Iran hostage crisis

Not to be confused with the Iranian Embassy siege in London.
Iran–United States hostage crisis
Part of Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution

Iranian students crowd the U.S. Embassy in Tehran (November 4, 1979)
DateNovember 4, 1979 – January 20, 1981
(444 days or 1 year, 2 months, 2 weeks and 2 days)
LocationTehran, Iran
Result

Hostages released by Algiers Accords

Belligerents

 Iran

  United States
Commanders and leaders
Iran Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini United States Jimmy Carter
Casualties and losses
1 Iranian civilian and 8 American servicemen killed during an attempt to rescue the hostages.

The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States. 52 American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for 444 days (November 4, 1979, to January 20, 1981) after a group of Iranian students belonging to the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line, who supported the Iranian Revolution, took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran.[1]

The crisis was described by the Western media as an "entanglement" of "vengeance and mutual incomprehension."[2] President Jimmy Carter called the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy" and said, "The United States will not yield to blackmail."[3] In Iran, it was widely seen as a blow against the United States and its influence in Iran, including its perceived attempts to undermine the Iranian Revolution and its longstanding support of the recently overthrown Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who had led an autocratic regime.

After his overthrow in 1979, the shah was admitted to the United States for cancer treatment. Iran demanded that he be returned to stand trial for crimes he was accused of committing during his reign. Specifically, Pahlavi was accused of committing crimes against Iranian citizens with the help of his secret police, the SAVAK. Iranians saw the decision to grant him asylum as American complicity in those atrocities. In the United States, the hostage-taking was seen as an egregious violation of the principles of international law, which granted diplomats immunity from arrest and made diplomatic compounds inviolable.[4][5][6][7]

The crisis reached a climax when, after failed efforts to negotiate the hostages' release, the United States military attempted a rescue operation using ships, including the USS Nimitz and USS Coral Sea, that were patrolling the waters near Iran. On April 24, 1980, the attempt, known as Operation Eagle Claw, failed, resulting in the deaths of eight American servicemen and one Iranian civilian, as well as the destruction of two aircraft. Documents dated two weeks before the operation claim that the American national security advisor, Zbigniew Brzezinski, discussed an invasion of Iran through Turkish bases and territory, though this plan was never executed.[8][9]

Shah Pahlavi left the United States in December 1979 and was ultimately granted asylum in Egypt, where he died from complications of cancer on July 27, 1980. In September 1980, the Iraqi military invaded Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War. These events led the Iranian government to enter negotiations with the U.S., with Algeria acting as a mediator. The hostages were formally released into United States custody the day after the signing of the Algiers Accords, just minutes after the new American president, Ronald Reagan, was sworn into office.

The crisis is considered a pivotal episode in the history of Iran–United States relations.[10] Political analysts cite it as a major factor in the trajectory of Jimmy Carter's presidency and his loss in the 1980 presidential election.[11] In Iran, the crisis strengthened the prestige of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and the political power of theocrats who opposed any normalization of relations with the West.[12] The crisis also led to the United States' economic sanctions against Iran, further weakening ties between the two countries.[13]

Background

1953 coup d'état

Further information: Operation Ajax and Iranian Revolution

In February 1979, less than a year before the hostage crisis, Shah Pahlavi was overthrown during the Iranian Islamic Revolution. For several decades before that, the United States had allied with and supported the shah. During World War II, Allied powers Britain and the Soviet Union had occupied Iran to force the abdication of Pahlavi's father, Reza Shah, in favor of Pahlavi.[14] The Allies feared that Reza Shah intended to align his petroleum-rich country with Nazi Germany, but Reza Shah's earlier declaration of neutrality, and his refusal to allow Iranian territory to be used to train or supply Soviet troops against Germany, were the strongest motives for the Allied invasion of Iran. Because of its importance in the Allied victory, Iran was subsequently called "The Bridge of Victory" by Winston Churchill.[15]

By the 1950s, Shah Pahlavi was engaged in a power struggle with Iran's prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh, an immediate descendant of the previous monarchy, the Qajar dynasty. Mosaddegh led a general strike on behalf of impoverished Iranians, demanding a share of the nation's petroleum revenue from Britain's Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. However, he overstepped in trying to get $50 million in damages and lost revenue from the British.[16] In 1953, the British and American spy agencies helped Iranian royalists depose Mosaddegh in a military coup d'état codenamed Operation Ajax, allowing the shah to extend his power. The shah appointed himself an absolute monarch rather than a constitutional monarch, his position before the 1953 crisis, with the aim of assuming complete control of the government and purging the disloyal.[17][18][19] The U.S. continued to support and fund the shah after the coup, with the Central Intelligence Agency training the government's SAVAK secret police. In the subsequent decades of the Cold War, various economic, cultural, and political issues united opposition against the shah and led to his overthrow.[20][21][22]

Carter administration

Months before the revolution, on New Year's Eve 1977, President Carter further angered anti-shah Iranians with a televised toast to Pahlavi, declaring how beloved the shah was by his people. After the revolution culminated in February 1979 with the return of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini from France, the American Embassy was occupied and its staff held hostage briefly. Rocks and bullets had broken so many of the embassy's front-facing windows that they had been replaced with bulletproof glass. The embassy's staff was reduced to just over 60 from a high of nearly 1,000 earlier in the decade.[23]

The Carter administration tried to mitigate anti-American feeling by promoting a new relationship with the de facto Iranian government and continuing military cooperation in hopes that the situation would stabilize. However, on October 22, 1979, the United States permitted the shah, who had lymphoma, to enter New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center for medical treatment.[24] The State Department had discouraged the request, understanding the political delicacy.[23] But in response to pressure from influential figures including former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Council on Foreign Relations Chairman David Rockefeller, the Carter administration decided to grant it.[25][26][27]

The shah's admission to the United States intensified Iranian revolutionaries' anti-Americanism and spawned rumors of another U.S.-backed coup that would re-install the shah.[28] Ayatollah Khomeini, who had been exiled by the shah for 15 years, heightened the rhetoric against the "Great Satan", as he called the United States, talking of "evidence of American plotting".[29] In addition to ending what they believed was American sabotage of the revolution, the hostage takers hoped to depose the provisional revolutionary government of Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan, which they believed was plotting to normalize relations with the United States and extinguish Islamic revolutionary order in Iran.[30] The occupation of the embassy on November 4, 1979, was also intended as leverage to demand the return of the shah to stand trial in Iran in exchange for the hostages.

A later study claimed that there had been no American plots to overthrow the revolutionaries, and that a CIA intelligence-gathering mission at the embassy had been "notably ineffectual, gathering little information and hampered by the fact that none of the three officers spoke the local language, Persian". Its work, the study said, was "routine, prudent espionage conducted at diplomatic missions everywhere".[31]

Prelude

First attempt

On the morning of February 14, 1979—the same day that the U.S. ambassador to Afghanistan, Adolph Dubs, was kidnapped and fatally shot by Muslim extremists in Kabul[32]—fedayeen militants stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and took a Marine named Kenneth Kraus hostage. Ambassador William Sullivan surrendered the embassy to save lives, and with the assistance of Iranian Foreign Minister Ebrahim Yazdi, returned the embassy to U.S. hands within three hours.[33] Kraus was injured in the attack, kidnapped by the militants, tortured, tried, and convicted of murder. He was to be executed, but President Carter and Sullivan secured his release within six days.[34] This incident became known as the Valentine's Day Open House.[35]

Anticipating the takeover of the embassy, the Americans tried to destroy classified documents in a furnace. The furnace malfunctioned and the staff was forced to use cheap paper shredders.[36][37] Skilled carpet weavers were later employed to reconstruct the documents.[38]

Second attempt

The next attempt to seize the American Embassy was planned for September 1979 by Ebrahim Asgharzadeh, a student at the time. He consulted with the heads of the Islamic associations of Tehran's main universities, including the University of Tehran, Sharif University of Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology (Polytechnic of Tehran), and Iran University of Science and Technology. They named their group Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line.

Asgharzadeh later said there were five students at the first meeting, two of whom wanted to target the Soviet Embassy because the USSR was "a Marxist and anti-God regime". Two others, Mohsen Mirdamadi and Habibolah Bitaraf, supported Asgharzadeh's chosen target: the United States. "Our aim was to object against the American government by going to their embassy and occupying it for several hours," Asgharzadeh said. "Announcing our objections from within the occupied compound would carry our message to the world in a much more firm and effective way."[39] Mirdamadi told an interviewer, "We intended to detain the diplomats for a few days, maybe one week, but no more."[40] Masoumeh Ebtekar, the spokeswoman for the Iranian students during the crisis, said that those who rejected Asgharzadeh's plan did not participate in the subsequent events.[41]

The students observed the procedures of the Marine Security Guards from nearby rooftops overlooking the embassy. They also drew on their experiences from the recent revolution, during which the U.S. Embassy grounds were briefly occupied. They enlisted the support of police officers in charge of guarding the embassy and of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards.[42]

According to the group and other sources, Ayatollah Khomeini did not know of the plan beforehand.[43] The students had wanted to inform him, but according to the author Mark Bowden, Ayatollah Mohammad Mousavi Khoeiniha persuaded them not to. Khoeiniha feared that the government would use the police to expel the students as they had the occupiers in February. The provisional government had been appointed by Khomeini, and so Khomeini was likely to go along with the government's request to restore order. On the other hand, Khoeiniha knew that if Khomeini first saw that the occupiers were faithful supporters of him (unlike the leftists in the first occupation) and that large numbers of pious Muslims had gathered outside the embassy to show their support for the takeover, it would be "very hard, perhaps even impossible", for him to oppose the takeover, and this would paralyze the Bazargan administration, which Khoeiniha and the students wanted to eliminate.[44]

Supporters of the takeover stated that their motivation was fear of another American-backed coup against their popular revolution. They claimed that in 1953, the American Embassy had acted as a "den of spies" from which the coup was organized. Documents were later found in the embassy suggesting that some staff members had been working with American intelligence agencies. After the shah entered the United States, Ayatollah Khomeini called for street demonstrations.

Takeover

Two American hostages during the siege of the U.S. Embassy.

On November 4, 1979, one of the demonstrations organized by Iranian student unions loyal to Khomeini erupted into an all-out conflict right outside the walled compound housing the U.S. Embassy.

Around 6:30 a.m., the ringleaders gathered between 300 and 500 selected students and briefed them on the battle plan. A female student was given a pair of metal cutters to break the chains locking the embassy's gates, and she hid them beneath her chador.[45]

At first, the students planned a symbolic occupation, in which they would release statements to the press and leave when government security forces came to restore order. This was reflected in placards saying: "Don't be afraid. We just want to sit in." When the embassy guards brandished firearms, the protesters retreated, with one telling the Americans, "We don't mean any harm."[46] But as it became clear that the guards would not use deadly force and that a large, angry crowd had gathered outside the compound to cheer the occupiers and jeer the hostages, the plan changed.[47] According to one embassy staff member, buses full of demonstrators began to appear outside the embassy shortly after the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line broke through the gates.[48]

As Khoeiniha had hoped, Khomeini supported the takeover. According to Foreign Minister Yazdi, when he went to Qom to tell Khomeini about it, Khomeini told him to "go and kick them out". But later that evening, back in Tehran, Yazdi heard on the radio that Khomeini had issued a statement supporting the seizure, calling it "the second revolution" and the embassy an "American spy den in Tehran".[49]

The occupiers bound and blindfolded the Marines and staff at the embassy and paraded them in front of photographers. In the first couple of days, many of the embassy workers who had sneaked out of the compound or had not been there at the time of the takeover were rounded up by Islamists and returned as hostages.[50] Six American diplomats managed to avoid capture and took refuge in the British Embassy before being transferred to the Canadian Embassy. Others went to the Swedish Embassy in Tehran for three months. In a joint covert operation known as the Canadian caper, the Canadian government and the CIA managed to smuggle them out of Iran on January 28, 1980, using Canadian passports and a cover story that identified them as a film crew.[51]

A State Department diplomatic cable of November 8, 1979, details "A TENTATIVE, INCOMPLETE LIST OF U.S. PERSONNEL BEING HELD IN THE EMBASSY COMPOUND".[52]

Motivations

The Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line demanded that Shah Pahlavi return to Iran for trial and execution. The U.S. maintained that the shah—who died less than a year later, in July 1980—had come to America for medical attention. The group's other demands included that the U.S. government apologize for its interference in the internal affairs of Iran, including the overthrow of Prime Minister Mosaddegh in 1953, and that Iran's frozen assets in the United States be released.

Barry Rosen, the embassy's press attaché, was among the hostages. The man on the right holding the briefcase is alleged by some former hostages to be future President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, although he, Iran's government, and the CIA deny this.

The initial plan was to hold the embassy for only a short time, but this changed after it became apparent how popular the takeover was and that Khomeini had given it his full support.[48] Some attributed the decision not to release the hostages quickly to President Carter's failure to immediately deliver an ultimatum to Iran.[53] His initial response was to appeal for the release of the hostages on humanitarian grounds and to share his hopes for a strategic anti-communist alliance with Iran.[54] As some of the student leaders had hoped, Iran's moderate prime minister, Bazargan, and his cabinet resigned under pressure just days after the takeover.

The duration of the hostages' captivity has also been attributed to internal Iranian revolutionary politics. As Ayatollah Khomeini told Iran's president:

This has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people's vote without difficulty, and carry out presidential and parliamentary elections.[55]

Theocratic Islamists, as well as leftist political groups like the socialist People's Mujahedin of Iran,[56] supported the taking of hostages as an attack on "American imperialism". Revolutionary teams displayed secret documents purportedly taken from the embassy, sometimes painstakingly reconstructed after shredding,[57] to buttress their claim that "the Great Satan" (the U.S.) was trying to destabilize the new regime and that Iranian moderates were in league with the U.S. The documents—including telegrams, correspondence, and reports from the U.S. State Department and CIA—were published in a series of books called Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den (Persian: اسناد لانه جاسوسی امریكا‎‎). According to a 1997 Federation of American Scientists bulletin, by 1995, 77 volumes of Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den had been published.[58] Many of these volumes are now available online.[59]

A group photograph of the 52 hostages in a hospital where they spent a few days after their release.

By embracing the hostage-taking under the slogan "America can't do a thing", Khomeini rallied support and deflected criticism of his controversial theocratic constitution,[60] which was scheduled for a referendum vote in less than one month.[61] The referendum was successful, and after the vote, both leftists and theocrats continued to use allegations of pro-Americanism to suppress their opponents: relatively moderate political forces that included the Iranian Freedom Movement, the National Front, Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari,[62] and later President Abolhassan Banisadr. In particular, carefully selected diplomatic dispatches and reports discovered at the embassy and released by the hostage-takers led to the disempowerment and resignation of moderate figures[63] such as Bazargan. The failed rescue attempt and the political danger of any move seen as accommodating America delayed a negotiated release of the hostages. After the crisis ended, leftists and theocrats turned on each other, with the stronger theocratic group annihilating the left.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:
A protest in Washington, D.C., in 1979. The front of the sign reads "Deport all Iranians" and "Get the hell out of my country", and the back reads "Release all Americans now".

The 444-day crisis

Hostage conditions

The hostage-takers, declaring their solidarity with other "oppressed minorities" and "the special place of women in Islam", released 13 women and African Americans in the middle of November 1979. (The only African American hostage not released that month was Charles A. Jones, Jr.[64]) One more hostage, a white man named Richard Queen, was released in July 1980 after he became seriously ill with what was later diagnosed as multiple sclerosis. The remaining 52 hostages were held until January 1981, a total of 444 days of captivity.

The hostages were initially held at the embassy, but after the failed rescue mission, they were scattered around Iran to make a single rescue impossible. Three high-level officials—Bruce Laingen, Victor Tomseth, and Mike Howland—were at the Foreign Ministry at the time of the takeover. They stayed there for some months, sleeping in the ministry's formal dining room and washing their socks and underwear in the bathroom. At first, they were treated as diplomats, but after the provisional government fell, their treatment deteriorated. By March, the doors to their living space were kept "chained and padlocked".[65]

By midsummer 1980, the Iranians had moved the hostages to prisons in Tehran[66] to prevent escapes or rescue attempts and to improve the logistics of guard shifts and food delivery.[67] The final holding area, from November 1980 until their release, was the Teymur Bakhtiar mansion in Tehran, where the hostages were finally given tubs, showers, and hot and cold running water.[68] Several foreign diplomats and ambassadors—including Canadian ambassador Ken Taylor before the Canadian caper—visited the hostages over the course of the crisis and relayed information back to the U.S. government, including dispatches from Laingen.

A headline in an Islamic Republican newspaper on November 5, 1979, read "Revolutionary occupation of U.S. embassy".

Iranian propaganda stated that the hostages were "guests" treated with respect. Asgharzadeh, the student leader, described the original plan as a nonviolent and symbolic action in which the "gentle and respectful treatment" of the hostages would dramatize to the world the offended sovereignty and dignity of Iran.[69] In America, an Iranian chargé d'affaires, Ali Agha, stormed out of a meeting with an American official, exclaiming: "We are not mistreating the hostages. They are being very well taken care of in Tehran. They are our guests."[70]

The actual treatment was far different. The hostages described beatings,[71] theft,[72] and fear of bodily harm. Two of them, William Belk and Kathryn Koob, recalled being paraded blindfolded before an angry, chanting crowd outside the embassy.[73] Others reported having their hands bound "day and night" for days[74] or even weeks;[75] long periods of solitary confinement;[76] and months of being forbidden to speak to one another[77] or to stand, walk, or leave their space unless they were going to the bathroom.[78] All of the hostages "were threatened repeatedly with execution, and took it seriously".[79] The hostage-takers played Russian roulette with their victims.[80]

The most terrifying night for the hostages came on February 5, 1980, when guards in black ski masks roused them from their sleep and led them blindfolded to other rooms. They were searched after being ordered to strip naked and keep their hands up. They were then told to kneel down, still wearing blindfolds. "This was the greatest moment," one hostage said. Another later recalled, "It was an embarrassing moment. However, we were too scared to realize it." The guards cocked their weapons and readied them to fire, but finally ejected their rounds and told the prisoners to get dressed. The hostages were later told that the exercise had been "just a joke," something the guards "had wanted to do".[81]

One, Michael Metrinko, was kept in solitary confinement for months. On two occasions, when he expressed his opinion of Ayatollah Khomeini, he was punished severely. The first time, he was kept in handcuffs for two weeks,[82] and the second time, he was beaten and kept alone in a freezing cell for two weeks.[83]

Another hostage, U.S. Army medic Donald Hohman, went on a hunger strike for several weeks,[84] and two hostages attempted suicide. Steve Lauterbach broke a water glass and slashed his wrists after being locked in a dark basement room with his hands tightly bound. He was found by guards and rushed to the hospital.[85] Jerry Miele, a CIA communication technician, smashed his head into the corner of a door, knocking himself unconscious and cutting a deep gash. "Naturally withdrawn" and looking "ill, old, tired, and vulnerable", Miele had become the butt of his guards' jokes, and they had rigged up a mock electric chair to emphasize the fate that awaited him. His fellow hostages applied first aid and raised the alarm, and he was taken to a hospital after a long delay created by the guards.[86]

Other hostages described threats to boil their feet in oil (Alan B. Golacinski),[87] cut their eyes out (Rick Kupke),[88] or kidnap and kill a disabled son in America and "start sending pieces of him to your wife" (David Roeder).[89]

Four hostages tried to escape,[90] and all were punished with stretches of solitary confinement when their attempts were discovered.

Queen, the hostage sent home because of his multiple sclerosis, first developed dizziness and numbness in his left arm six months before his release.[91] His symptoms were misdiagnosed by the Iranians at first as a reaction to drafts of cold air. When warmer confinement did not help, he was told that it was "nothing" and that the symptoms would soon disappear.[92] Over the months, the numbness spread to his right side, and the dizziness worsened until he "was literally flat on his back, unable to move without growing dizzy and throwing up".[93]

The cruelty of the Iranian prison guards became "a form of slow torture".[94] The guards often withheld mail—telling one hostage, Charles W. Scott, "I don't see anything for you, Mr. Scott. Are you sure your wife has not found another man?"[95]—and the hostages' possessions went missing.[96]

As the hostages were taken to the aircraft that would fly them out of Tehran, they were led through a gauntlet of students forming parallel lines and shouting, "Marg bar Amrika" ("death to America").[97] When the pilot announced that they were out of Iran, the "freed hostages went wild with happiness. Shouting, cheering, crying, clapping, falling into one another's arms."[98]

Impact in the United States

A heckler in Washington, D.C., leans across a police line toward a demonstration of Iranians in August 1980.

In the United States, the hostage crisis created "a surge of patriotism" and left "the American people more united than they have been on any issue in two decades".[99] The hostage-taking was seen "not just as a diplomatic affront", but as a "declaration of war on diplomacy itself".[100] Television news gave daily updates.[101] In January 1980, the CBS Evening News anchor Walter Cronkite began ending each show by saying how many days the hostages had been captive.[102] President Carter applied economic and diplomatic pressure: Oil imports from Iran were ended on November 12, 1979, and with Executive Order 12170, around US$8 billion of Iranian assets in the United States were frozen by the Office of Foreign Assets Control on November 14.

During the weeks leading up to Christmas in 1979, high school students made cards that were delivered to the hostages.[2] Community groups across the country did the same, resulting in bales of Christmas cards. The National Christmas Tree was left dark except for the top star.

The two Trenton NJ newspapers at the time, The Trenton Times and the Trentonian and perhaps others around the country, printed full-page color American flags in their newspapers for readers to cut-out and place in the front windows of their homes as support for the hostages to be left in their windows until the hostages were brought home safely.

A severe backlash against Iranians in the United States developed. One Iranian American later complained, "I had to hide my Iranian identity not to get beaten up, even at university."[103]

According to Bowden, a pattern emerged in President Carter's attempts to negotiate the hostages' release: "Carter would latch on to a deal proffered by a top Iranian official and grant minor but humiliating concessions, only to have it scotched at the last minute by Khomeini."[104]

Canadian rescue of hostages

Main article: Canadian Caper
Americans expressed gratitude for Canadian efforts to rescue American diplomats during the hostage crisis.

On the day the hostages were seized, six American diplomats evaded capture and remained in hiding at the home of the Canadian diplomat John Sheardown, under the protection of the Canadian ambassador, Ken Taylor. In late 1979, the government of Prime Minister Joe Clark secretly issued an Order in Council[105] allowing Canadian passports to be issued to some American citizens so that they could escape. In cooperation with the CIA, which used the cover story of a film project, two CIA agents and the six American diplomats boarded a Swissair flight to Zurich, Switzerland, on January 28, 1980. Their rescue from Iran, known as the Canadian caper,[106][107][108] was fictionalized in the 2012 film Argo.

Negotiations for release

Rescue attempts

Further information: Operation Eagle Claw

First rescue attempt

After rejecting Iranian demands, Carter approved an ill-fated secret rescue mission, Operation Eagle Claw. Late in the afternoon of April 24, 1980, eight RH‑53D helicopters flew from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz to a remote road serving as an airstrip in the Great Salt Desert of Eastern Iran, near Tabas. They encountered severe dust storms that disabled two of the helicopters, which were traveling in complete radio silence. Early the next morning, the remaining six helicopters met up with several waiting Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft at a landing site and refueling area designated "Desert One".

At this point, a third helicopter was found to be unserviceable, bringing the total below the six deemed vital for the mission. The commander of the operation, Colonel Charles Alvin Beckwith, recommended that the mission be aborted, and his recommendation was approved by President Carter. As the helicopters repositioned themselves for refueling, one ran into a C‑130 tanker aircraft and crashed, killing eight U.S. servicemen and injuring several more.[109]

In May 1980, the Joint Chiefs of Staff commissioned a Special Operations review group of six senior military officers, led by Admiral James L. Holloway III, to thoroughly examine all aspects of the rescue attempt. The group identified 23 issues that were significant in the failure of the mission, 11 of which it deemed major. The overriding issue was operational security: that is, keeping the mission secret so that the arrival of the rescue team at the embassy would be a complete surprise. This severed the usual relationship between pilots and weather forecasters; the pilots were not informed about the local dust storms. Another security requirement was that the helicopter pilots come from the same unit. The unit picked for the mission was a U.S. Navy mine-laying unit flying CH-53D Sea Stallions; these helicopters were considered the best suited for the mission because of their long range, large capacity, and compatibility with shipboard operations.

Two hours into the flight, the crew of helicopter No. 6 saw a warning light indicating that a main rotor might be cracked. They landed in the desert, confirmed visually that a crack had started to develop, and stopped flying in accordance with normal operating procedure. Helicopter No. 8 landed to pick up the crew of No. 6, and abandoned No. 6 in the desert without destroying it. The report by Holloway's group pointed out that a cracked helicopter blade could have been used to continue the mission and that its likelihood of catastrophic failure would have been low for many hours, especially at lower flying speeds.[110] The report found that the pilot of No. 6 would have continued the mission if instructed to do so.

When the helicopters encountered two dust storms along the way to the refueling point, the second more severe than the first, the pilot of No. 5 turned back because the mine-laying helicopters were not equipped with terrain-following radar. The report found that the pilot could have continued to the refueling point if he had been told that better weather awaited him there, but because of the command for radio silence, he did not ask about the conditions ahead. The report also concluded that "there were ways to pass the information" between the refueling station and the helicopter force "that would have small likelihood of compromising the mission"—in other words, that the ban on communication had not been necessary at this stage.[111]

Helicopter No. 2 experienced a partial hydraulic system failure but was able to fly on for four hours to the refueling location. There, an inspection showed that a hydraulic fluid leak had damaged a pump and that the helicopter could not be flown safely, nor repaired in time to continue the mission. Six helicopters was thought to be the absolute minimum required for the rescue mission, so with the force reduced to five, the local commander radioed his intention to abort. This request was passed through military channels to President Carter, who agreed.[112]

After the mission and its failure were made known publicly, Khomeini credited divine intervention on behalf of Islam, and his prestige skyrocketed in Iran.[113] Iranian officials who favored release of the hostages, such as President Bani Sadr, were weakened. In America, President Carter's political popularity and prospects for being re-elected in 1980 were further damaged after a television address on April 25 in which he explained the rescue operation and accepted responsibility for its failure.

Planned second attempt

A second rescue attempt, planned but never carried out, would have used highly modified YMC-130H Hercules aircraft. Three aircraft, outfitted with rocket thrusters to allow an extremely short landing and takeoff in the Shahid Shiroudi football stadium near the embassy, were modified under a rushed, super-secret program known as Operation Credible Sport. One crashed during a demonstration at Eglin Air Force Base on October 29, 1980, when its braking rockets were fired too soon. The misfire caused a hard touchdown that tore off the starboard wing and started a fire, but all on board survived. After Carter lost the presidential election in November, the project was abandoned.

The failed rescue attempt led to the creation of the 160th SOAR, a helicopter aviation Special Forces group.

Release

Vice President George H. W. Bush and other VIPs wait to welcome the hostages home.
The hostages disembark Freedom One, an Air Force Boeing C-137 Stratoliner aircraft, upon their return.

With the completion of negotiations, the hostages were released on January 20, 1981, That day, at the moment President Reagan completed his 20‑minute inaugural address after being sworn in, the 52 American hostages were released into U.S. custody.[114][115] There are theories and conspiracy theories regarding why Iran postponed the release until that moment.[116][117][118] (See also: October Surprise conspiracy theory) They were flown from Iran to Algeria as a symbolic gesture of appreciation for the Algerian government's help in resolving the crisis. The flight continued to Rhein-Main Air Base in West Germany and on to an Air Force hospital in Wiesbaden, where former President Carter, acting as emissary, received them. After medical check-ups and debriefings, the hostages took a second flight to Stewart Air National Guard Base in Newburgh, New York, with a refueling stop in Shannon, Ireland, where they were greeted by a large crowd. From Newburgh, they traveled by bus to the United States Military Academy at West Point and stayed at the Thayer Hotel for three days, receiving a heroes' welcome all along the route. Ten days after their release, they were given a ticker tape parade through the Canyon of Heroes in New York City.

Aftermath

Iran–Iraq War

The Iraqi invasion of Iran occurred less than a year after the embassy employees were taken hostage. The journalist Stephen Kinzer argues that the dramatic change in American–Iranian relations, from allies to enemies, helped embolden the Iraqi leader, Saddam Hussein, and that the United States' anger with Iran led it to aid the Iraqis after the war turned against them.[119] The United States supplied Iraq with, among other things, "helicopters and satellite intelligence that was used in selecting bombing targets". This assistance "deepened and widened anti-American feeling in Iran".[119]

Consequences for Iran

After the hostage crisis, the walls of the former U.S. Embassy were mostly covered in anti-American murals.
A protest in Tehran on November 4, 2015, against the United States and Israel.
The November 2015 protest in Tehran.

The hostage-taking was unsuccessful for Iran in some respects. It lost international support for its war against Iraq, and the negotiated settlement was considered almost wholly favorable to the United States because it did not meet any of Iran's original demands,[120] However, in the documentary titled " Iran and the West ", made decades later, Carter and several other key politicians of that time acknowledged the fact that the United States, alongside the United Kingdom, agreed to return several billion dollars of Iranian assets in exchange for the release of hostages. But the crisis strengthened Iranians who had supported the hostage-taking. Anti-Americanism became even more intense.[121] Politicians such as Khoeiniha and Behzad Nabavi[122] were left in a stronger position, while those associated with—or accused of association with—America were removed from the political picture. A Khomeini biographer, Baqer Moin, described the crisis as "a watershed in Khomeini's life" that transformed him from a "cautious, pragmatic politician" into "a modern revolutionary single-mindedly pursuing a dogma". In Khomeini's statements, imperialism and liberalism were "negative words", while revolution "became a sacred word, sometimes more important than Islam".[123]

Some have suggested that the greatest benefit of the takeover of the American Embassy was the acquisition of intelligence contained within the embassy, including the identity of informants to the U.S. government, which the new Islamist government could use to remove potential dissenters and consolidate its gains.

The Iranian government commemorates the event every year with a demonstration at the embassy and the burning of an American flag. But on November 4, 2009, pro-democracy protesters and reformists demonstrated in the streets of Tehran. When the authorities encouraged them to chant "death to America", the protesters instead chanted "death to the dictator" (referring to Iran's Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei) and other anti-government slogans.[124]

Consequences for the United States

Gifts, including lifetime passes to any minor league or Major League Baseball game,[125] were showered on the hostages upon their return to the United States.

In 2000, the hostages and their families tried unsuccessfully to sue Iran under the Antiterrorism Act of 1996. They originally won the case when Iran failed to provide a defense, but the State Department then tried to end the lawsuit,[126] fearing that it would make international relations difficult. As a result, a federal judge ruled that no damages could be awarded to the hostages because of the agreement the United States had made when the hostages were freed.[127]

The former U.S. Embassy building is now used by Iran's government and affiliated groups. Since 2001, it has served as a museum to the revolution. Outside the door, there is a bronze model based on the Statue of Liberty on one side and a statue portraying one of the hostages on the other.[128]

The Guardian reported in 2006 that a group called the Committee for the Commemoration of Martyrs of the Global Islamic Campaign had used the embassy to recruit "martyrdom seekers": volunteers to carry out operations against Western and Israeli targets.[129] Mohammad Samadi, a spokesman for the group, signed up several hundred volunteers in a few days.[129]

Hostages

There were 66 original captives: 63 taken at the embassy and three captured and held at the Foreign Ministry offices. Three of the hostages were operatives of the CIA.[31]

Thirteen hostages were released November 19–20, 1979, and one was released on July 11, 1980.

Diplomats who evaded capture

Hostages released November 1979

Hostage released July 1980

Hostages released January 1981

Hostages honored

All State Department and CIA employees taken hostage received the State Department Award for Valor. Political Officer Michael J. Metrinko received two: one for his time as a hostage and another for his daring rescue of Americans who had been jailed in Tabriz months before the embassy takeover.[134]

The U.S. military later awarded the 20 servicemen who were among the hostages the Defense Meritorious Service Medal. The only hostage serviceman not issued the medal was Staff Sgt. Joseph Subic, Jr., who "did not behave under stress the way noncommissioned officers are expected to act"[135]—that is, he cooperated with the hostage-takers, according to other hostages.[136]

The Humanitarian Service Medal was awarded to the servicemen of Joint Task Force 1–79, the planning authority for Operation Rice Bowl/Eagle Claw, who participated in the rescue attempt.

The Air Force Special Operations component of the mission was given the Air Force Outstanding Unit award for performing their part of the mission flawlessly, including evacuating the Desert One refueling site under extreme conditions.

Civilian hostages

A small number of hostages were not connected to diplomatic staff. All were released by late 1981.

Notable hostage-takers, guards, and interrogators

October Surprise conspiracy theory

Allegations that the Reagan administration negotiated a delay in the release of the hostages until after the 1980 presidential election have been numerous but unproven. Gary Sick, principal White House aide for Iran and the Persian Gulf on the Carter administration’s National Security Council, claimed in his book October Surprise: America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan[142] that CIA Director William Casey and possibly Vice President George H. W. Bush went to Paris to negotiate such a delay. Many others have made the same allegations.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "The History Guy: Iran-U.S. Hostage Crisis (1979–1981)". historyguy.com. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
  2. 1 2 Skow, John (26 January 1981). "The Long Ordeal of the Hostages". Time. Retrieved 2015-05-27.
  3. ↑ "Air Force Magazine" (PDF). Air Force Magazine. 2016-04-05. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  4. ↑ "Doing Satan's Work in Iran". The New York Times. November 6, 1979. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
  5. ↑ Kinzer, Stephen. (2003). All The Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
  6. ↑ Nalle, David. (2003). "All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror." Middle East Policy, Vol. X (4), 148–155.
  7. ↑ Pryce-Jones, David. (2003). "A Very Elegant Coup." National Review, 55 (17), 48–50.
  8. ↑ Mehmet Akif Okur, "The American Geopolitical Interests and Turkey on the Eve of the September 12, 1980 Coup", CTAD, Vol.11, No.21, p. 210–211
  9. ↑
  10. ↑ "History, Travel, Arts, Science, People, Places | Smithsonian". Smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  11. ↑ Reagan's Lucky Day: Iranian Hostage Crisis Helped The Great Communicator To Victory, CBS News, January 21, 2001
  12. ↑ Mackey, Sandra, The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation, New York: Dutton, c. 1996 (p. 298)
  13. ↑ "A Review Of US Unilateral Sanctions Against Iran". Mafhoum.com. 2002-08-26. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  14. ↑ Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions, (1982), p. 164
  15. ↑ "Country name calling: the case of Iran vs. Persia.". Archived from the original on February 13, 2008. Retrieved May 2, 2013.
  16. ↑ (p. 52 poverty p. 54 Postwar Brit, -p. 63 acceptance of 50:50 split, demand for $50 million in damages & back revenues, The Persian Puzzle, Kenneth M. Pollack. New York: Random House, 2004.)
  17. ↑ O'Reilly, Kevin (2007). Decision Making in U.S. History. The Cold War & the 1950s. Social Studies. p. 108. ISBN 1-56004-293-1.
  18. ↑ Mohammed Amjad. Iran: From Royal Dictatorship to Theocracy. Greenwood Press, 1989. p. 62 "the United States had decided to save the 'free world' by overthrowing the democratically elected government of Mosaddegh."
  19. ↑ Iran by Andrew Burke, Mark Elliott, p. 37
  20. ↑ "Iran's century of upheaval". BBC. February 2, 2000. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
  21. ↑ "1979: Shah of Iran flees into exile". BBC. January 16, 1979. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
  22. ↑ "January 16 Almanac". CNN. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
  23. 1 2 Bowden 2006, p. 19
  24. ↑ Daniels, Lee A. (October 24, 1979). "Medical tests in Manhattan". The New York Times. p. A1.
    Altman, Lawrence K. (October 24, 1979). "Jaundice in patient reported". The New York Times. p. A1.
    Altman, Lawrence K. (October 25, 1979). "Shah's surgeons unblock bile duct and also remove his gallbladder". The New York Times. p. A1.
  25. ↑ "Daugherty | Jimmy Carter and the 1979 Decision to Admit the Shah into the United States". Unc.edu. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  26. ↑ David Farber (1979-11-04). "Taken Hostage: The Iran Hostage Crisis and America's First Encounter with ...". Books.google.com. p. 122. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  27. ↑
  28. ↑ "Stephen Kinzer on US-Iranian Relations, the 1953 CIA Coup in Iran and the Roots of Middle East Terror". Democracy Now!. 2008-03-03. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  29. ↑ Moin Khomeini, (2000), p. 220
  30. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 10
  31. 1 2 "Journal of Homeland Security review of Mark Bowden's "Guests of the Ayatollah"". Retrieved 2007-02-25.
  32. ↑ Lord, Jeffrey (23 Oct 2012). "Jimmy Carter’s Dead Ambassador". The American Spectator. The American Spectator.
  33. ↑ Houghton, David Patrick (2001). US foreign policy and the Iran hostage crisis ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0521805094.
  34. ↑ Sheldon Engelmayer (4 Feb 1981). "Hostage Suit Tells Torture". The Deseret News.
  35. ↑ Daugherty, William J. (1996). "A First Tour Like No Other". Central Intelligence Agency.
  36. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 30
  37. ↑ Farber, Taken Hostage (2005), p. 134
  38. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 337
  39. ↑ "Among the Hostage-Takers". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  40. ↑ Molavi, Afshin, The Soul of Iran, Norton, (2005), p. 335
  41. ↑ "Iran Negah". Iran Negah. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  42. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 8, 13
  43. ↑ Scott Macleod (November 15, 1999). "Radicals Reborn". Time. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
  44. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 12
  45. ↑ Macleod, Scott (1999-11-15). "Radicals Reborn". TIME. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  46. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 40, 77
  47. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 127–8
  48. 1 2 Bowden 2006
  49. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 93
  50. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 50, 132–4
  51. ↑
  52. ↑ "National Archives and Records Administration, Access to Archival Databases (AAD): Central Foreign Policy Files, created 7/1/1973 - 12/31/1979; Electronic Telegrams, 1979 (searchable database)". Aad.archives.gov. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  53. ↑ Moin, Khomeini (2001), p. 226
  54. ↑ Moin, Khomeini, (2000), p. 221; "America Can't do a *** Thing" by Amir Taheri New York Post, November 2, 2004
  55. ↑ Moin, Khomeini, (2000), p. 228
  56. ↑ Abrahamian, Ervand (1989), The Iranian Mojahedin (1989), p. 196
  57. ↑ "Iran, 1977-1980/Document". Gwu.edu. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  58. ↑ "Secrecy & Government Bulletin, Issue 70". Fas.org. 1997-05-29. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  59. ↑ "Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive". Archive.org. 2001-03-10. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
  60. ↑ Arjomand, Said Amir, Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand, Oxford University Press, 1988 p. 139
  61. ↑ Moin, Khomeini (2000), p. 227
  62. ↑ Moin, Khomeini (2000), pp. 229, 231; Bakhash, Reign of the Ayatollahs, (1984), pp. 115–6
  63. ↑ Bakhash, Reign of the Ayatollahs, (1984), p. 115
  64. ↑ "Black Hostage Reports Abuse". The New York Times. January 27, 1981. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
  65. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 151, 219, 372
  66. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 528
  67. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 514–5
  68. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 565
  69. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 128
  70. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 403
  71. ↑ (Rick Kupke in Bowden 2006, p. 81, Charles Jones, Colonel Dave Roeder, Metrinko, Tom Ahern (in Bowden 2006, p. 295)
  72. ↑ Hall in Bowden 2006, p. 257, Limbert in Bowden 2006, p. 585
  73. ↑ in Bowden 2006, p. 267
  74. ↑ Bill Belk in Bowden 2006, pp. 65, 144, Malcolm Kalp in Bowden 2006, pp. 507–511
  75. ↑ Queen, in Bowden 2006, p. 258, Metrinko, in Bowden 2006, p. 284
  76. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 307, 344, 405, 540
  77. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 149, 351–2
  78. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 161
  79. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 203
  80. ↑ "Russian roulette played with hostages". Edmonton Journal (New York). Associated Press. January 21, 1981. p. A3.
  81. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 346–350
  82. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 284
  83. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 544
  84. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 335
  85. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 345
  86. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 516–7
  87. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 158
  88. ↑ Bowden 2006, pp. 81–3
  89. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 318
  90. ↑ Malcolm Kalp in Bowden 2006, pp. 507–11, Joe Subic, Kevin Hemening, and Steve Lauterbach, in Bowden 2006, p. 344
  91. ↑ December 1979
  92. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 258
  93. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 520
  94. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 397
  95. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 354
  96. ↑ Hall's apartment ransacked in Bowden 2006, p. 257, Roeder's in Bowden 2006, p. 570
  97. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 584
  98. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 587
  99. ↑ "Man of the Year: The Mystic Who Lit The Fires of Hatred". Time. January 7, 1980. Retrieved April 26, 2012.
  100. ↑ "Doing Satan's Work in Iran", New York Times, November 6, 1979.
  101. ↑ The ABC late-night program America Held Hostage, anchored by Ted Koppel, later became a stalwart news magazine under the title Nightline.
  102. ↑ Zelizer, Julian E. Jimmy Carter: the 39th President, 1977–81. New York: Times, 2010. Print.
  103. ↑ Bahari, Maziar (2008-09-11). "Inside Iran". Newstatesman.com. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  104. ↑ Bowden 2006, p. 401
  105. ↑ "Sittings of the House - Special or Unusual Sittings". Parl.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  106. ↑ Mendez, Antonio J. (Winter 1999–2000). "CIA Goes Hollywood: A Classic Case of Deception". Studies in Intelligence. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
  107. ↑ Mendez, Antonio J. (2000). The Master of Disguise: My Secret Life in the CIA. HarperCollins. ISBN 0060957913.
  108. ↑ "The Talk of the Town". The New Yorker 56 (3): 87. May 12, 1980.
  109. ↑ Holloway 1980, pp. 9-10.
  110. ↑ Holloway 1980, p. 44.
  111. ↑ Holloway 1980, p. 45.
  112. ↑ Holloway, J. L., III; Special Operations Review Group (1980). "[Iran Hostage] Mission Rescue Report". U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. Archived from the original on 2013-07-03. Retrieved December 12, 2013.
  113. ↑ Mackey, Iranians, (2000), p. 298
  114. ↑ Weisman, Steven R. (January 21, 1981). "Reagan Takes Oath as 40th President; Promises an 'Era of National Renewal'—Minutes Later, 52 U.S. Hostages in Iran Fly to Freedom After 444-Day Ordeal". The New York Times. p. A1.
  115. ↑ "Iranian Hostages Released - 1981 Year in Review - Audio". UPI.com. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  116. ↑ "The Republican myth of Ronald Reagan and the Iran hostages, debunked". Vox. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  117. ↑ "Did Iran Delay Hostages Release To Ensure Reagan's Election?". WRMEA. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  118. ↑ Lewis, Neil A. (1991-04-15). "New Reports Say 1980 Reagan Campaign Tried to Delay Hostage Release". NYTimes.com (IRAN). Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  119. 1 2 Kinzer, Stephen. "Inside Iran's Fury". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2016-01-05.
  120. ↑ Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution, Keddie, Nikki, Yale University Press, 2003, p. 252
  121. ↑ Bakhash, Reign of the Ayatollahs, (1984), p. 236
  122. ↑ Brumberg, Daniel Reinventing Khomeini, University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 118
  123. ↑ Moin, Khomeini, (2000) p. 229
  124. ↑ "Iran's pro-democracy protesters to Obama: With us or against us? What a difference 30 years makes". Los Angeles Times. November 4, 2009. Retrieved November 4, 2009.
  125. ↑ Carpenter, Les (January 20, 2006). "Safe at Home". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  126. ↑ Wald, Matthew L. (2002-02-10). "Seeking Damages From Iran, Ex-Marine Must Battle Bush Administration, Too". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-01-05.
  127. ↑ Wald, Matthew L. (2002-04-19). "Judge Rules Iran Hostages Can't Receive Compensation". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-01-05.
  128. ↑ "BBC NEWS | In pictures: Iran hostage crisis". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-01-05.
  129. 1 2 Tait, Robert (2006-04-19). "Iranian group seeks British suicide bombers". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2008-05-10.
  130. ↑ "The Hostages in Danger". Time. December 17, 1979. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  131. ↑ Michael B. Farrell (June 27, 2006). "444 days in captivity as the world watched". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  132. ↑ "A First Tour Like No Other — Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  133. ↑ Totter, Bill, "Mainer recalls time as hostage in Iran 30 years ago", Bangor Daily News, Bangor, Maine, Nov. 05, 2009.
  134. ↑ Mark Bowden Guests of the Ayatollah (2006)
  135. ↑ "Around the World; Former Iranian Hostage To Get Early Discharge". The New York Times. July 1, 1981.
  136. ↑ Bowden, Mark Guests of the Ayatollah, Grove Press, 2006, p. 374
  137. ↑ "Mohi Sobhani, 70; Held Hostage at U.S. Embassy in Iran in 1980", Los Angeles Times
  138. ↑ "Mohi Sobhani (1935 - 2005) - Find A Grave Memorial". Findagrave.com. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  139. ↑ Nassry Was Political Prisoner In Iran Red Cross Traces Path To Lost Relatives, The Morning Call, March 2, 1993
  140. ↑ Cynthia Dwyer home, Bangor Daily News, Feb 12, 1981
  141. ↑ 29 Aug 2003 (2003-08-29). "Canon John Coleman". Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
  142. ↑ Sick, Gary (1991). October Surprise: America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan. New York: Random House.

References

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iran hostage crisis.

Declassified documents

United States

Great Britain

Records of the Prime Minister's Office, Correspondence & Papers; 1979-1997 at discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk: IRAN. Internal situation in Iran; Attack on British Embassy; Hostage-taking at US Embassy; Freezing of Iranian Assets; US Mission to release hostages; Relations with US & UK following hostage taking at US Embassy.

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