List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes

Damage in Long Beach, Mississippi following Hurricane Katrina.

This is a list of costliest Atlantic hurricanes. Hurricanes, as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), are tropical cyclones—a warm-core, non-frontal synoptic-scale cyclone, originating over tropical or subtropical waters with organized deep convection and a closed surface wind circulation about a well-defined center—in the Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, or eastern Pacific, in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind exceeds 64 knots (74 mph; 119 km/h) or greater. The hurricanes on the list below depict the severity of the damage the system has caused. Typically, if a hurricane has caused significant damage to a particular location, it is requested to be retired by the region the system affected. The costliest hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic was Hurricane Katrina, which struck the coastline of Louisiana in August 2005, causing $108 billion (2005 USD) in property damage. The most recent, costliest hurricane was Hurricane Sandy, which struck the coastlines of Jamaica, Cuba and New Jersey causing $68 billion in total cost (2012 USD) in late October 2012.

A majority of the costliest Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history have peaked as major hurricanes. However, weaker tropical cyclones can still cause widespread damage. Both tropical storms Allison in 2001 and Lee in 2011 have caused over a billion in damage; the former of which accounted for a higher damage total. Due to their excessive damage, the names of tropical cyclones accruing over $1 billion in damage are often retired by the World Meteorological Organization. However, this is not always the case. Hurricane Juan in 1985 was the first hurricane to cause over a billion in damage and not be retired; its name was retired on a later usage in 2003 that did not cause over a billion in damage. Since Juan, five tropical cyclones that caused over a billion in damage were not retired, the most recent of which being Hurricane Isaac in 2012. All other 39 Atlantic hurricanes to have caused as much damage have had their names retired.

The first hurricane to cause over $1 billion in damage was Hurricane Betsy in 1965, which caused much of its damage in southeastern Louisiana. Four years later, Hurricane Camille slightly exceeded Betsy's damage total after affecting similar regions, becoming the second tropical cyclone to cause as much damage. After the 1960s, each decade saw an increase in tropical cyclones causing at least a billion in damage over the last, due to increasing urban development and population. In the 1970s, four hurricanes caused over a billion in damage; the costliest of which was Hurricane Frederic, which caused $2.3 billion in damage, particularly in the Southeastern United States. The following decade featured seven hurricanes causing in excess of a billion in damage. In the 1990s, nine tropical cyclones accrued more than a billion in damage. Hurricane Andrew in 1992 greatly exceeded the damage figure of any preceding tropical cyclone after causing $26.5 billion in damage, mostly in South Florida. Seventeen tropical cyclones in the 2000s caused in excess of $1 billion in damage. Both 2004 and 2005 seasons had five billion-dollar hurricanes apiece, the most of any season on record. Hurricane Ivan caused at least a billion in damage in three separate countries. Thus far in the 2010s, eight tropical cyclones have amounted to over $1 billion in damage.

Overall costliest

High water marker in Portsmouth, North Carolina listing water levels for flooding caused by hurricanes: Isabel, Gloria, Alex, Dennis, Ophelia, Gustav, Emily, and several unnamed storms.

This list ranks tropical cyclones within the Atlantic that have accrued at least US$1 billion in damage, based on their uninflated damage totals.

  Was the costliest Atlantic hurricane upon its dissipation
Costliest Atlantic hurricanes
Name Damage
(Billions USD)		 Season Storm classification
at peak intensity		 Areas affected References
Katrina $125.0 2005 Category 5 hurricane
[1]
Sandy $75.0 2012 Category 3 hurricane
[2][3][4]
Ike $37.5 2008 Category 4 hurricane
[5][6][7]
Wilma $29.3 2005 Category 5 hurricane
[8][9][10][11]
Andrew $26.5 1992 Category 5 hurricane
  • The Bahamas
  • Florida
  • United States Gulf Coast
 [5][12]
Ivan $23.3 2004 Category 5 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Venezuela
  • United States Gulf Coast
 [5][13][14]
Irene $16.6 2011 Category 3 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • United States East Coast
  • Eastern Canada
 [15][16][17]
Charley $15.1 2004 Category 4 hurricane
[18]
Rita $12.0 2005 Category 5 hurricane
  • Cuba
  • United States Gulf Coast
 [19]
Frances $9.85 2004 Category 4 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Eastern United States
  • Ontario
 [5][13][20][21]
Georges $9.72 1998 Category 4 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • United States Gulf Coast
 [5][22][23][24][25][26]
Allison $9.0 2001 Tropical storm
[5][27]
Jeanne $7.66 2004 Category 3 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Eastern United States
 [5][13][28][29]
Hugo $8.5 1989 Category 5 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • United States East Coast
 [5][30]
Floyd $6.9 1999 Category 4 hurricane
[5][31]
Gustav $6.61 2008 Category 4 hurricane
[5][6]
Mitch $6.2 1998 Category 5 hurricane
[32][33][34]
Karl $5.6 2010 Category 3 hurricane
[35][36]
Opal $5.41 1995 Category 4 hurricane
  • Guatemala
  • Yucatán Peninsula
  • Eastern United States
 [5][37]
Isabel $5.37 2003 Category 5 hurricane
  • Greater Antilles
  • The Bahamas
  • Eastern United States
  • Ontario
 [5][38]
Gilbert $5.0 1988 Category 5 hurricane
[39]
Fran $4.16 1996 Category 3 hurricane
  • Eastern United States
  • Ontario
 [5]
Dennis $4.0 2005 Category 4 hurricane
[5][8][40]
Stan $3.96 2005 Category 1 hurricane
  • Mexico
  • Central America
 [28][41]
Luis $2.5 1995 Category 4 hurricane
[37]
Frederic $2.3 1979 Category 4 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Southeastern United States
 [42]
Isaac $2.3 2012 Category 1 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Eastern United States
 [43]
Michelle $2.15 2001 Category 4 hurricane
  • Central America
  • Jamaica
  • Cuba
  • The Bahamas
 [24][27]
Agnes $2.1 1972 Category 1 hurricane
  • Mexico
  • Cuba
  • Eastern United States
 [5][44]
Alicia $2.0 1983 Category 3 hurricane
[45]
Joan $2.0 1988 Category 4 hurricane
  • Lesser Antilles
  • Colombia
  • Venezuela
  • Central America
 [39]
Alex $1.885 2010 Category 2 hurricane
  • Central America
  • Greater Antilles
  • Texas
 [46][47][48][49]
Fifi $1.8 1974 Category 2 hurricane
  • Jamaica
  • Central America
  • Mexico
 [50][51]
Dean $1.78 2007 Category 5 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Central America
 [28][52]
Lee $1.6 2011 Tropical storm
  • United States East Coast
David $1.54 1979 Category 5 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • United States East Coast
 [28][42]
Bob $1.5 1991 Category 3 hurricane
  • United States East Coast
  • Canada
 [53]
Ingrid $1.5 2013 Category 1 hurricane
  • Mexico
 [5]
Juan $1.5 1985 Category 1 hurricane
  • United States Gulf Coast
 [5]
Marilyn $1.5 1995 Category 3 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Bermuda
 [5][37]
Roxanne $1.5 1995 Category 3 hurricane
  • Mexico
 [37]
Betsy $1.42 1965 Category 4 hurricane
  • The Caribbean
  • Southeastern United States
 [5]
Camille $1.42 1969 Category 5 hurricane
  • Cuba
  • United States Gulf Coast
 [5]
Isidore $1.3 2002 Category 3 hurricane
[54][55]
Elena $1.25 1985 Category 3 hurricane
  • Cuba
  • United States Gulf Coast
 [56]
Allen $1.24 1980 Category 5 hurricane
[28][57][58]
Dolly $1.05 2008 Category 2 hurricane
[6]
Emily $1.01 2005 Category 5 hurricane
  • Guyana
  • Windward Islands
  • Leeward Antilles
  • Venezuela
  • Puerto Rico
  • Hispaniola
  • Colombia
  • Jamaica
  • Cuba
  • Cayman Islands
  • Honduras
  • Belize
  • Mexico
  • Texas

See also

References

  1. ↑ Knabb, Richard D; Rhome, Jamie R; Brown, Daniel P; National Hurricane Center (December 20, 2005). Hurricane Katrina: August 23 – 30, 2005 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  2. ↑ Blake, Eric S; Kimberlain, Todd B; Berg, Robert J; Cangialosi, John P; Beven II, John L; National Hurricane Center (February 12, 2013). Hurricane Sandy: October 22 – 29, 2012 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on February 17, 2013. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
  3. ↑ Hurricane/Post-Tropical Cyclone Sandy, October 22–29, 2012 (PDF) (Service Assessment). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. May 2013. p. 10. Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
  4. ↑ http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/costliesttable.html
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Blake, Eric S; Landsea, Christopher W; Gibney, Ethan J; National Hurricane Center (August 2011). The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (And Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts) (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-6). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
  6. 1 2 3 Brown, Daniel P; Beven, John L; Franklin, James L; Blake, Eric S (May 1, 2010). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2008". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 138 (5): 1975–2001. doi:10.1175/2009MWR3174.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 12, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  7. ↑ Berg, Robbie; National Hurricane Center (January 23, 2009). Hurricane Ike: November 5 - 9, 2008 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on December 9, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  8. 1 2 Beven, John L; Avila, Lixion A; Blake, Eric S; Brown, Daniel P; Franklin, James L; Knabb, Richard D; Pasch, Richard J; Rhome, Jamie R; Stewart, Stacy R (March 1, 2008). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2005". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 136 (3): 1109–1173. doi:10.1175/2007MWR2074.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 25, 2010. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  9. ↑ Comisión Nacional del Agua (2006). "Resumen del Huracán "Wilma"" (PDF). Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  10. ↑ Royster, Amy (December 4, 2005). "Wilma's Waves Devastate Grand Bahama Communities". Palm Beach Post.(subscription required)
  11. ↑ "Hurricane Wilma exacts losses of 704 million dollars: Cuban government". Relief Web. Agence France-Presse. December 4, 2005. Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  12. ↑ Rappaport, Edward N; National Hurricane Center (December 10, 1993). Hurricane Andrew: August 16 – 28 (Preliminary Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved January 1, 2013.
  13. 1 2 3 Hurricane Committee (August 12, 2005). Twenty-seventh Session (March 31 to April 5, 2005) (PDF) (Final Report). World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  14. ↑ Stewart, Stacy R; National Hurricane Center (December 16, 2004). Hurricane Ivan September 2 – 24, 2004 (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  15. ↑ Avila, Lixion A; Cangialosi, John (December 14, 2011). Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Irene: August 21 – 28, 2011 (PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report) (United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service). Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
  16. ↑ Fieser, Erza (August 25, 2011). "Hurricane Irene barrels toward US as Caribbean islands take stock of damage". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
  17. ↑ Telling the Weather Story (PDF) (Report). Insurance Bureau of Canada. June 4, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
  18. ↑ Pasch, Richard J; Blake, Eric S; Brown, Daniel P; National Hurricane Center (October 18, 2004). Hurricane Charley August 9 - 15 (Tropical Cyclone Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  19. ↑ Knabb, Richard D; Brown, Daniel P; Rhome, Jamie R; National Hurricane Center (March 17, 2006). Hurricane Rita: September 18 - 26, 2005 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  20. ↑ Beven II, John L; National Hurricane Center (December 17, 2004). "Hurricane Frances August 24 – September 10" (Tropical Cyclone Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  21. ↑ Hurricanes Charley, Frances, Ivan & Jeanne Caribbean Impact (PDF) (Speciality Property Briefing). Guy Carpenter and Company. August 12, 2005. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  22. ↑ Guiney, John L; National Hurricane Center (January 5, 1999). Hurricane Georges: September 15 – October 1, 1998 (Preliminary Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
  23. ↑ Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (October 8, 1998). Eastern Caribbean, Dominican Republic, Haiti —Hurricane Georges Fact Sheet #9, Fiscal Year (FY) 1999 (Report). United States Agency for International Development. Archived from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved August 24, 2007.
  24. 1 2 Pielke, Roger A; Rubiera, Jose; Landsea, Christopher; Fernández, Mario L; Klein, Roberta (August 1, 2003). "Hurricane Vulnerability in Latin America and The Caribbean: Normalized Damage and Loss Potentials" (PDF). Natural Hazards Review 4 (3): 101–114. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2003)4:3(101). ISSN 1527-6988. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
  25. ↑ International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies (March 22, 1999). Caribbean — Hurricane Georges Situation Report No. 3 (PDF) (Report). ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
  26. ↑ Pan American Health Organisation (November 25, 1998). "Impact of Hurricane Georges on health sector response". Pan American Health Organisation. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
  27. 1 2 Beven, John L; Stewart, Stacy R; Lawrence, Miles B; Avila, Lixion A; Franklin, James L; Pasch, Richard J (July 1, 2003). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2001". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 131 (7): 1454–1484. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<1454:ASHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. "EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database". Université catholique de Louvain. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
  29. ↑ Lawrence, Miles B; Cobb, Hugh D; National Hurricane Center (November 22, 2004). Hurricane Jeanne: September 13 – 28 (Tropical Cyclone Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  30. ↑ Case, Bob; Mayfield, Max (May 1, 1990). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1989". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 118 (5): 1175. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<1165:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  31. ↑ Lawrence, Miles B; Avila, Lixion A; Beven, Jack L; Franklin, James L; Guiney, John L; Pasch, Richard J (December 1, 2001). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1999" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 129 (12): 3057–3084. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<3057:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Archived from the original on April 10, 2002. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
  32. ↑ National Climatic Data Center (1999). Mitch: The Deadliest Atlantic Hurricane Since 1780 (Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  33. ↑ Inter-American Development Bank. "Central America After Hurricane Mitch- Costa Rica". Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  34. ↑ Inter-American Development Bank. "Central America After Hurricane Mitch- El Salvador". Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  35. ↑ Staff Writer (September 20, 2010). "Según cálculos de Kuri Grajales, Karl causó daños al estado por 12 mil mdp" (in Spanish). La Jordana Veracruz. Retrieved September 20, 2010.
  36. ↑ "Karl deja 1 millón damnificados y 3.900 millones dólares en daños en Veracruz" (in Spanish). EFE. September 21, 2010. Archived from the original on September 28, 2010. Retrieved September 28, 2010.
  37. 1 2 3 4 Lawrence, Miles B; Mayfield, Britt M; Avila, Lixion A; Pasch, Richard J; Rappaport, Edward N (May 1, 1998). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1995". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 126 (5): 1124–1151. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1998)126<1124:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
  38. ↑ Lawrence, Miles B; Avila, Lixion A; Beven, John L; Franklin, James L; Pasch, Richard J; Stewart, Stacy R (June 1, 2005). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2003". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 133 (6): 1744–1773. doi:10.1175/MWR2940.1. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  39. 1 2 Lawrence, Miles B; Gross, James M (October 1, 1989). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1988". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 117 (10): 2248–2259. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<2248:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  40. ↑ Church World Service (August 23, 2005). "CWS emergency appeal: Cuba/Hurricane Dennis response". Relief Web. Archived from the original on December 9, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  41. ↑ Pasch, Richard J; Roberts, David P; National Hurricane Center (February 4, 2006). Hurricane Stan: October 1 - 5, 2005 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  42. 1 2 Hebert, Paul J (July 1, 1980). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1979" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 108 (7): 976. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1980)108<0973:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
  43. ↑ Berg, Robbie; National Hurricane Center (January 28, 2013). Hurricane Isaac August 21 – September 1, 2012 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on January 29, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  44. ↑ Simpson, Robert H; Hebert, Paul J (April 1, 1973). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1972" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 101 (4): 326. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1973)101<0323:AHSO>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
  45. ↑ Case, Robert A; Gerrish, Harold P (May 1, 1984). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1983". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 112 (5): 1083 – 1092. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1984)112<1083:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  46. ↑ Escamilla Martínez, Josué (July 17, 2010). "Más de mil mdp daño preliminar por "Alex": EHF". El Diario (in Spanish) (Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas). Retrieved July 18, 2010.
  47. ↑ Padilla Sada, Eduardo (August 5, 2010). "Rebasan pronósticos: Daños por 17 mil mdp" (in Spanish). Retrieved August 5, 2010.
  48. ↑ Fernández Valverde, Hilda (June 30, 2010). "Habrá clases en Coahuila, pese a Alex". El Universal (in Spanish). Retrieved July 1, 2010.
  49. ↑ Pasch, Richard J; National Hurricane Center (December 15, 2010). Hurricane Alex: June 25 – July 2, 2010 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. p. 3. Archived from the original on November 30, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  50. ↑ "Aid Efforts Start For Honduras, Fifi Deaths Soar". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Associated Press. September 24, 1974. Retrieved November 8, 2009.
  51. ↑ Rappaport, Edward N; Fernandez-Partagas, Jose; National Hurricane Center (January 1995). The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492 – 1994 (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-47). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. p. 23. Archived from the original on January 13, 2013. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
  52. ↑ Brennan, Michael J; Knabb, Richard D; Mainelli, Michelle; Kimberlain, Todd B (December 1, 2009). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2007" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 137 (12): 4061–4088. doi:10.1175/2009MWR2995.1. Archived from the original on October 15, 2010. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  53. ↑ Pasch, Richard J; Avila, Lixion A (November 1, 1992). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1991". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 120 (11): 2671. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1992)120<2671:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved January 1, 2013.
  54. ↑ Pasch, Richard J; Lawrence, Miles B; Avila, Lixion A; Beven, John L; Franklin, James L; Stewart, Stacy R (July 1, 2004). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2002". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 132 (7): 1829–1859 [1854]. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132<1829:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  55. ↑ Tabla 10. Principales desastres naturales, 1980–2005 (PDF). El Almanaque Mexicano 2008 (Sergio Aguayo). p. 20. Archived from the original on January 1, 2013.
  56. ↑ Case, Robert A (July 1, 1986). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1985" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 114 (7): 1395. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1986)114<1390:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
  57. ↑ Lawrence, Miles B; Pelissier, Joseph M (July 1, 1981). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1980". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 109 (7): 1567–1582. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109<1567:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493. Retrieved December 6, 2012.
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