Ku Klux Klan

"KKK" redirects here. For other uses, see KKK (disambiguation).

Ku Klux Klan

Ku Klux Klan's emblem
In existence
1st Klan 1865–1870s
2nd Klan 1915–1944
3rd Klan 1946–present
Members
1st Klan unknown
2nd Klan 3,000,000–6,000,000[1] (peaked in 1924–25)
3rd Klan 5,000–8,000[2]
Properties
Political ideology White supremacy
White nationalism
Nativism[3]
Anti-immigration
Anti-communism
Christian terrorism[4][5]
Anti-Catholicism
Antisemitism
Homophobism
Christian Identity
Neo-fascism (Third KKK)
Religion Protestantism

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), or simply "the Klan", is the name of three distinct past and present movements in the United States that have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through terrorism aimed at groups or individuals whom they opposed.[6] All three movements have called for the "purification" of American society, and all are considered right wing extremist organizations.[7][8][9][10]

The first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. It sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, especially by using violence against African American leaders. With numerous chapters across the South, it was suppressed around 1871, through federal enforcement. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be terrifying, and to hide their identities.[11][12]

The second group was founded in 1915, and flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, particularly in urban areas of the Midwest and West. It opposed Catholics and Jews, especially newer immigrants, and stressed opposition to the Catholic Church.[13] This second organization adopted a standard white costume and used similar code words as the first Klan, while adding cross burnings and mass parades.

The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of small, local, unconnected groups that use the KKK name. They focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. It is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[14] It is estimated to have between 5,000 and 8,000 members as of 2012.[2]

The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to America's "Anglo-Saxon" blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism.[15] Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK.[16]

Overview: Three Klans

First KKK

The first Klan was founded in Pulaski, Tennessee, some time between December 1865 and August 1866 by six former members of the Confederate army[17] as a fraternal social club inspired at least in part by the then largely defunct Sons of Malta, from which parts of the initiation ceremony were borrowed, with the same purpose: "ludicrous initiations, the baffling of public curiosity, and the amusement for members were the only objects of the Klan."[18] The name is probably derived from the Greek word kuklos (κύκλος) which means circle.[19]

According to The Cyclopædia of Fraternities (1907) "Beginning in April, 1867, there was a gradual transformation... The members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein. They had played with an engine of power and mystery, though organized on entirely innocent lines, and found themselves overcome by a belief that something must lie behind it all—that there was, after all, a serious purpose, a work for the Klan to do."[18]

Although there was little organizational structure above the local level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name and methods.[20] Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement during the Reconstruction era in the United States. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies; it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the federal government passed the Enforcement Acts, which were successfully enforced in prosecuting and suppressing Klan crimes.[21]

The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives. It seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence; it drove some people out of politics. On the other hand, it caused a sharp backlash, with passage of federal laws that historian Eric Foner says were a success in terms of "restoring order, reinvigorating the morale of Southern Republicans, and enabling blacks to exercise their rights as citizens."[22] Historian George C. Rable argues that the Klan was a political failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says:

the Klan declined in strength in part because of internal weaknesses; its lack of central organization and the failure of its leaders to control criminal elements and sadists. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South.[23]

Second KKK

KKK night rally in Chicago, c. 1920

In 1915, the second Klan was founded in Atlanta, Georgia. Starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of using full-time paid recruiters and appealed to new members as a fraternal organization, of which many examples were flourishing at the time. The national headquarters made its profit through a monopoly of costume sales, while the organizers were paid through initiation fees. It grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions pitting urban versus rural America, it spread to every state and was prominent in many cities. The second KKK preached "One Hundred Percent Americanism" and demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.[3] Its appeal was directed exclusively at white Protestants; it opposed Jews, blacks, Catholics, and newly arriving Southern European groups such as Italians.[24] Some local groups threatened violence against rum runners and notorious sinners; the violent episodes generally took place in the South.[25]

The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.[26] Klan organizers also operated in Canada, especially in Saskatchewan in 1926-28, where Klansmen denounced immigrants from Eastern Europe as a threat to Canada's British heritage.[27][28]

Third KKK

The "Ku Klux Klan" name was used by numerous independent local groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama.[29] Several members of KKK groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers in Mississippi in 1964 and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham in 1963. Today, researchers estimate that there may be 150 Klan chapters with upwards of 5,000 members nationwide.[30]

Today, many sources classify the Klan as a "subversive or terrorist organization".[31][32][33][34] In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and conspiring to blow up a natural gas processing plant.[35] In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina passed a resolution declaring the Klan to be a terrorist organization.[36] In 2004, a professor at the University of Louisville began a campaign to have the Klan declared a terrorist organization in order to ban it from campus.[37]

First Klan: 1865–1871

Creation and naming

A cartoon threatening that the KKK would lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.

Six Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, during the Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War.[38][39] The name was formed by combining the Greek kyklos (κύκλος, circle) with clan.[40] The group was known for a short time as the "Kuklux Clan". The Ku Klux Klan was one of a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, which included the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865) and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867) in Louisiana.[41]

Historians generally classify the KKK as part of the post-Civil War insurgent violence related not only to the high number of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy. In 1866, Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control, and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used public violence against black people and their allies as intimidation. They burned houses, and attacked and killed black people, leaving their bodies on the roads.[42]

A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy

At an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting to a national headquarters. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to such military hierarchy, but the Klan never operated under this centralized structure. Local chapters and bands were highly independent.

Nathan Bedford Forrest

Former Confederate Brigadier General George Gordon developed the Prescript, which espoused white supremacist belief. For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of "a white man's government", "the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights."[43] The latter is a reference to the Ironclad Oath, which stripped the vote from white persons who refused to swear that they had not borne arms against the Union. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest became Grand Wizard, claiming to be the Klan's national leader.[17][44]

In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people such as Tennessee governor William Gannaway Brownlow and other "carpetbaggers" and "scalawags".[45] He argued that many southerners believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.[46] One Alabama newspaper editor declared "The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan."[47]

Despite Gordon's and Forrest's work, local Klan units never accepted the Prescript and continued to operate autonomously. There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters. Klan members used violence to settle old personal feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore general white dominance in the disrupted postwar society. The historian Elaine Frantz Parsons describes the membership:

Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen.[48]

Historian Eric Foner observed:

In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party's infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life.[49]
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To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of blacks.[49] The Klan soon spread into nearly every southern state, launching a "reign of terror against Republican leaders both black and white. Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions."[50]

Activities

Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire family [51]
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Klan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks. Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers by voice and mannerisms. "The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night."[52] The KKK night riders "sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious blacks. Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously."[53]

The Klan attacked black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers. When they killed black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because these people had many roles in society. Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of blacks.

"Armed guerrilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites." Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside. They drove successful black farmers off their land. "Generally, it can be reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault."[54]
George W. Ashburn was assassinated for his pro-black sentiments.

Klan violence worked to suppress black voting, and campaign seasons were deadly. More than 2,000 persons were killed, wounded and otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868. Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1,071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections. White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for President Grant's opponent. The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods. Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods. The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact.[55]

In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1,222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock. By the November presidential election, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant.[56]

Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in a county in Florida, and hundreds more in other counties. Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of Klansmen's beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies.[57]

Milder encounters also occurred. In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry:[58]

One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning on March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised. Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the warning and left the county.

By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease.[59] Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for freelance violence. Many influential southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it.[60] There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating "that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain."[59]

Resistance

Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized "the anti-Ku Klux". They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning black churches and schools. Armed blacks formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina and patrolled the streets to protect their homes.[61]

National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed, or believed that it was a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors.[62] Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation.[63]

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In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican Senator John Scott convened a Congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. They accumulated 12 volumes of horrifying testimony. In February, former Union General and Congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act). This added to the enmity that southern white Democrats bore toward him.[64] While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage. The Governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state. A riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse were reported, from which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods.[65] The 1871 Civil Rights Act allowed President Ulysses S. Grant to suspend habeas corpus.[66]

Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Klan Act)

In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation. The Ku Klux Klan Act was used by the Federal government, together with the Enforcement Act of 1870, to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution. Under the 1871 Klan Act, after the Klan refused to voluntarily dissolve, Grant issued a suspension of Habeas Corpus, and stationed Federal troops in nine South Carolina counties. The Klansmen were apprehended and prosecuted in federal court. Judges Hugh Lennox Bond and George S. Bryan presided over the trial of KKK members in Columbia, South Carolina during December 1871.[67] The defendants were sentenced to five years to three months incarceration with fines.[68] More African Americans served on juries in Federal court than were selected for local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process.[66][69] In the crackdown, hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned.

End of the first Klan

Although Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, as a secret or "invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers. It was difficult for observers to judge its membership.[70] It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders.

In 1870 a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a "terrorist organization".[71] It issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism. Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina.[72] Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume for anonymity, to hide their identities when carrying out independent acts of violence. Forrest called for the Klan to disband in 1869, arguing that the Klan was "being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace".[73] Historian Stanley Horn argues that "generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment".[74] A Georgia-based reporter wrote in 1870 that, "A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux".[75]

Gov. William Holden of North Carolina.

In many states, officials were reluctant to use black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised.[69] When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, it added to his unpopularity. Combined with extensive violence and fraud at the polls, the Republicans lost their majority in the state legislature. Disaffection with Holden's actions led to white Democratic legislators' impeaching Holden and removing him from office, but their reasons were numerous.[76]

Klan operations ended in South Carolina[77] and gradually withered away throughout the rest of the South, where it had gradually been faltering. Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions.[78]

Foner argues that:

By 1872, the federal government's evident willingness to bring its legal and coercive authority to bear had broken the Klan's back and produced a dramatic decline in violence throughout the South. So ended the Reconstruction career of the Ku Klux Klan."[79]

In the mid-1870s, new groups of insurgents, local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs, emerged, continuing to intimidate and murder black political leaders.[80] The White League and Red Shirts were distinguished by their willingness to cultivate publicity, working directly to overturn Republican officeholders and regain control of politics.

In 1882, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not extend to the right to regulate against private conspiracies. It recommended that persons who had been victimized should seek relief in state courts, which were entirely unsympathetic to such appeals.[81]

Klan costumes, also called "regalia", disappeared from use by the early 1870s.[82] The Klan disappeared for decades. By 1872, the Klan was broken as an organization.[83] In 1915 William Joseph Simmons held a meeting to revive the Klan in Georgia; he attracted only two, aging former members. All other members were new.[84]

Second Klan: 1915–1944

Refounding in 1915

In 1915 the film The Birth of a Nation was released, mythologising and glorifying the first Klan and its endeavors. The second Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons at Stone Mountain, outside Atlanta, with fifteen "charter members".[85] Its growth was based on a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, prohibitionist and anti-semitic agenda, which reflected contemporary social tensions, particularly immigration and industrialization. The new organization and chapters adopted regalia featured in The Birth of a Nation.

The Birth of a Nation

Movie poster for The Birth of a Nation. It has been widely noted for inspiring revival of the Ku Klux Klan.

Director D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan. His film was based on the book and play The Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr.

Much of the modern Klan's iconography, including the standardized white costume and the lighted cross, are derived from the film. Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old England and Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. The film's influence was enhanced by a purported endorsement by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, a Southerner. A Hollywood press agent claimed that after seeing the film Wilson said, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Historians doubt he said it.[86] Wilson felt betrayed by Dixon, who had been a classmate. Wilson's staff issued a denial, saying he was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it."[87]

The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons on top of Stone Mountain. It was a small local organization until 1921. Simmons said he had been inspired by the original Klan's Prescripts, written in 1867 by Confederate veteran George Gordon, but they were never adopted by the first Klan.[88]

Goals

Three Ku Klux Klan members standing at a 1922 parade.
In this 1926 cartoon the Ku Klux Klan chases the Roman Catholic Church, personified by St. Patrick, from the shores of America. Among the "snakes" are various supposed negative attributes of the Church, including superstition, the union of church and state, control of public schools, and intolerance

The Second Klan saw threats from every direction. A religious tone was present in its activities: "two-thirds of the national Klan lecturers were Protestant ministers," says historian Brian R. Farmer.[89] Much of the Klan's energy went into guarding "the home;" the historian Kathleen Blee said its members wanted to protect "the interests of white womanhood."[90] The pamphlet ABC of the Invisible Empire, published in Atlanta by Simmons in 1917, identified the Klan's goals as "to shield the sanctity of the home and the chastity of womanhood; to maintain white supremacy; to teach and faithfully inculcate a high spiritual philosophy through an exalted ritualism; and by a practical devotedness to conserve, protect and maintain the distinctive institutions, rights, privileges, principles and ideals of a pure Americanism."[91]

Organization

The founder of the new Klan, William J. Simmons, joined twelve different fraternal organizations. He recruited for the Klan with his chest covered with fraternal badges, and consciously modeled the Klan after fraternal organizations.[92]

Klan organizers, called "Kleagles", signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and received KKK costumes in return. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses, and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant preacher. He left town with the money collected. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers.

Simmons initially met with little success in either recruiting members or in raising money, and the Klan remained a small operation in the Atlanta area until 1920.

Moral threats

The second Klan grew primarily in response to issues of declining morality as typified by divorce, adultery, defiance of prohibition, and criminal gangs in the news every day.[93] Secondly, it was a response to the growing power of Catholics and American Jews with non-Protestant cultural values. By the mid-1920s the second Klan had a nationwide reach, with its densest per capita membership in Indiana. The Klan became most prominent in cities with high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, as rural Protestants flocked to jobs in Detroit, and Dayton in the Midwest; and Atlanta, Dallas, Memphis, and Houston in the South. In Michigan, close to half of the state's 80,000 Klansmen lived in Detroit.[94]

Though members of the KKK swore to uphold American values and Christian morality, and at the local level some Protestant ministers became involved, no Protestant denomination officially endorsed the KKK.[95] The Klan was repeatedly denounced by the major Protestant magazines, as well as by all major secular newspapers. Historian Robert Moats Miller reports that "not a single endorsement of the Klan was found by the present writer in the Methodist press, while many of the attacks on the Klan were quite savage." He finds, "the Southern Baptist press condoned the aims but condemned the methods of the Klan." Miller found not a single Protestant publication that gave the KKK "complete and open support." National denominational organizations never endorsed the Klan, but they rarely condemned it by name. Many nationally and regionally prominent churchmen did condemn it by name, and none endorsed it.[96]

Rapid growth

In 1920 Simmons handed the day-to-day activities of the national office over to two professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke.[97] The new leadership envigorated the Klan and it grew rapidly. It appealed to new members based on current social tensions, and stressed responses to fears raised by defiance of prohibition and new sexual freedoms. It emphasized anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant and later anti-Communist. It presented itself as a fraternal, nativist and strenuously patriotic organization; and its leaders emphasized support for vigorous enforcement of prohibition laws. It expanded membership dramatically to a 1924 peak of 1.5 million to 4 million, which was between 4-15% of the eligible population.[98] By the 1920s, most of its members lived in the Midwest and West. Nearly one in five of the eligible Indiana population were members.[98] It had a national base by 1925. In the South, where the great majority of whites were Democrats, the Klansmen were Democrats. In the rest of the country, the membership comprised both Republicans and Democrats, as well as independents. Klan leaders tried to infiltrate political parties; as Cummings notes, " it was non-partisan in the sense that it pressed its nativist issues to both parties."[99] Historian Rory McVeigh has explained the Klan's strategy in appealing to members of both parties:

Klan leaders hope to have all major candidates competing to win the movement's endorsement. ... The Klan's leadership wanted to keep their options open and repeatedly announced that the movement was not aligned with any political party. This non-alliance strategy was also valuable as a recruiting tool. The Klan drew its members from Democratic as well as Republican voters. If the movement had aligned itself with a single political party, it would have substantially narrowed its pool of potential recruits.[100]

Religion was a major selling point. Baker argues that Klansmen seriously embraced Protestantism as an essential component of their white supremacist, anti-Catholic, and paternalistic formulation of American democracy and national culture. Their cross was a religious symbol, and their ritual honored Bibles and local ministers. No nationally prominent religious leader said he was a Klan member.[101]

Economists Fryer and Levitt argue that the rapid growth of the Klan in the 1920s was partly the result of an innovative marketing campaign. They also argue that the Klan leadership focused more intently on monetizing the organization during this period than fulfilling the political goals of the organization.[98]

Prohibition

Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the national debate over prohibition.[102] The historian Prendergast says that the KKK's "support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation".[103] The Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence. In 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County, Arkansas. The national Klan office was established in Dallas, Texas, but Little Rock, Arkansas was the home of the Women of the Ku Klux Klan. The first head of this auxiliary was a former president of the Arkansas WCTU.[104] Membership in the Klan and in other prohibition groups overlapped, and they often coordinated activities.[105]

Urbanization

"The End" Referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US. Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty 1926

A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan, for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were lower- to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, who tended to be Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.[106]

In the medium-size industrial city of Worcester, Massachusetts in the 1920s, the Klan ascended to power quickly but declined as a result of opposition from the Catholic Church. There was no violence and the local newspaper ridiculed Klansmen as "night-shirt knights". Half of the members were Swedish American, including some first-generation immigrants. The ethnic and religious conflicts among more recent immigrants contributed to the rise of the Klan in the city. Swedish Protestants were struggling against Irish Catholics, who had been entrenched longer, for political and ideological control of the city.[107]

For some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana showed the rural stereotype was false for that state:

Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.[108]

The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long. Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group they wanted. Millions joined, and at its peak in the 1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population. The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline.

Costumes and a burning cross

Cross burning was introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the second Klan in 1915.

The distinctive white costume permitted large-scale public activities – especially parades and cross-burning ceremonies while keeping secret the membership rolls. Sales of the costumes provided the main financing for the national organization, while initiation fees funded local and state organizers.

The second Klan embraced a burning Latin cross as a dramatic display of symbolism, with a tone of intimidation.[109] No crosses had been used as a symbol by the first Klan. Additionally, the cross was henceforth a representation of the Klan's Christian message. Thus, its lighting during meetings was often accompanied by prayer, the singing of hymns, and other overtly religious symbolism.[110]

In The Clansman novel Dixon had invented the notion that the first Klan had used fiery crosses. Film director Griffith brought this image to the screen in The Birth of a Nation. Simmons adopted the symbol wholesale from the movie. The symbol has been associated with the Klan ever since.[111]

Women

By the 1920s, the KKK developed a women's auxiliary, with chapters in many areas. Its activities included participation in parades, cross lightings, lectures, rallies, and boycotts of local businesses owned by Catholics and Jews. The Women's Klan was active in promoting prohibition, stressing liquor's negative impact on wives and children. Its efforts in public schools included distributing Bibles and petitioning for the dismissal of Roman Catholic teachers. As a result of the Women's Klan's efforts, Texas would not hire Catholic teachers to work in its public schools. As scandals rocked the Klan leadership late in the 1920s, the organization's popularity among both men and women dropped off sharply.[112]

Political role

Sheet music to "We Are All Loyal Klansmen", 1923

The members of the first Klan in the South were exclusively Democrats. The second Klan expanded with new chapters in the Midwest and West, and reached both Republicans and Democrats, as well as men without a party affiliation. The KKK state organizations endorsed candidates from either party that supported its goals; Prohibition in particular helped the Klan and some Republicans to make common cause in the Midwest.

The Klan had numerous members in every part of the United States, but was particularly strong in the South and Midwest. At its peak, claimed Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas.[113] The Klan also moved north into Canada, especially Saskatchewan, where it opposed Catholics.[114]

In Indiana, members were American-born, white Protestants and covered a wide range of incomes and social levels. The Indiana Klan was perhaps the most powerful Ku Klux Klan in the nation. It claimed over 30% of white male Hoosiers.[115] In 1924 it supported Republican Edward Jackson in his successful campaign for governor.[116]

Catholic and liberal Democrats—who were strongest in northeastern cities—decided to make the Klan an issue at the 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City. Their delegates proposed a resolution indirectly attacking the Klan; it was defeated by one vote out of 1100.[117] The leading candidates were William Gibbs McAdoo, a Protestant with a base in the South and West where the Klan was strong, and New York Governor Al Smith, a Catholic with a base in the large cities. After weeks of stalemate and bitter argumentation, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise candidate.[118][119]

Two children wearing Ku Klux Klan robes and hoods stand on either side of Dr. Samuel Green, a Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragon, at Stone Mountain, Georgia on July 24, 1948.

In some states, such as Alabama and California, KKK chapters had worked for political reform. In 1924, Klan members were elected to the city council in Anaheim, California. The city had been controlled by an entrenched commercial-civic elite that was mostly German American. Given their tradition of moderate social drinking, the German Americans did not strongly support prohibition laws—the mayor had been a saloon keeper. Led by the minister of the First Christian Church, the Klan represented a rising group of politically oriented non-ethnic Germans who denounced the elite as corrupt, undemocratic and self-serving. The historian Christopher Cocoltchos says the Klansmen tried to create a model, orderly community. The Klan had about 1200 members in Orange County, California. The economic and occupational profile of the pro and anti-Klan groups shows the two were similar and about equally prosperous. Klan members were Protestants, as were most of their opponents, but the latter also included many Catholic Germans. Individuals who joined the Klan had earlier demonstrated a much higher rate of voting and civic activism than did their opponents. Cocoltchos suggests that many of the individuals in Orange County joined the Klan out of that sense of civic activism. The Klan representatives easily won the local election in Anaheim in April 1924. They fired known city employees who were Catholic and replaced them with Klan appointees. The new city council tried to enforce prohibition. After its victory, the Klan chapter held large rallies and initiation ceremonies over the summer.[120]

The opposition organized, bribed a Klansman for the secret membership list, and exposed the Klansmen running in the state primaries; they defeated most of the candidates. Klan opponents in 1925 took back local government, and succeeded in a special election in recalling the Klansmen who had been elected in April 1924. The Klan in Anaheim quickly collapsed, its newspaper closed after losing a libel suit, and the minister who led the local Klavern moved to Kansas.[120]

In the South, Klan members were still Democratic, as it was a one-party region for whites. Klan chapters were closely allied with Democratic police, sheriffs, and other functionaries of local government. Since disfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites around the start of the 20th century, the only political activity for whites took place within the Democratic Party.

In Alabama, Klan members advocated better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other political measures to benefit lower-class white people. By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black tried to build political power against the Black Belt planters, who had long dominated the state.[121] In 1926, with Klan support, Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office. He was a former Klan chapter head. He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, and then under court order, the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on legislative power. Scholars and biographers have recently examined Hugo Black's Klan role. Ball finds regarding the KKK that Black "sympathized with the group's economic, nativist, and anti-Catholic beliefs."[122] Newman says Black "disliked the Catholic Church as an institution" and gave over 100 anti-Catholic speeches in his 1926 election campaign to KKK meetings across Alabama.[123] Black was elected US senator in 1926 as a Democrat. In 1937 President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Black to the Supreme Court without knowing how active in the Klan he had been in the 1920s. He was confirmed by his fellow Senators before the full KKK connection was known; Justice Black said he left the Klan when he became a senator.[124]

Resistance and decline

D. C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan. His conviction in 1925 for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a white schoolteacher, led to the decline of the Indiana Klan.

Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan, gaining national attention. The Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed in the early 20th century in response to attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's campaign to outlaw private schools. Opposing groups worked to penetrate the Klan's secrecy. After one civic group began to publish Klan membership lists, there was a rapid decline in members. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People created public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied in Congress against Klan abuses. After its peak in 1925, Klan membership in most areas began to decline rapidly.[106]

Specific events contributed to the decline as well. In Indiana, the scandal surrounding the 1925 murder trial of Grand Dragon D.C. Stephenson destroyed the image of the KKK as upholders of law and order. By 1926 the Klan was "crippled and discredited."[116] D. C. Stephenson was the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states. In 1923 he had led the states under his control to separate from the national KKK organization. In his 1925 trial, he was convicted for second-degree murder for his part in the rape, and subsequent death, of Madge Oberholtzer.[125] After Stephenson's conviction, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana. The historian Leonard Moore says that a failure in leadership caused the Klan's collapse:

Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were uninterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.[126]

By 1930 Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than 6,000. Small independent units continued to be active in the industrial city of Birmingham. In the late 1940s and 1950s, members launched a reign of terror by bombing the homes of upwardly mobile African Americans. Activism by such independent KKK groups increased as a reaction against the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

Ku Klux Klan members march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. in 1928

In Alabama, KKK vigilantes launched a wave of physical terror in 1927. They targeted both blacks and whites for violation of racial norms and for perceived moral lapses.[127] This led to a strong backlash, beginning in the media. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser from 1926, wrote a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan. (Today the paper says it "waged war on the resurgent [KKK]".)[128] Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for the crusade, the 1928 Editorial Writing Pulitzer, citing "his editorials against gangsterism, floggings and racial and religious intolerance."[129][130] Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and "un-American". Sheriffs cracked down on activities. In the 1928 presidential election, the state voters overcame initial opposition to the Catholic candidate Al Smith, and voted the Democratic Party line as usual.

Although in decline, a measure of the Klan's influence was its march along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC in 1928.

Labor and anti-unionism

In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs and opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which advocated industrial unions and accepted African-American members, unlike earlier unions. With access to dynamite and using the skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham used bombings in order to intimidate upwardly mobile blacks who moved into middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally named Dynamite Hill."[131] Independent Klan groups remained active in Birmingham and violently opposed the Civil Rights Movement.[131]

In 1939, after years of the Great Depression, the Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the national organization to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician. They could not revive the declining membership. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott dissolved the organization that year. Local Klan groups closed over the following years.[132]

After World War II, the folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan; he provided internal data to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided secret code words to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy stripped away the Klan's mystique and trivialized its rituals and code words, which may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership.[133] In the 1950s, Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan.[134]

The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time.[135] (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.)

Year Membership
1920 4,000,000 [136]
1924 6,000,000
1930 30,000

Historiography of the second Klan

Ku Klux Klan parade in Washington, D.C., September 1926

The historiography of the second Klan of the 1920s can be sharply divided into two opposing interpretations, one based on elite sources and the other based on the new social history.[137][138][139]

Anti-modern interpretations

The KKK was a secret organization; apart from a few top leaders the members never revealed their membership and wore masks in public. Investigators in the 1920s used KKK publicity, court cases, exposés by disgruntled Klansman, newspaper reports, and speculation to write stories about what the Klan was doing. Almost all the major newspapers and magazines were hostile. Published accounts exaggerated the official viewpoint of the Klan leadership, and repeated the interpretations of hostile newspapers and the Klan's enemies. There was almost no evidence regarding the actual behavior or beliefs of individual Klansmen. The resulting popular and scholarly interpretation of the Klan from the 1920s into recent decades, based on those sources, says Pegram, emphasized the Southern roots, and violent vigilante-style actions of the Klan in its efforts to turn back the clock of modernity. Scholars compared it to fascism, which in the 1920s took over Italy.[140] Pegram says this original interpretation:

Depicted the Klan movement as an irrational rebuke of modernity by undereducated, economically marginal bigots, religious zealots, and dupes willing to be manipulated by the Klan's cynical, mendacious leaders. It was, in this view, a movement of country parsons and small-town malcontents who were out of step with the dynamism of twentieth-century urban America."[141]

New social history interpretations

The "social history" revolution in historiography after the 1960s called for history from the bottom up, that would focus on the characteristics, beliefs, and behavior of the typical membership, and downplay claims from elite sources.[142][143] This approach was made possible by the discovery of membership lists and the minutes of local meetings from chapters scattered around the country. Historians apply the newest techniques of methodology to test the original interpretation. They discovered that the original interpretation was very largely mistaken about the membership and activities of the Klan. The membership was not anti-modern, rural or rustic. It consisted of fairly well educated middle-class joiners and community activists. Half the members lived in the fast-growing cities; Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Denver, and Portland, Oregon, were the Klan strongholds rather than the sleepy rural areas.[144]

Studies using the new social history find that in general, the membership was from the stable, successful middle classes, with few members drawn from the elite or the working classes. Pegram, reviewing the studies, concludes, "the popular Klan of the 1920s, while diverse, was more of a civic exponent of white Protestant social values than a repressive hate group."[145]

Indiana and Alabama

In Indiana, traditional political historians focused on notorious leaders, especially D. C. Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan, whose conviction for 1925 kidnap, rape, and murder of Madge Oberholtzer helped destroy the Ku Klux Klan movement nationwide. By contrast new social historian Leonard Moore titled his monograph Citizen Klansmen, and contrasted the sordid and intolerant rhetoric of the group's leaders with that of its much better behaved membership. The Klan was indeed white Protestant, and was highly suspicious of Catholics, Jews and blacks who were accused of subverting the ideal Protestant moral standards. Violence was quite uncommon in the chapters. Threats and vocational actions were directed primarily against fellow white Protestants for transgressions of community moral standards, such as adultery, wife-beating, gambling and heavy drinking. Up to one third of Indiana's Protestant men joined the order making it, Moore argued, "a kind of interest group for average white Protestants who believed that their values should be dominant in their community and state.[146]

Moore goes on to say that they joined:

because it stood for the most organized means of resisting the social and economic forces that had transformed community life, undermined traditional values, and made average citizens feel more isolated from one another and more powerless in their relationships with the major institutions that governed their lives.[147]

Northern Indiana had a large Catholic population and a major college near South Bend. In May 1924 when the KKK scheduled a regional meeting in the city, Notre Dame students blocked the Klansmen and stole some KKK regalia. The next day the Klansmen counterattacked. Finally the college president and the football coach Knute Rockne kept the students on campus and averted further violence.[148][149]

In Alabama, the young urban activists, such as Hugo Black, were reformers fighting against the old guard in state politics. The Klan in rural Alabama also had much more recourse to violence.[150]

Later Klans: 1950–1960s

KKK members supporting Barry Goldwater's campaign for the presidential nomination at the 1964 Republican National Convention

The name "Ku Klux Klan" began to be used by several independent groups. They had no connection with the second KKK, except they copied the terminology and costumes. Beginning in the 1950s, for instance, individual Klan groups in Birmingham, Alabama, began to resist social change and blacks' efforts to improve their lives by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods. There were so many bombings in Birmingham of blacks' homes by Klan groups in the 1950s that the city's nickname was "Bombingham".[29]

During the tenure of Bull Connor as police commissioner in the city, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity. When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham, Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police to quell the attack.[29] When local and state authorities failed to protect the Freedom Riders and activists, the federal government established effective intervention.

In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations.[29] In Birmingham and elsewhere, the KKK groups bombed the houses of civil rights activists. In some cases they used physical violence, intimidation and assassination directly against individuals. Continuing disfranchisement of blacks across the South meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all white.

Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner were three civil rights workers abducted and murdered by members of the Ku Klux Klan.

According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of 40 black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952. Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence.[151] Among the more notorious murders by Klan members:

Resistance

There was also resistance to the Klan. In 1953, newspaper publishers W. Horace Carter (Tabor City, NC), who had campaigned for three years, and Willard Cole (Whiteville, NC) shared the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service citing "their successful campaign against the Ku Klux Klan, waged on their own doorstep at the risk of economic loss and personal danger, culminating in the conviction of over one hundred Klansmen and an end to terrorism in their communities."[157] In a 1958 incident in North Carolina, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people, and they threatened to return with more men. When the KKK held a nighttime rally nearby, they were quickly surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond.[158]

While the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had paid informants in the Klan, for instance in Birmingham in the early 1960s, its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous. The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses against citizens. In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups.[29]

As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the government revived the Enforcement Acts and the Klan Act from Reconstruction days. Federal prosecutors used these laws as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner;[159] and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo. They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic.

Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present

Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977

Once African Americans secured federal legislation to protect civil and voting rights, by Republican President, Dwight D. Eisenhower, through the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1960, and Democratic President, Lyndon B. Johnson, through the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, the KKK shifted its focus to opposing court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action and more open immigration. In 1971, KKK members used bombs to destroy 10 school buses in Pontiac, Michigan. By 1975, there were known KKK groups on most college campuses in Louisiana as well as at Vanderbilt University, the University of Georgia, the University of Mississippi, the University of Akron, and the University of Southern California.[160]

Massacre of Communist Workers Party Protesters

Main article: Greensboro massacre

On November 3, 1979, five communist protesters were killed by KKK and American Nazi Party members in the Greensboro massacre in Greensboro, North Carolina.[161] This incident took place during the Death to the Klan rally sponsored by the Communist Workers Party, in their efforts to organize predominantly black industrial workers in the area.[162]

Jerry Thompson infiltration

Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the KKK in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful. Rival KKK factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants. William Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI.[163]

Thompson also related that KKK leaders who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center for damages amounting to millions of dollars. These were filed after KKK members shot into a group of African Americans. Klansmen curtailed their activities in order to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits. The KKK also used lawsuits as tools; they filed a libel suit in order to prevent the publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book.

Tennessee shooting

In 1980, three KKK members shot four elderly black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee, following a KKK initiation rally. A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident. Attempted murder charges were filed against the three KKK members, two of whom—Bill Church and Larry Payne—were acquitted by an all-white jury, and the other of whom—Marshall Thrash—was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges. He was released after three months.[164][165][166] In 1982, a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil trial.[167]

Michael Donald lynching

After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death and two local KKK members were convicted of having a role, including Henry Francis Hays, who was sentenced to death. With the support of attorneys Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Donald's mother, Beulah Mae Donald, sued the KKK in civil court in Alabama. Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987. The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Donald and ordered the Klan to pay US$7 million, but the KKK did not have sufficient funds to pay the fine, and had to give up their national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa.[168] After exhausting the appeals process, Hays was executed for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997. It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American.[168]

Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront

Main article: Stormfront (website)

In 1995, Don Black and Chloê Hardin, former KKK Grand Wizard David Duke's ex-wife, began a small bulletin board system (BBS) called Stormfront. Today, Stormfront has become a prominent online forum for white nationalism, Neo-Nazism, hate speech, racism, and antisemitism.[169][170][171] Duke has an account on Stormfront which he uses to post articles from his own website, as well as polling forum members for opinions and questions, in particular during his internet broadcasts. Duke has worked with Don Black on numerous projects including Operation Red Dog in 1980.[172][173]

Current developments

The modern KKK is not one organization; rather it is composed of small independent chapters across the U.S.[174] The formation of independent chapters has made KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate, and researchers find it hard to estimate their numbers. Estimates are that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the Southern United States, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest.[175][176][177]

The Klan has expanded its recruitment efforts to white supremacists at the international level.[178] For some time the Klan's numbers are steadily dropping. This decline has been attributed to the Klan's lack of competence in the use of the Internet, their history of violence, a proliferation of competing hate groups, and a decline in the number of young racist activists who are willing to join groups at all.[179]

Recent membership campaigns have been based on issues such as people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime, civil unions and same-sex marriage.[180] Akins argues that, "Klan literature and propaganda is rabidly homophobic and encourages violence against gays and lesbians....Since the late 1970s, the Klan has increasingly focused its ire on this previously ignored population.[181] Many KKK groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis. Some KKK groups have become increasingly "nazified", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.[182]

The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, as well as their right to field political candidates.[183]

Growth in 2010s

White supremacist groups are on the rise in the U.S., according to an analysis from the Southern Poverty Law Center. The number of KKK chapters nationwide grew from 72 to 190 in 2015. This is said to be due to Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016.[184][185]

Current Klan organizations

The flag of the Knights Party, the political branch of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.

A list is maintained by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL):[186]

Other countries

Aside from Canada, there have been various attempts to organise KKK chapters outside the United States. In Australia in the late 1990s, former One Nation member Peter Coleman established branches throughout the country,[192][193] and in recent years the KKK has attempted to infiltrate other political parties such as Australia First.[194] Recruitment activity has also been reported in the United Kingdom,[195][196] dating back to the 1960s when Robert Relf was involved in establishing a British KKK.[197]

In Germany a KKK-related group, the European White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, has organised and it gained notoriety in 2012 when it was widely reported in the German media that two police officers who held membership in the organisation would be allowed to keep their jobs.[198][199][200] A group was even established in Fiji in the early 1870s by white settlers, although it was put down by the British who, although not officially established as Fiji's colonial rulers, had played a leading role in establishing a new constitutional monarchy that was being threatened by the Fijian Klan.[201] In São Paulo, Brazil, the website of a group called Imperial Klans of Brazil was shut down in 2003, and the group's leader was arrested.[202]

Titles and vocabulary

Membership in the Klan is secret. Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs which members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.[203]

Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words[204] beginning with "Kl" including:

All of the above terminology was created by William Joseph Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan.[205] The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were "Wizard" for the overall leader of the Klan and "Night Hawk" for the official in charge of security.

The Imperial Kludd was the chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and he performed "such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard."

The Imperial Kaliff was the second highest position after the Imperial Wizard.[206]

See also

References

  1. ↑ McVeigh, Rory. "Structural Incentives for Conservative Mobilization: Power Devaluation and the Rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1925". Social Forces, Vol. 77, No. 4 (June 1999), p. 1463.
  2. 1 2 "Ku Klux Klan". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
  3. 1 2 Thomas R. Pegram, One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (2011), pp. 47–88.
  4. ↑ Al-Khattar, Aref M. (2003). Religion and terrorism: an interfaith perspective. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 21, 30, 55.
  5. ↑ Michael, Robert, and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of antisemitism from the earliest times to the present. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Scarecrow Press, 1997, p. 267.
  6. ↑ O'Donnell, Patrick (Editor), 2006. Ku Klux Klan America's First Terrorists Exposed, p. 210. ISBN 1-4196-4978-7.
  7. ↑ Rory McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009).
  8. ↑ Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America (2000), ch. 3, 5, 13.
  9. ↑ Chalmers, David Mark, 2003. Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement, p. 163. ISBN 978-0-7425-2311-1.
  10. ↑ Charles Quarles, 1999. The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis, p. 100. McFarland.
  11. ↑ See, e.g., Klanwatch Project (2011), illustrations, pp. 9–10.
  12. ↑ Elaine Frantz Parsons, "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". Journal of American History 92.3 (2005): 811–36.
  13. ↑ Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)
  14. ↑ Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Brian Levin, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America", in Perry, Barbara (ed.), Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader, Routledge, 2003, p. 112.
  15. ↑ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida.
  16. ↑ Perlmutter, Philip (1 January 1999). Legacy of Hate: A Short History of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Prejudice in America. M.E. Sharpe. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7656-0406-4. Kenneth T. Jackson, in his The Ku Klux Klan in the City 1915-1930, reminds us that "virtually every" Protestant denomination denounced the KKK, but that most KKK members were not "innately depraved or anxious to subvert American institutions," but rather saw their membership in keeping with "one-hundred percent Americanism" and Christianity morality.
  17. 1 2 "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  18. 1 2 Stevens, Albert C. (1907) The cyclopædia of fraternities; a compilation of existing authentic information and the results of original investigation as to more than six hundred secret societies in the United States New York city, Paterson, N.J., Hamilton printing and publishing company
  19. ↑ "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". New Georgia Encyclopedia. October 3, 2002. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  20. ↑ Trelease, White Terror (1971), p. 18.
  21. ↑ "Ku Klux Klan Act (1871): Major Acts of Congress". Enotes.com. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  22. ↑ Foner, Reconstruction (1988 ) p 458
  23. ↑ George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (2007) pp. 101, 110–11
  24. ↑ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (2011), p. 248.
  25. ↑ Jackson 1992 ed., pp. 241–242.
  26. ↑ Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
  27. ↑ Julian Sher, White Hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983), pp. 52–53.
  28. ↑ James M. Pitsula, Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (2013)
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 McWhorter 2001.
  30. ↑ "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved February 19, 2010.
  31. ↑ "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
  32. ↑ "Inquiry Begun on Klan Ties Of 2 Icons at Virginia Tech". New York Times. November 16, 1997. p. 138. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
  33. ↑ Lee, Jennifer (November 6, 2006). "Samuel Bowers, 82, Klan Leader Convicted in Fatal Bombing, Dies". New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
  34. ↑ Brush, Pete (May 28, 2002). "Court Will Review Cross Burning Ban". CBS News. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
  35. ↑ Dallas.FBI.gov "Domestic terrorism by the Klan remained a key concern", FBI, Dallas office
  36. ↑ "Klan named terrorist organization in Charleston". Reuters. October 14, 1999. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
  37. ↑ "Ban the Klan? Professor has court strategy". Associated Press. May 21, 2004. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
  38. ↑ Horn 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones.
  39. ↑ Fleming, Walter J., Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment, p. 27, 1905, Neale Publishing.
  40. ↑ Horn 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed κύκλος (kyklos) and Kennedy added clan. Wade 1987, p. 33 says that Kennedy came up with both words, but Crowe suggested transforming κύκλος into kuklux.
  41. ↑ W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 679–680.
  42. ↑ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, p. 671–675.
  43. ↑ "Ku Klux Klan, Organization and Principles, 1868". State University of New York at Albany. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  44. ↑ Wills, Brian Steel (1992). A Battle from the Start: The Life of Nathan Bedford Forrest. New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 336. ISBN 0-06-092445-4.
  45. ↑ The Sun. "Civil War Threatened in Tennessee." September 3, 1868: 2; The Charleston Daily News. "A Talk with General Forrest." September 8, 1868: 1.
  46. ↑ Cincinnati Commercial, August 28, 1868, quoted in Wade, 1987.
  47. ↑ Horn 1939, p. 27.
  48. ↑ Parsons 2005, p. 816.
  49. 1 2 Foner 1988, p. 425–426.
  50. ↑ Foner 1988, p. 342.
  51. ↑ "History of the Ku Klux Klan - Preach the Cross". preachthecross.net. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
  52. ↑ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 677–678.
  53. ↑ Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988) p. 432.
  54. ↑ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880 pp. 674–675.
  55. ↑ Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, pp.680–681.
  56. ↑ Bryant, Jonathan M. "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Georgia Southern University.
  57. ↑ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida, pp. 1–30. Newton quotes from the Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Enquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, Vol. 13. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1872. Among historians of the Klan, this volume is also known as The KKK testimony.
  58. ↑ Rhodes 1920, pp. 157–158.
  59. 1 2 Horn 1939, p. 375.
  60. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 102.
  61. ↑ Foner 1988, p. 435.
  62. ↑ Wade 1987.
  63. ↑ Ranney, Joseph A (Jan 1, 2006). In the Wake of Slavery: Civil War, Civil Rights, and the Reconstruction of Southern Law. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 57–58. ISBN 0275989720.
  64. ↑ Horn 1939, p. 373.
  65. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 88.
  66. 1 2 Scaturro, Frank (October 26, 2006). "The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 1869–1877". The College of St. Scholastica. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
  67. ↑ p. 5, United States Circuit Court (4th Circuit). Proceedings in the Ku Klux Trials at Columbia, S.C. in the United States Circuit Court. Edited by Benn Pitman and Louis Freeland Post. Columbia, SC: Republican Printing Company, 1872.
  68. ↑ The New York Times. "Kuklux Trials — Sentence of the Prisoners." December 29, 1871.
  69. 1 2 Wormser, Richard. "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow—The Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  70. ↑ The New York Times. "N. B. Forrest." September 3, 1868.
  71. ↑ "White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction by Allen W. Trelease (Louisiana State University Press: 1995)".
  72. ↑ Trelease 1995.
  73. ↑ Quotes from Wade 1987.
  74. ↑ Horn 1939, p. 360.
  75. ↑ Horn 1939, p. 362.
  76. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 85.
  77. ↑ Wade, p. 102.
  78. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871–1874, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts was justified since their reason for being—the Ku-Klux Klan—had been effectively smashed as a result of the dramatic showdown in South Carolina".
  79. ↑ Foner, Reconstruction (1988) p. 458–459.
  80. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 109–110.
  81. ↑ Balkin, Jack M. (2002). "History Lesson" (PDF). Yale University. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  82. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 109
  83. ↑ "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: The Enforcement Acts, 1870–1871", Public Broadcast Service. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
  84. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 144.
  85. ↑ "The Various Shady Lives of the Ku Klux Klan". Time. April 9, 1965. An itinerant Methodist preacher named William Joseph Simmons started up the Klan again in Atlanta in 1915. Simmons, an ascetic-looking man, was a fetishist on fraternal organizations. He was already a "colonel" in the Woodmen of the World, but he decided to build an organization all his own. He was an effective speaker, with an affinity for alliteration; he had preached on "Women, Weddings and Wives," "Red Heads, Dead Heads and No Heads," and the "Kinship of Kourtship and Kissing." On Thanksgiving Eve 1915, Simmons took 15 friends to the top of Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, built an altar on which he placed an American flag, a Bible and an unsheathed sword, set fire to a crude wooden cross, muttered a few incantations about a "practical fraternity among men," and declared himself Imperial Wizard of the Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.
  86. ↑ Dray 2002, p. 198. Griffith quickly relayed the comment to the press, where it was widely reported.
  87. ↑ John Milton Cooper, Jr. (2011). Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 273. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  88. ↑ Chester L. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis, p. 219. The second Klan's constitution and preamble attributed debt to the original Klan's Prescripts.
  89. ↑ Brian R. Farmer, American Conservatism: History, Theory and Practice (2005), p. 208.
  90. ↑ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (2008), p. 47.
  91. ↑ McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8050-8906-6.
  92. ↑ "Nation: The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
  93. ↑ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (2011)
  94. ↑ Jackson 1967, p. 241.
  95. ↑ Kenneth T. Jackson (1992). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915-1930. Ivan R. Dee. p. 18.
  96. ↑ Robert Moats Miller, "A Note on the Relationship between the Protestant Churches and the Revived Ku Klux Klan." Journal of Southern History (1956) pp: 355-368 in JSTOR, quotes p 360, 363.
  97. ↑ Michael Newton, The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: A History, p. 70.
  98. 1 2 3 Fryer, Roland G.; Levitt, Steven D. (2012-11-01). "Hatred and Profits: Under the Hood of the Ku Klux Klan*". The Quarterly Journal of Economics 127 (4): 1883–1925. doi:10.1093/qje/qjs028. ISSN 0033-5533.
  99. ↑ Stephen D. Cummings (2008). Red States, Blue States, and the Coming Sharecropper Society. p. 119. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  100. ↑ Rory McVeigh (2009). The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-wing Movements and National Politics. U of Minnesota Press. p. 184. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  101. ↑ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011)
  102. ↑ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American, pp. 119-56.
  103. ↑ Prendergast 1987, pp. 25–52, 27.
  104. ↑ Lender et al. 1982, p. 33.
  105. ↑ Barr 1999, p. 370.
  106. 1 2 Jackson 1992.
  107. ↑ Emily Parker, "'Night-Shirt Knights' in the City: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Worcester, Massachusetts", New England Journal of History, Fall 2009, Vol. 66 Issue 1, pp. 62–78.
  108. ↑ Moore 1991.
  109. ↑ Greenhouse, Linda (May 29, 2002). "Supreme Court Roundup; Free Speech or Hate Speech? Court Weighs Cross Burning". New York Times. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
  110. ↑ Wade, Wyn Craig (1998). The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-512357-9. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
  111. ↑ Cecil Adams (June 18, 1993). "Why does the Ku Klux Klan burn crosses?". The Straight Dope. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
  112. ↑ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (University of California Press, 2008).
  113. ↑ Marty Gitlin, The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture (2009) p. 20.
  114. ↑ Julian Sher, White Hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983)
  115. ↑ "Indiana History Chapter Seven". Northern Indiana Center for History. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
  116. 1 2 "Ku Klux Klan in Indiana". Indiana State Library. November 2000. Retrieved September 27, 2009.
  117. ↑ Robert A. Slayton, Empire Statesman: The Rise and Redemption of Al Smith (2001) pp 211-13
  118. ↑ Allen, Lee N. (1963). "The McAdoo Campaign for the Presidential Nomination in 1924". Journal of Southern History 29 (2): 211–228. JSTOR 2205041.
  119. ↑ Craig, Douglas B. (1992). After Wilson: The Struggle for the Democratic Party, 1920–1934. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ch. 2–3. ISBN 0-8078-2058-X.
  120. 1 2 Christopher N. Cocoltchos, "The Invisible Empire and the Search for the Orderly Community: The Ku Klux Klan in Anaheim, California", in Shawn Lay, ed. The invisible empire in the West (2004), pp. 97-120.
  121. ↑ Feldman 1999.
  122. ↑ Howard Ball, Hugo L. Black: cold steel warrior (1996) p. 16
  123. ↑ Roger K. Newman, Hugo Black: A Biography (1997) pp 87, 104
  124. ↑ Ball, Hugo L. Black: Cold Steel Warrior (1996) p. 96
  125. ↑ "D. C. Stephenson manuscript collection". Indiana Historical Society. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  126. ↑ Moore 1991, p. 186
  127. ↑ Rogers et al., pp. 432–433.
  128. ↑ "History of the Montgomery Advertiser". Montgomery Advertiser: a Gannett Company. Retrieved November 8, 2013. Archived August 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
  129. ↑ Rogers et al., p. 433.
  130. ↑ "Editorial Writing". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
  131. 1 2 Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, New York: Touchstone Book, 2002, p. 75.
  132. ↑ "Georgia Orders Action to Revoke Charter of Klan. Federal Lien Also Put on File to Collect Income Taxes Dating Back to 1921. Governor Warns of a Special Session if Needed to Enact 'De-Hooding' Measures Tells of Phone Threats Georgia Acts to Crush the Klan. Federal Tax Lien Also Is Filed". New York Times. May 31, 1946. Retrieved January 12, 2010. Governor Ellis Arnall today ordered the State's legal department to bring action to revoke the Georgia charter of the Ku Klux Klan. ... 'It is my further information that on June 4, 1944, the Ku Klux Klan ...
  133. ↑ von Busack, Richard. "Superman Versus the KKK". MetroActive. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  134. ↑ Kennedy 1990.
  135. ↑ "The Ku Klux Klan, a brief biography". The African American Registry. Retrieved July 19, 2012. and Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College.
  136. ↑ "The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". Time. April 9, 1965. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
  137. ↑ Craig Fox, "Changing interpretations of the 1920s Klan: A selected historiography" in Fox, Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (2012), Introduction online
  138. ↑ Thomas R. Pegram (2011). One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. Ivan R. Dee. pp. 221–28. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  139. ↑ Jesse Walker, "Hooded Progressivism: The secret reformist history of the Ku Klux Klan," Reason December 2, 2005 online
  140. ↑ The best scholarly study in this approach is David M. Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1965 (1965), with excellent national and state coverage.
  141. ↑ Pegram. One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. p. 222. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  142. ↑ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p 225
  143. ↑ Leonard J. Moore, "Good Old-Fashioned New Social History and the Twentieth-Century American Right." Reviews in American History (1996) 24#4 pp: 555-573 online.
  144. ↑ Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (1967)
  145. ↑ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American p.225
  146. ↑ Leonard J. Moore (1997). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928. U. North Carolina Press. p. 188. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  147. ↑ Moore, Citizen Klansmen p 188
  148. ↑ Arthur Hope. The Story of Notre Dame (1999) ch 26 online
  149. ↑ See also the semi-fictional account Tucker, Todd (2004). Notre Dame vs. The Klan: How the Fighting Irish Defeated the Ku Klux Klan. Loyola Pr. ISBN 978-0829417715.
  150. ↑ Glenn Feldman, Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949 (1999)
  151. ↑ Egerton 1994, p. 562–563.
  152. ↑ "Who Was Harry T. Moore?" — The Palm Beach Post, August 16, 1999.
  153. ↑ Cox, Major W. (March 2, 1999). "Justice Still Absent in Bridge Death". Montgomery Advertiser. Archived from the original on 26 November 2010.
  154. ↑ Axtman, Kris (June 23, 2005). "Mississippi verdict greeted by a generation gap". The Christian Science Monitor.
  155. ↑ "Reputed Klansman, Ex-Cop, and Sheriff's Deputy Indicted For The 1964 Murders of Two Young African-American Men in Mississippi; U.S. v. James Ford Seale". January 24, 2007. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
  156. ↑ Nelson, Jack. (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 208-211. ISBN 0671692232.
  157. ↑ "Public Service". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
  158. ↑ Ingalls 1979; Graham, Nicholas (January 2005). "January 1958 – The Lumbees face the Klan". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
  159. ↑ Simon, Dennis M. "The Civil Rights Movement, 1964–1968". Southern Methodist University. Archived from the original on August 27, 2005.
  160. ↑ "'Ladies' Become Vocal in Ku Klux Klan". The Post-Crescent (Appleton, Wisconsin). 23 May 1975. p. 9. Retrieved July 15, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.
  161. ↑ "Remembering the 1979 Greensboro Massacre: 25 Years Later Survivors Form Country's First Truth and Reconciliation Commission". Democracy Now!. November 18, 2004. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
  162. ↑ Mark Hand (November 18, 2004). "The Greensboro Massacre". Press Action. Archived October 6, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  163. ↑ Thompson 1982.
  164. ↑ Betty A. Dobratz & Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (November 2000). The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!". JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  165. ↑ "Women's Appeal for Justice in Chattanooga – US Department of Justice" (PDF). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  166. ↑ "The Victoria Advocate: Bonds for Klan Upheld". News.google.com. April 22, 1980. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  167. ↑ UPI (February 28, 1982). "New York Times: History Around the Nation; Jury Award to 5 Blacks Hailed as Blow to Klan". New York Times (Tennessee; Chattanooga (Tenn)). Retrieved February 20, 2011.
  168. 1 2 "Klan Member Put to Death In Race Death". The New York Times. 6 June 1997. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
  169. ↑ "RedState, White Supremacy, and Responsibility", Daily Kos, December 5, 2005.
  170. ↑ Bill O'Reilly, "Circling the Wagons in Georgia", Fox News Channel, May 8, 2003.
  171. ↑ "WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center: Case No. DTV2001-0023", World Intellectual Property Organization, January 13, 2002.
  172. ↑ Captmike works undercover with the US Government to stop the invasion of the Island Nation of Dominica, manana.com.
  173. ↑ Operation Red Dog: Canadian neo-nazis were central to the planned invasion of Dominica in 1981 Archived February 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine., canadiancontent.ca.
  174. ↑ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. According to the report, the KKK's estimated size then was "No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units."
  175. 1 2 "Church of the American Knights of the KKK". Anti-Defamation League. October 22, 1999. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
  176. ↑ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on April 6, 2005.
  177. ↑ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
  178. ↑ "Ku Klux Klan warns race war if Obama wins". Sify News. November 3, 2008. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
  179. ↑ Palmer, Brian (March 8, 2012). "Ku Klux Kontraction: How did the KKK lose nearly one-third of its chapters in one year?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved March 25, 2012.
  180. ↑ Knickerbocker, Brad (February 9, 2007). "Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Fuel Ku Klux Klan Resurgence". The Christian Science Monitor.
  181. ↑ Akins, J. Keith (January 2006). "The Ku Klux Klan: America's Forgotten Terrorists". Law Enforcement Executive Forum. p. 137.
  182. ↑ "Ku Klux Klan – Affiliations – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
  183. ↑ "A.C.L.U. Lawsuit Backs Klan In Seeking Permit for Cross". The New York Times. December 16, 1993. Archived from the original on October 6, 2010. The ACLU professes a mission to defend the constitutional rights of all groups, whether left, center, or right.
  184. ↑ http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/anonymous-shut-down-kkk-website_us_5720c204e4b0b49df6a9b333?section=australia
  185. ↑ https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2016/year-hate-and-extremism
  186. ↑ "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America – Active Groups (by state)". adl.org. Anti-Defamation League. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
  187. ↑ "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating". Associated Press. November 11, 2008. Retrieved November 22, 2008.
  188. ↑ "White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan – Home page". wckkkk.org. White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
  189. ↑ "Arkansas Klan Group Loses Legal Battle with North Carolina Newspaper". Anti-Defamation League. July 9, 2009. Archived from the original on April 12, 2010. Retrieved August 15, 2008.
  190. ↑ Robert Tait (14 March 2016). "The KKK leader who says he backs Hillary Clinton". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
  191. ↑ Max Blau (19 July 2015). "'Still a racist nation': American bigotry on full display at KKK rally in South Carolina". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
  192. ↑ "Ku Klux Klan sets up Australian branch". BBC News. June 2, 1999. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
  193. ↑ Ansley, Greg (June 5, 1999). "Dark mystique of the KKK". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
  194. ↑ Jensen, Erik (July 10, 2009). "We have infiltrated party: KKK". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
  195. ↑ Hosken, Andy (June 10, 1999). "KKK plans 'infiltration' of the UK". BBC News. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
  196. ↑ Parry, Ryan (October 19, 2011). "We expose vile racist biker as British leader of the Ku Klux Klan". Daily Mail. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
  197. ↑ Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, 2002, p. 184
  198. ↑ German Police Kept Jobs Despite KKK Involvement, Der Spiegel
  199. ↑ Ku Klux Klan: German Police Officers Allowed to Stay on Job Despite Links with European Branch of White Supremacists, International Business Times
  200. ↑ 'KKK cops' scandal uncovered amid German neo-Nazi terror probe, Russia Today
  201. ↑ Kim Gravelle, Fiji's Times: A History of Fiji, Suva: The Fiji Times, 1988, pp. 120-124
  202. ↑ "Jovem ligado Ku Klux Klan detido em So Paulo".
  203. ↑ "A Visual Database of Extremist Symbols, Logos and Tattoos". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
  204. ↑ Axelrod 1997, p. 160.
  205. ↑ Wade 1987, p. 142. "'It was rather difficult, sometimes, to make the two letters fit in,' he recalled later, 'but I did it somehow.'"
  206. ↑ Chester L. Quarles (1999). The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 0-7864-0647-X. Imperial Kludd: Is the Chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and shall perform such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard ...

Further reading

  • Axelrod, Alan (1997). The International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies & Fraternal Orders. New York: Facts On File. 
  • Baker, Kelly J. Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (University Press of Kansas, 2011) ISBN 978-0700617920.
  • Barr, Andrew (1999). Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll & Graf. 
  • Chalmers, David M. (1987). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Durahm, N.C.: Duke University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-8223-0730-3. 
  • Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
  • Cunningham, David. Klansville, USA: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-Era Ku Klux Klan (Oxford University Press, 2013). 360pp.
  • Dray, Philip (2002). At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America. New York: Random House. 
  • Egerton, John (1994). Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South. Alfred and Knopf Inc. 
  • Feldman, Glenn (1999). Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press. 
  • Fleming, Walter J. Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment (1905)
  • Foner, Eric (1989). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Perennial (HarperCollins). 
  • Fox, Craig. Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (Michigan State University Press, 2011), 274 pp. ISBN 978-0-87013-995-6.
  • Franklin, John Hope (1992). Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988. Louisiana State University Press. 
  • Fryer, Roland G., Jr; Levitt, Steven D. (September 2007), Hatred and Profits: Getting Under the Hood of the Ku Klux Klan, National Bureau of Economic Research, retrieved 22 January 2015 
  • Horn, Stanley F. (1939). Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871. Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation. 
  • Ingalls, Robert P. (1979). Hoods: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 
  • Jackson, Kenneth T. (1967). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (1992 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 
  • Kennedy, Stetson (1990). The Klan Unmasked. University Press of Florida. 
  • Lay, Shawn (1995). Hooded Knights on the Niagara: The Ku Klux Klan in Buffalo, New York. New York and London: New York University Press. ISBN 9780814751015. Retrieved 6 December 2015. 
  • McVeigh, Rory. The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009), on 1920s.
  • Lender, Mark E.; Martin, James K. (1982). Drinking in America. New York: Free Press. 
  • Lewis, George. ""An Amorphous Code": The Ku Klux Klan and Un-Americanism, 1915–1965." Journal of American Studies (2013) 47#4 pp: 971-992.
  • McWhorter, Diane (2001). Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster. 
  • Moore, Leonard J. (1991). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 
  • Newton, Michael; Newton, Judy Ann (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia. New York & London: Garland Publishing. 
  • Parsons, Elaine Frantz (2005). "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". The Journal of American History 92 (3): 811–836. doi:10.2307/3659969. 
  • Pegram, Thomas R. One hundred percent American: the rebirth and decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011)
  • Pitsula, James M. Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan (University of British Columbia Press, 2013)
  • Prendergast, Michael L. (1987). "A History of Alcohol Problem Prevention Efforts in the United States". In Holder, Harold D. Control Issues in Alcohol Abuse Prevention: Strategies for States and Communities. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press. 
  • Rhodes, James Ford (1920). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896 7.  Winner of the 1918 Pulitzer Prize for history.
  • Richard, Mark Paul. Not a Catholic Nation: The Ku Klux Klan Confronts New England in the 1920s (University of Massachusetts Press, 2015). x, 259 pp.
  • Rogers, William; Ward, Robert; Atkins, Leah; Flynt, Wayne (1994). Alabama: The History of a Deep South State. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press. 
  • Steinberg, Alfred (1962). The man from Missouri; the life and times of Harry S. Truman. New York: Putnam. OCLC 466366. 
  • Taylor, Joe G. (1974). Louisiana Reconstructed, 1863–1877. Baton Rouge. 
  • Thompson, Jerry (1982). My Life in the Klan. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-12695-3. Retrieved 2016-02-27. 
  • Trelease, Allen W. (1995). White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction. Louisiana State University Press. 
  • Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Oxford University Press, 1998)

Historiography

Further reading

External links

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