Kiwifruit

Kiwifruit by species
A = A. arguta, C = A. chinensis, D = A. deliciosa, E = A. eriantha, I = A. indochinensis, P = A. polygama, S = A. setosa.

A sliced kiwifruit

The kiwifruit or Chinese gooseberry (often shortened to kiwi) is the edible berry of a woody vine in the genus Actinidia.^[1][2] The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit ('Hayward')^[3] is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg (5–8 cm (2.0–3.1 in) in length and 4.5–5.5 cm (1.8–2.2 in) in diameter). It has a fibrous, dull greenish-brown skin and bright green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture and a sweet but unique flavor. It is a commercial crop in several countries, such as Italy, New Zealand, Chile, Greece, and France.^[4]

Etymology

The word kiwifruit and shortened kiwi have been used since around 1966 when the fruit was first imported from New Zealand to the United States.^[5][6][7]

The alternate name, Chinese gooseberry, arose among growers and consumers in Europe when Chinese imports began in the early 1900s.^[1] It replaced the Chinese name, yang tao, meaning "strawberry peach", which was used in Europe apparently due to the similarity of taste and color of the flesh with the Ribes gooseberry already popular throughout Europe.^[1] In 1962, New Zealand growers began calling it "kiwifruit" to give it more market appeal, a name becoming commercially adopted in 1974.^[1]

Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown fruit from the genus Actinidia.^[1][8] In New Zealand, however, the word kiwi usually refers to the kiwi bird or the people of New Zealand, and is seldom used to refer to the fruit.^[6][7]

History

Kiwifruit is native to north-central and eastern China.^[1] Cultivation of the fuzzy kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred.^[1] Although kiwifruit is a national fruit of China, until recently, China was not a major producing country of kiwifruit, as it was traditionally collected from the wild.^[9] The fruit became popular with American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II and later exported to California using the names "Chinese gooseberry" and "melonette".^[1][7][1] In 1962, New Zealand growers began calling it "kiwifruit" to give it more market appeal, and a California-based importer subsequently used that name when introducing the fruit to the American market.^[1]

Cultivars

Golden kiwifruit with a red-ring^[10][11]

The genus Actinidia contains around 60 species. Though most kiwifruit are easily recognized as kiwifruit (due to basic shape) their fruit is quite variable. The skin of the fruit can vary in size, shape, hairiness, and color. The flesh can vary in color, juiciness, texture, and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable while others taste considerably better than the majority of the commercial varieties.^[1][12]

The most common kiwifruit is the fuzzy kiwifruit, from the species A. deliciosa. Other species that are commonly eaten include golden kiwifruit (A. chinensis), Chinese egg gooseberry (A. coriacea), baby kiwifruit (A. arguta), Arctic kiwifruit (A. kolomikta), red kiwifruit (A. melanandra), silver vine (A. polygama), purple kiwifruit (A. purpurea).^[12]

Fuzzy kiwifruit

The larger fuzzy kiwifruit at rear compared to the smaller kiwi berry

Almost all kiwifruit sold belong to a few cultivars of fuzzy kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa): 'Hayward', 'Blake', and 'Saanichton 12'.^[2] They have a fuzzy, dull-brown skin, and bright-green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale, New Zealand, around 1924.^[12] It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.

'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavor. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but it has a smaller, more oval fruit and the flavor is considered inferior.^[2][12]

Kiwi berries

Kiwi berries are edible berry- or grape-sized fruits similar to the fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and appearance, with thin, smooth skin. They are primarily produced by three species of kiwifruit; hardy kiwi (Actinidia arguta), Arctic beauty (A. kolomikta), and silver vine (A. polygama). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their growing season. They are referred to as kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi.^[13]

The cultivar 'Issai' is a hybrid of hardy kiwi and silver vine which can self-pollinate. Grown commercially because of its relatively large fruit, Issai is less hardy than most hardy kiwi.^[14][15]

Golden kiwifruit

A sliced golden kiwifruit

The golden kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh color varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is sweeter and more aromatic in flavor; the flavor is reminiscent of some subtropical fruit. Its short storage life currently limits its commercial potential. One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the center of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit fetches a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, is more palatable for consumption without peeling.^[12]

A commercially viable^[16] variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as the EnzaRed™, is a cultivar of the Chinese hong yang variety.^[10][11]

Hort16A is a golden kiwifruit marketed worldwide in decreasing volumes because this variety suffered significant losses in New Zealand from late 2010 to 2013 due to the PSA bacterium.^[17] A new variety of golden kiwifruit, 'Gold3', has been found to be more disease-resistant and most growers have now grafted over to this variety.^[18] The Gold3 variety, marketed by Zespri as 'SunGold', is not quite as sweet as the previous Hort16A, with a hint of tanginess,^[19] and lacks the Hort16A's usually slightly pointy tip.

Cultivation

Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit (A. deliciosa) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.

Breeding

Kiwifruit growing on supported vine

Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock, fruit bearing plants, and pollinators.^[1] Therefore, the seeds produced are crossbreeds of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, seedlings take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwi is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time consuming.^[20] Therefore, most kiwifruits, with the exception of rootstock and new cultivars, are propagated asexually.^[20] This is done by grafting the fruit producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant.^[20]

Pollination

Kiwifruit at flowering

Most of the plants require a male plant to pollinate a female plant for the female plant to produce fruit (dioecious). For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is required.^[1] Other varieties can self pollinate, but they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit vines.^[1]

Kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate, because the flowers are not very attractive to bees. Some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. Generally, the most successful approach, though, is saturation pollination, where the bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance.^[1] This is also increased by using varieties specifically developed for pollination.^[1]

Maturation and harvest

Kiwifruit is picked by hand, and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.

Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on one-year-old and older canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern it ripens in May. Four year-old plants can produce up to 14,000 lbs per acre while Eight year-old plants can produce 18,000 lbs per acre. The plants produce their maximum at 8 to 10 years old. The seasonal yields are variable, a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season.^[1]

Storage

Fruits harvested when firm will not ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be sent to market up to 8 weeks after harvest.^[1]

Firm kiwifruit ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, pear, or banana.^[21] Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is very sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator.^[21] If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit normally keep for about one to two weeks.^[21]

Pests and diseases

Pseudomonas syringae actinidiae (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V).^[22][23][24] In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty kiwifruit orchards in the North Island.^[25]

Scientists reported they had worked out the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy, and Chile originated in China.^[26]

Production

Kiwifruit output in 2005

Top kiwifruit-producing countries in 2012
(in metric tons)

Rank	Country	Production (Tonnes)
1	China	1,452,767
2	Italy	384,844
3	New Zealand	376,400
4	Chile	240,000
5	Greece	161,400
6	France	65,253
7	Turkey	36,781
8	Iran	32,000
9	Japan	28,000
10	United States	26,853
	World	2,865,118
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization[27]

Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late 1960s to early 1970s in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically.^[28] Outside of Australasia, all New Zealand kiwifruits are now marketed under the brand-name label Zespri.^[29]

Over 70% of kiwifruit production is in Italy, New Zealand, and Chile. Italy produces roughly 10% more kiwifruit than New Zealand, and Chile produces 40% less.^[4] With these three main production centers, kiwifruit is produced for worldwide consumption roughly all year long.

In the 1980s, countries outside New Zealand began to export kiwifruit.^[30] In Italy, the infrastructure and techniques required to support grape production have been adapted to the kiwifruit. This, coupled with being very close to the European kiwifruit market, led to Italians becoming the leading producer of kiwifruit. The growing season of Italian kiwifruit does not overlap much with the New Zealand or the Chilean growing seasons, therefore direct competition between New Zealand or Chile was not much of a factor.^[31]

Although kiwifruit is a national fruit of China, until recently, China was not a major producing country of kiwifruit, as it was traditionally collected from the wild.^[32] In China, it is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River, as well as Sichuan.^[33]

Human consumption

A pavlova with strawberries, passionfruit, kiwifruit and cream

Kiwifruit, gold, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 251 kJ (60 kcal) Carbohydrates 14.23 g Sugars 10.98 g Dietary fiber 2 g Fat 0.56 g Protein 1.23 g Vitamins Vitamin A equiv. lutein zeaxanthin 114 μg Thiamine (B1) (2%) 0.024 mg Riboflavin (B2) (4%) 0.046 mg Niacin (B3) (2%) 0.28 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) (10%) 0.5 mg Vitamin B6 (4%) 0.057 mg Folate (B9) (9%) 34 μg Choline (1%) 5 mg Vitamin C (127%) 105.4 mg Vitamin E (10%) 1.49 mg Vitamin K (5%) 5.5 μg Minerals Calcium (2%) 20 mg Iron (2%) 0.29 mg Magnesium (4%) 14 mg Manganese (3%) 0.058 mg Phosphorus (4%) 29 mg Potassium (7%) 316 mg Sodium (0%) 3 mg Zinc (1%) 0.10 mg link to USDA Database entry Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Kiwifruit, green, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 255 kJ (61 kcal) Carbohydrates 14.66 g Sugars 8.99 g Dietary fiber 3 g Fat 0.52 g Protein 1.14 g Vitamins Vitamin A equiv. lutein zeaxanthin 122 μg Thiamine (B1) (2%) 0.027 mg Riboflavin (B2) (2%) 0.025 mg Niacin (B3) (2%) 0.341 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) (4%) 0.183 mg Vitamin B6 (5%) 0.063 mg Folate (B9) (6%) 25 μg Choline (2%) 7.8 mg Vitamin C (112%) 92.7 mg Vitamin E (10%) 1.46 mg Vitamin K (38%) 40.3 μg Minerals Calcium (3%) 34 mg Iron (2%) 0.31 mg Magnesium (5%) 17 mg Manganese (5%) 0.098 mg Phosphorus (5%) 34 mg Potassium (7%) 312 mg Sodium (0%) 3 mg Zinc (1%) 0.14 mg Link to USDA Database entry Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat or used as a garnish.^[1] The whole fruit including the skin is suitable for human consumption, but the skin is often discarded due to its texture. Sliced kiwifruit has long been used as a garnish atop whipped cream on pavlova, a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure, but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who have given birth to help them recover.^[1]

Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer. Actinidin also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products which are not going to be served within hours, because the enzyme soon begins to digest milk proteins. This applies to gelatin-based desserts, as well, as the actinidin will dissolve the proteins in gelatin very quickly, either liquefying the dessert, or preventing it from solidifying.

Nutrition

A medium size kiwifruit (76 grams) provides 46 calories, 0.3 g fat, 1 g protein, 11 g carbohydrates, and 2.6 g dietary fiber found partly in the edible skin.^[34] Kiwifruit is a rich source of vitamin C (112% of the Daily Value per 100 grams) and vitamin K, and a good source of dietary fiber and vitamin E (nutrient tables, right).^[35][36]

Kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid.^[37] Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids, such as provitamin A beta-carotene,^[38] lutein and zeaxanthin.^[39]

Allergies

The actinidin found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals.^[40][41][42] The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with the most common severe symptom being wheezing, with anaphylaxis also being reported.^[40][41]

The fruit is responsible for 10% of all allergic food reactions in children, making it a significant food allergen.^[43][44]

References

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2. Bernadine Stirk (2005). "Growing Kiwifruit" (PDF). Pacific Northwest Extension Publishing. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
3. Beutel JA (1997). "Kiwifruit, in: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops, 1990". Center for New Crops & Plant Products at Purdue University. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
4. "Kiwi fruit: World List, 2010". FAOSTAT. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
5. "Kiwi". Etymology Online. 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
6. Deverson, Tony; Kennedy, Graeme (2005). The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001/m-en_nz-msdict-00001-0028887 (inactive 2015-11-06). ISBN 978-0-19-558451-6. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
7. Green, Emily (May 8, 2002). "Kiwi, Act II". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
8. "Kiwifruit's name". Zespri Kiwifruit. Retrieved February 19, 2013.
9. Huang, H.; Ferguson, A. R. (2003). "Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinesis and A. deliciosa) plantings and production in China, 2002". New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 31 (3): 197. doi:10.1080/01140671.2003.9514253. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
10. Yang, Hong-Li; Wang, Yan-Chang; Jiang, Zheng-Wang; Huang, Hong-Wen (2009). "[Construction of cDNA library of 'Hongyang' kiwifruit and analysis of F3H expression]". Yi Chuan (in Chinese) 31 (12): 1265–1272. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1005.2009.01265 (inactive 2015-11-06). PMID 20042395.
11. "Turners plugs its Enza red kiwifruit – grown in China". National Business Review. 24 February 2010. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
12. Ferguson, A. R. (1999). "New Temperate Fruits: Actinidia chinensis and Actinidia deliciosa" (PDF). In Janick, Jules. Perspectives on new crops and new uses. Alexandria, Virginia: ASHS Press. pp. 342–347.
13. "Hardy Kiwi". Penn State University College of Agricultural Sciences. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
14. . Retrieved June 12, 2015.
15. . Retrieved June 12, 2015.
16. "EnzaRed kiwifruit set to take on world stage". New Zealand Exporter. 14 June 2010. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
17. "Frequently Asked Questions: How Was Zespri Gold Kiwifruit Developed?". Zespri Kiwifriut. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
18. "Golden times return for kiwifruit trade". The New Zealand Herald. 26 May 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
19. "Zespri SunGold New!". Zespri. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
20. "Kiwifruit Propagation". University of California-Davis, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
21. "Kiwi fruit". The UK Food Guide. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
22. "Kiwifruit vine disease by MAF Biosecurity NZ".
23. Watson, Peter (2011-01-25). "More virulent PSA strain a new worry for kiwifruit growers". The Dominion Post. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
24. Hembry, Owen (2011-08-25). "Relief for kiwifruit industry". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
25. "Suspected Bacterial Vine Infection". MAF Biosecurity New Zealand. 8 November 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
26. Butler, Margi I.; Stockwell, Peter A.; Black, Michael A.; Day, Robert C.; Lamont, Iain L.; Poulter, Russel T. M. (February 2013). "Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae from Recent Outbreaks of Kiwifruit Bacterial Canker Belong to Different Clones That Originated in China". PLoS ONE 8 (2): e57464. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...857464B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057464. PMID 23555547. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
27. "Production of Kiwi (fruit) by countries". UN Food & Agriculture Organization. 2012. Retrieved 2014-02-21.
28. Sayeeda Bano and Frank Scrimgeour (June 2011). "New Zealand Kiwifruit Export Performance: Market Analysis and Revealed Comparative Advantage" (PDF). University of Waikato. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
29. "Zespri History". Zespri Kiwifriut. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
30. Skallerud, Kare; Olsen, Svein (2011). "Export Market Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industrues: An Institutional Perspective". Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing 23 (4): 310–329. doi:10.1080/08974438.2011.621841. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
31. Wilkinson, Tracy (May 26, 2008). "Italy leads world as top producer of kiwis". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
32. Huang, H.; Ferguson, A. R. (2003). "Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinesis and A. deliciosa) plantings and production in China, 2002". New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 31 (3): 197. doi:10.1080/01140671.2003.9514253. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
33. Huang, H.; Ferguson, A. R. (2001). "Review: Kiwifruit in China". New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 29 (1): 1. doi:10.1080/01140671.2001.9514154. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
34. "Kiwi fruit, (chinese gooseberries), fresh, raw". Self Nutrition Data. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
35. "Nutrient data for 09148, Kiwifruit, green, raw". USDA National Nutrient Database. 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
36. "Kiwifruit: Nutrition-Selection-Storage". Produce for Better Health Foundation. 2015. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
37. "Seed Oil Fatty Acids – Gesundheitsratgeber: Mit Expertentipps die Gesundheit fördern". jameda.de.
38. Kim M, Kim SC, Song KJ, Kim HB, Kim IJ, Song EY, Chun SJ (Sep 2010). "Transformation of carotenoid biosynthetic genes using a micro-cross section method in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv. Hayward)". Plant Cell Reports 29 (12): 1339–1349. doi:10.1007/s00299-010-0920-y. PMID 20842364.
39. Sommerburg O, Keunen JE, Bird AC, van Kuijk FJ (August 1998). "Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: the macular pigment in human eyes". British Journal of Ophthalmology 82 (8): 907–910. doi:10.1136/bjo.82.8.907. PMC 1722697. PMID 9828775.
40. Lucas, J.S.; Lewis, S.A.; Hourihane, J.O. (2003). "Kiwi fruit allergy: a review". Pediatr Allergy Immunol 14 (6): 420–428. doi:10.1046/j.0905-6157.2003.00095.x. PMID 14675467.
41. Alemán A, et al. (2004). "Allergy to kiwi: a double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge study in patients from a birch-free area". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 113 (3): 543–550. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2003.11.043. PMID 15007359.
42. Le TM, et al. (2013). "Kiwifruit allergy across Europe: clinical manifestation and IgE recognition patterns to kiwifruit allergens". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 131 (1): 164–171. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2012.09.009. PMID 23141741.
43. Lucas, J. S. A.; Grimshaw, K. E. C.; Collins, K.; Warner, J. O.; Hourihane, J. O'b (2004-07-01). "Kiwi fruit is a significant allergen and is associated with differing patterns of reactivity in children and adults". Clinical and Experimental Allergy: Journal of the British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology 34 (7): 1115–1121. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2004.01982.x. ISSN 0954-7894. PMID 15248859.
44. "Allergy – Fruit and Vegetable Allergy | The Sydney Children's Hospitals Network". www.schn.health.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 2015-10-15.

Further reading

• Vietmeyer, Noel D. (May 1987). "The Captivating Kiwifruit". National Geographic. Vol. 171 no. 5. pp. 683–688. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.

External links