislative Council passed Qanun Acara Jinayat (a sharia-based criminal procedures code) applying Islamic law to everyone in the province, including non-Muslims. This would compel non-Muslims to wear hijab. The bill is under national government review.[77]

Non-governmental enforcement

Non-governmental enforcement of hijab is found in many parts of the Muslim world.

Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear hijab has been reported in Gaza where Mujama' al-Islami, the predecessor of Hamas, reportedly used "a mixture of consent and coercion" to "'restore' hijab" on urban educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s.[78]

Similar behaviour was displayed by Hamas itself during the First Intifada in Palestine. Though a relatively small movement at this time, Hamas exploited the political vacuum left by perceived failures in strategy by the Palestinian factions to call for a 'return' to Islam as a path to success, a campaign that focused on the role of women.[79] Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures, including insisting women stay at home, segregation from men and the promotion of polygamy. In the course of this campaign women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed, with the result that the hijab was being worn 'just to avoid problems on the streets'.[80]

In Srinagar, India in 2001 an "acid attack on four young Muslim women ... by an unknown militant outfit [was followed by] swift compliance by women of all ages on the issue of wearing the chadar (head-dress) in public."[81][82][83]

Radicals in Gaza have been accused of attacking or threatening to attack the faces of women in an effort to intimidate them from wearing allegedly immodest dress.[84]

World Hijab Day

World Hijab Day is an annual event that takes place on February 1. The very first World Hijab Day was celebrated in 2013. Founded by Nazma Khan, it is a worldwide event that encourages Muslim and non-Muslim women to wear the hijab, and experience life of a Hijabi woman. This event showcases freedom and traditional aspect of hijab to the women of the 116 participating countries. In short, World Hijab Day is a way for the non-Hijabi woman to experience hijab from the other side.[85]

Hijab by country

Main article: Hijab by country

See also
Covering variants
Non-Muslim

Notes

  1. ↑ "Definition of hijab in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  2. ↑ "Hijab – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  3. ↑ "hijab noun – definition in British English Dictionary & Thesaurus – Cambridge Dictionary Online". Dictionary.cambridge.org. 2013-04-16. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  4. ↑ "Definition of hijab". Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  5. 1 2 Glasse, Cyril, The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Altamira Press, 2001, p.179-180
  6. 1 2 Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 721, New York: Macmillan Reference USA
  7. ↑ Martin et al. (2003), Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World, Macmillan Reference, ISBN 978-0028656038
  8. ↑ Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008.
  9. ↑ http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_351_400/quran_does_not_mandate_hijab.htm
  10. ↑ http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2012/06/45564/hijab-is-not-an-islamic-duty-scholar/
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Aslan, Reza, No God but God, Random House, (2005), p.65–6
  12. 1 2 3 Women and Gender in Islas: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate – Leila Ahmed – Google Boeken. Books.google.com. 1992. ISBN 9780300055832. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  13. ↑ "Should the Hijab be banned in schools, public buildings or society in general?". Debate.org. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  14. ↑ Evidence in the Qur'an for Covering Women's Hair, IslamOnline.
  15. 1 2 Hameed, Shahul. "Is Hijab a Qur’anic Commandment?," IslamOnline.net. October 9, 2003.
  16. ↑ Syed, Ibrahim B. (2001). "Women in Islam: Hijab".
  17. ↑ Ahmed, Leyla (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300055838.
  18. ↑ V.A. Mohamad Ashrof. Islam and gender justice:. Gyan Books, 2005. p. 130. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
  19. ↑ Asma Afsaruddin, A. H. Mathias Zahniser. Humanism, culture, and language in the Near East. Eisenbrauns, 1997. p. 87. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
  20. ↑ Asma Afsaruddin, A. H. Mathias Zahniser. Humanism, culture, and language in the Near East. Eisenbrauns, 1997. p. 95. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
  21. ↑ "Is it ok to take off the kimar and niqab in front of a blind man?". Islamqa.info. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  22. ↑ Women revealing their adornment to men who lack physical desire retrieved 25 June 2012
  23. ↑ Queer Spiritual Spaces: Sexuality and Sacred Places – Page 89, Kath Browne, Sally Munt, Andrew K. T. Yip - 2010
  24. ↑ Kausar Khan, "Veiled Feminism: The dating scene looks a little different from behind the veil," Current (Winter 2007): 14-15.
  25. ↑ The Hanbali school of thought also views the face as the awrah, though this view is rejected by Hanafis, Malikis and Shafi'is.
  26. ↑ Hsu, Shiu-Sian. "Modesty." Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Ed. Jane McAuliffe. Vol. 3. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003. 403-405. 6 vols.
  27. ↑ al-Sistani, Ali. "Question & Answer » Hijab (Islamic Dress)". The Official Website of the Office of His Eminence Al-Sayyid Ali Al-Husseini Al-Sistani. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
  28. ↑ "Fatwas of the Permanent Committee: Women covering their faces and hands". General Presidency of Scholarly Research and Ifta'. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
  29. ↑ Contributing Writer. "What Is the Islamic Rule of Wearing a Veil? [URL pending Wikipedia editor whitelisting]". Opposing Views.
  30. ↑ Heba G. Kotb M.D., Sexuality in Islam, PhD Thesis, Maimonides University, 2004
  31. ↑ See collection of Qur'an translations, compared verse by verse
  32. ↑ Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, Chapter: The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid.
  33. 1 2 Naik, Zakir Abdul Karim (2006). Answers To Non Muslims' Common Questions About Islam. Islamic Research Foundation. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
  34. ↑ Saleem, Shehzad (June 1999). "Wearing Silk", Renaissance-Monthly Islamic Journal, 9(6).
  35. ↑ Whitaker, Brian (20 February 2007). "Hijab for men". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
  36. ↑ Rainsford, Sarah (November 7, 2006). "Headscarf issue challenges Turkey". BBC News.
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  41. 1 2 Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 55.
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  46. ↑ Bloom (2002), p.46-47
  47. ↑ Kahf, Mohja (2008). From Royal Body the Robe was Removed: The Blessings of the Veil and the Trauma of Forced Unveiling in the Middle East. University of California Press. p. 27.
  48. 1 2 Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 15.
  49. ↑ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 28.
  50. ↑ Schiller, Mayer (1995). "The Obligation of Married Women to Cover Their Hair" (PDF). The Journal of Halacha 30: 81–108.
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  52. ↑ "On Clothes". The Instructor. Ante-Nicene Fathers.
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  54. ↑ Augustine. "How Man is the Image of God. Whether the Woman is Not Also the Image of God. How the Saying of the Apostle, that the Man is the Image of God, But the Woman is the Glory of the Man, is to Be Understood Figuratively and Mystically". On the Trinity. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.
  55. ↑ Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume Four, Book One, Part Three—On the Veiling of Virgins
  56. ↑ Shank, Tom (1988). Let Her Be Veiled. Eureka, MT: Torch Publications. pp. 51–8. OCLC 19708234.
  57. ↑ http://www.scrollpublishing.com/store/head-covering-history.html[][]
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  61. ↑ Esposito, John (1991). Islam: The Straight Path (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 99.
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  67. ↑ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.
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  70. ↑ "Quiet end to Turkey's college headscarf ban". BBC News. 31 December 2010.
  71. ↑ CLOTHING ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods at Encyclopædia Iranica
  72. ↑ El-Guindi, Fadwa, Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance, Berg, 1999
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  75. ↑ Mardell, Mark. Dutch MPs to decide on burqa ban, BBC News, January 16, 2006. Accessed June 6, 2008.
  76. ↑ Syrian Women Face Whipping and Execution for Breaking Sharia Dress Code
  77. ↑ "Sharia should not apply for non-Muslims: Aceh ulema". Jakarta Post. February 8, 2014. Retrieved 17 June 2014. In anticipation of its enactment, on Wednesday sharia police pulled over female motorists in Banda Aceh who were not wearing a headscarf. Non-Muslim motorists were allowed to go with a warning to start covering their heads in public.
  78. ↑ "Women and the Hijab in the Intifada", Rema Hammami Middle East Report, May–August 1990
  79. ↑ Rubenberg, C., Palestinian Women: Patriarchy and Resistance in the West Bank (USA, 2001) p.230
  80. ↑ Rubenberg, C., Palestinian Women: Patriarchy and Resistance in the West Bank (USA, 2001) p.231
  81. ↑ Jain, Sandhya (14 August 2001). "Acid test in the face of acid attacks". The Pioneer.
  82. ↑ Popham, Peter (in Delhi) (30 August 2001). "Kashmir women face threat of acid attacks from militants, ''Independent'', The (London)". Findarticles.com. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
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  84. ↑ In 2006, a group in Gaza calling itself "Just Swords of Islam" is reported to have claimed it threw acid at the face of a young woman who was dressed "immodestly," and warned other women in Gaza that they must wear hijab. December 2, 2006 Gaza women warned of immodesty
  85. ↑ http://worldhijabday.com/

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