List of meteor air bursts

Many explosions have been recorded in Earth's atmosphere that are likely caused by the air burst that results from a meteor burning up as it hits the atmosphere. These types of meteors are also known as fireballs (or bolides) with the brightest known as superbolides. Contrary to common "shooting stars", these larger meteors were originally asteroids and comets of a few to several tens of meters in diameter before impacting with Earth's atmosphere.

The best known is the 1908 Tunguska event. The appearance of extremely bright fireballs traveling across the sky is often witnessed from a distance, such as the 2012 Sutter's Mill meteorite and the 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor. Modern developments in infrasound detection by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization and infrared DSP satellite technology have reduced the likelihood of undetected airbursts.

Frequency

The table from Earth Impact Effects Program (EIEP) estimates the average frequency of airbursts and their energy yield in kilotons (kt) or megatons (Mt) of TNT equivalent.

World map of bolide events (1994–2013)[1]
Stony asteroid impacts that generate an airburst[2]
Impactor
diameter 		Kinetic energy at Airburst
altitude 		Average
frequency
(years)
atmospheric
entry		 airburst
4 m (13 ft) 3 kt 0.75 kt 42.5 km (139,000 ft) 1.3
7 m (23 ft) 16 kt 5 kt 36.3 km (119,000 ft) 4.6
10 m (33 ft) 47 kt 19 kt 31.9 km (105,000 ft) 10
15 m (49 ft) 159 kt 82 kt 26.4 km (87,000 ft) 27
20 m (66 ft) 376 kt 230 kt 22.4 km (73,000 ft) 60
30 m (98 ft) 1.3 Mt 930 kt 16.5 km (54,000 ft) 185
50 m (160 ft) 5.9 Mt 5.2 Mt 8.7 km (29,000 ft) 764
70 m (230 ft) 16 Mt 15.2 Mt 3.6 km (12,000 ft) 1,900
Based on density of 2600 kg/m3, speed of 17 km/s, and an impact angle of 45°

Events

TNT equivalent > 100 kilotons

Most estimates for the 1930 Curuçá River event put it below 1 megaton.[3][4][5] Depending on the value, then there were only 2-3 known airbursts in the previous century with energy yield between 100 kilotons-1 megaton, roughly consistent with the estimate of the EIEP table.

The first large airburst of the 21st century was the 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor with a diameter of 20 meters and an airburst of around 500 kilotons.

Date Location Coordinates Energy
(TNT equivalent)		 Height of explosion Notes
June 30, 1908 60 kilometres (37 mi) west-northwest of Vanavara[6] in Yeniseysk Governorate, Russian Empire 60°53′09″N 101°53′40″E / 60.88583°N 101.89444°E / 60.88583; 101.89444 10–15 megatonnes of TNT (42,000–63,000 TJ) 8.5 km (5.3 mi) Tunguska event (Largest witnessed meteor airburst to date)
August 13, 1930 Curuçá River Area, Amazonas, Brazil 5°11′S 71°38′W / 5.183°S 71.633°W / -5.183; -71.633 9–5,000 kilotonnes of TNT (38–20,920 TJ) Also known as the 1930 Curuçá River event or "Brazilian Tunguska".[7] Generally assumed to be generated by three meteor fragments. An astrobleme of 1 km was found on the ground, but may be related to an older feature.[8][9][7][10][11]
December 8, 1932 Arroyomolinos de León, Spain 38°01′00″N 6°25′00″W / 38.01667°N 6.41667°W / 38.01667; -6.41667 190 kilotonnes of TNT (790 TJ) 15.7 km (9.8 mi) Assumed to be produced by an 18-meter object and connected to the December delta-Arietids meteor shower.[12]
August 3, 1963 About 1000 km away from the Prince Edward Islands 51°S 24°E / 51°S 24°E / -51; 24 260 ± 90 kilotonnes of TNT (1,090 ± 380 TJ) A bolide was detected infrasonically about 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) west-south-west of the Prince Edward Islands off the coast of South Africa by a U.S. government instrument network designed to detect atmospheric explosions.[13]
February 15, 2013 near Chelyabinsk, Russia 54°30′N 61°30′E / 54.500°N 61.500°E / 54.500; 61.500 500 kilotonnes of TNT (2,100 TJ) [14] Estimated 30–50 km [15] Chelyabinsk meteor[16] (Largest meteor airburst known since Tunguska in 1908)

TNT equivalent < 100 kilotons, or unknown

While airbursts undoubtedly happened prior to the 20th century, reliable reports of such are quite scanty. A relatively well-documented case is the 1490 Ch'ing-yang event which has an unknown energy yield equivalent but was apparently powerful enough to cause 10000 deaths.[17] Modern researchers are skeptical about the figure, but the Tunguska event could have destroyed a highly populous district.[17] The table below is arranged chronologically.

Date Location Coordinates Energy
(TNT equivalent)		 Height of explosion Notes
November 26, 1919 Southern Michigan and Northern Indiana, USA 42°N 86°W / 42°N 86°W / 42; -86 A gigantic meteor was seen approaching from the east. A brilliant flash of light, thunder and an earthquake lasting 3 minutes were reported. Considerable damage to property and broken windows were reported over a very large area as well as disruption to telegraph, telephone and electrical power systems.[18]
June 24, 1938 Chicora, Pennsylvania United States On June 24, 1938 a meteorite fell in the vicinity of Chicora. Named the "Chicora Meteor", the 450+ tonne meteorite exploded approximately twelve miles above the Earth's surface.[19]
April 9, 1941 Ural mountains, Katav-Ivanovo district of Chelyabinsk region Russia ru:Катавский болид (Katavsky bolide). Residents of several localities had seen a fireball flying at a high speed in the dark sky, followed by roaring likened to the sound of a speeding steam locomotive. Fragments were left as a result of the event.
February 12, 1947 Sikhote-Alin Mountains in eastern Siberia, Primorsky Krai, Russia 46°09′36″N 134°39′12″E / 46.16000°N 134.65333°E / 46.16000; 134.65333 10 kilotonnes of TNT (42 TJ) Sikhote-Alin meteorite. Estimated explosive yield of 10 kt equivalent.[20]
March 31, 1965 Revelstoke, British Columbia 0.6 kilotonnes of TNT (2.5 TJ) 13 km (8 mi) 1 g (0.035 oz) material from meteorite found. Sometimes placed in Southeastern Canada on May 31.[21]
September 17, 1966 Lake Huron, Michigan–Ontario 0.6 kilotonnes of TNT (2.5 TJ) 13 km (8 mi) No material from meteorite found. Photographed bolide body.[22]
February 5, 1967 Vilna, Alberta 0.6 kilotonnes of TNT (2.5 TJ) 13 km (8 mi) Two very small fragments found - 48 milligrams (0.0017 oz) and 94 milligrams (0.0033 oz). Stored at University of Alberta, in Edmonton.[23] Photographed.[24]
January 19, 1993 Lugo, Northern Italy 10 kilotonnes of TNT (42 TJ) 30 km Superbolide airburst caused by the breakup of a low density meteoroid traveling at approximately 26 km/s.[25]
January 18, 1994 Cando, Spain Cando event. A bolide at 7:15 UT that was 1,000 times less energetic than the Tunguska event.
February 1, 1994 300 km south of Kosrae, Micronesia 2°36′N 164°06′E / 2.6°N 164.1°E / 2.6; 164.1 11 kilotonnes of TNT (46 TJ) 21–34 km (13–21 mi) Marshall Islands fireball (4–14 meters in diameter). Two fragments exploded at 34 km and 21 km of altitude. This impact was observed by space based infrared (IR) sensors operated by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) and by visible wavelength sensors operated by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).[26]
December 9, 1997 150 km south of Nuuk, Greenland 62°54′N 50°06′W / 62.900°N 50.100°W / 62.900; -50.100 0.06 kilotonnes of TNT (0.25 TJ) 25 km (16 mi) One airburst at 46 km, three more breakups detected between 25 and 30 km. No remains found so far. Yield only based on luminosity, i.e. the total energy might have been considerably larger.[27]
November 8, 1999 Northern Germany 1.5 kilotonnes of TNT (6.3 TJ) Detected by the Deelen Infrasound Array in the Netherlands[28]
January 18, 2000 over Whitehorse, Yukon 60°43′N 135°03′W / 60.717°N 135.050°W / 60.717; -135.050 1.7 kilotonnes of TNT (7.1 TJ)[29] One airburst at ~08:00, fragments recovered on Tagish Lake.[30]
April 23, 2001 North Pacific Ocean 1–5 kilotonnes of TNT (4.2–20.9 TJ) Infrasound detection.[31] Meteor estimated to be 2–3 meters in diameter.[32] Occurred 1,800 km away from the Scripps detector.
June 6, 2002 Mediterranean Sea, 230 km north-northeast of Benghazi, Libya 34°N 21°E / 34°N 21°E / 34; 21 12–26 kilotonnes of TNT (50–109 TJ)[29][33][34] 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event
September 25, 2002 The Vitim River basin near the town of Bodaybo, Irkutsk Oblast, Russia 58°16′N 113°27′E / 58.27°N 113.45°E / 58.27; 113.45 0.2–2 kilotonnes of TNT (0.84–8.37 TJ) 30 km Vitim event or Bodaybo event[35]
September 3, 2004 200 km offshore Queen Maud Land, Antarctica 69°S 27°E / 69°S 27°E / -69; 27 12 kilotonnes of TNT (50 TJ) 28–30 km (17–19 mi) Asteroid 7–10 meters in diameter. Coordinates are for dust trail observed an hour after event by NASA's Aqua satellite. Event was observed also by military satellites and by infrasound stations. Dust was observed 7 hours after event by LIDAR in Davis Station.[36]
October 7, 2004 Indian Ocean 10–20 kilotonnes of TNT (42–84 TJ) Infrasound detection[31]
December 9, 2006 Egypt 10–20 kilotonnes of TNT (42–84 TJ) Infrasound detection[31]
September 28, 2007 Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland 40 km (25 mi) Superbolide that was observed as far as northern Lapland.[37] Meteoritic material was suspected to have landed southeast of Oulu but none has been found.
October 7, 2008 Nubian Desert, Sudan 20°48′00″N 32°12′00″E / 20.80000°N 32.20000°E / 20.80000; 32.20000 0.9–2.1 kilotonnes of TNT (3.8–8.8 TJ) 37 km (23 mi) 2008 TC3, the first asteroid detected before impacting Earth.
October 8, 2009 coastal region of Bone Regency in South Sulawesi, Indonesia 04°30′00″S 120°00′00″E / 4.50000°S 120.00000°E / -4.50000; 120.00000 31–50 kilotonnes of TNT (130–210 TJ) 25 km (16 mi) 2009 Sulawesi superbolide. No meteoritic material found (most likely fell into the ocean).[38] Occurred ~03:00 UTC; ~11:00 local time.[38]
November 21, 2009 Zimbabwe 22°00′S 29°12′E / 22.0°S 29.2°E / -22.0; 29.2 18 kilotonnes of TNT (75 TJ) 38 km (24 mi) Impacted going 32.1 km/s (19.9 mi/s).[39] There were 56 witnesses of the bolide and two seismic recorder detections.[40]
September 3, 2010 South Pacific Ocean 20 kilotonnes of TNT (84 TJ) Infrasound detection[31]
December 25, 2010 North Pacific Ocean 38°00′N 158°00′E / 38.0°N 158.0°E / 38.0; 158.0 33 kilotonnes of TNT (140 TJ) 26 km (16 mi)[39]
April 22, 2012 air burst centered near La Grange, California 37°6′N 120°5′W / 37.100°N 120.083°W / 37.100; -120.083 4 kilotonnes of TNT (17 TJ) [41] 30–47 km [42] Sutter's Mill meteorite. Numerous fragments from object recovered. Analysis determined it was a Carbonaceous chondrite.
April 21, 2013 Argentina 28°06′S 64°36′W / 28.1°S 64.6°W / -28.1; -64.6 2.5 kilotonnes of TNT (10 TJ) 40.7 km (25.3 mi)[39] The bolide was captured on video at a Los Tekis rock concert.[43]
April 30, 2013 North Atlantic Ocean 35°30′N 30°42′W / 35.5°N 30.7°W / 35.5; -30.7 10–20 kilotonnes of TNT (42–84 TJ) 21.2 km (13.2 mi) Infrasound detection.[31] Largest airburst event since Chelyabinsk.[39]
November 26, 2013 heard in Montreal, Ottawa, and New York state[44][45][46][47] 0.1 kilotonnes of TNT (0.42 TJ)[48] Montreal bolide
January 2, 2014 mid-Atlantic Ocean 11°42′N 40°18′W / 11.7°N 40.3°W / 11.7; -40.3 2014 AA, the second asteroid detected before Earth impact.[49]
February 18, 2014 Argentina 32°48′S 61°30′W / 32.8°S 61.5°W / -32.8; -61.5 0.1 kilotonnes of TNT (0.42 TJ)[39] Even though this was a low-energy event, there were reports of windows/buildings shaking.[50]
May 8, 2014 South Indian Ocean 36°54′S 87°18′E / 36.9°S 87.3°E / -36.9; 87.3 2.4 kilotonnes of TNT (10 TJ) 35.4 km (22.0 mi)[39]
June 26, 2014 Antarctica 71°30′S 93°24′E / 71.5°S 93.4°E / -71.5; 93.4 0.2 kilotonnes of TNT (0.84 TJ) 28.5 km (17.7 mi)[39]
August 23, 2014 Southern Ocean 61°42′S 132°36′E / 61.7°S 132.6°E / -61.7; 132.6 7.6 kilotonnes of TNT (32 TJ) 22.2 km (13.8 mi)[39] Largest airburst of 2014 and 2nd largest since Chelyabinsk.
September 7, 2015 Bangkok, Thailand 14°30′N 98°54′E / 14.5°N 98.9°E / 14.5; 98.9 3.9 kilotonnes of TNT (16 TJ) 29.3 km (18.2 mi)[39] 2015 Thailand meteor daylight bolide around 08:40 local time (UTC+7). Caught on at least 9 videos of dash and helmet cams online[51][52]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "We are not Alone: Government Sensors Shed New Light on Asteroid Hazards". Universe Today. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  2. ↑ Robert Marcus, H. Jay Melosh, and Gareth Collins (2010). "Earth Impact Effects Program". Imperial College London / Purdue University. Retrieved 2013-02-04. (solution using 2600kg/m^3, 17km/s, 45 degrees)
  3. ↑ McFarland, John. The Day the Earth Trembled, Armagh, Northern Ireland: Armagh Observatory website, last revised on November 10, 2009.
  4. ↑ Lienhard, John H. Meteorite at Curuçá, The Engines of Our Ingenuity, University of Houston with KUHF-FM Houston.
  5. ↑ Corderoa, Guadalupe; Poveda, Arcadio (2011). "Curuça 1930: A probable mini-Tunguska?". Planetary and Space Science 59 (1): 10–16. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2010.10.012.
  6. ↑ Traynor, Chris (1997). "The Tunguska Event". Journal of the British Astronomical Association 107 (3).
  7. 1 2 THE EVENT NEAR THE CURUÇÁ RIVER. 67th Annual Meteoritical Society Meeting (2004)
  8. ↑ "Curuça 1930: A probable mini-Tunguska?". Planetary and Space Science 59: 10–16. Bibcode:2011P&SS...59...10C. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2010.10.012.
  9. ↑ No. 1102: METEORITE AT CURUÇA By John H. Lienhard The Engines of Our Ingenuity
  10. ↑ The Day the Earth Trembled by John McFarland Armagh Observatory
  11. ↑ http://www.comciencia.br/reportagens/espaco/espc17.htm
  12. ↑ Historical Records of δ-Arietids Superfireballs Over Spain by J.M.Madiedo and J. M. Trigo-Rodríguez 42nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2011)
  13. ↑ Wayne N. Edwards, Peter G. Brown, Douglas O. ReVelle (2006). "Estimates of meteoroid kinetic energies from observations of infrasonic airwaves" (PDF). Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 68 (2006). pp. 1136–1160.
  14. ↑ http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-061
  15. ↑ "Meteorite strikes central Russia, hundreds injured". The Globe and Mail (Toronto). 2013-02-15.
  16. ↑ Shurmina, Natalia; Kuzmin, Andrey. "Meteorite hits central Russia, more than 500 people hurt". Reuters. Retrieved February 15, 2013.
  17. 1 2 Yau, K., Weissman, P., & Yeomans, D. Meteorite Falls In China And Some Related Human Casualty Events, Meteoritics, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 864-871, ISSN 0026-1114, bibliographic code: 1994Metic..29..864Y.
  18. ↑ The Washington Times (Washington, D.C.) 1919 Nov 27 page 1b
  19. ↑ http://triblive.com/state/pennsylvania/3495296-74/meteor-chicora-1938
  20. ↑
  21. ↑ Kusky, Timothy M.; Katherine E. Cullen (2010). Encyclopedia of Earth and space science. New York, NY: Facts on File. p. 147. ISBN 1438128592.
  22. ↑ Halliday, Ian (December 1966). "The Bolide of September 17, 1966". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 60: 257. Bibcode:1966JRASC..60..257H.
  23. ↑ Grady, Monica (2000). Catalogue of Meteorites. Cambridge University Press. p. 514. ISBN 9780521663038.
  24. ↑ Folinsbee, R. E.; Bayrock, L. A.; Cumming, G. L.; Smith, D. G. W. "Vilna Meteorite-Camera, Visual, Seismic and Analytic Records". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 63: 61. Bibcode:1969JRASC..63...61F.
  25. ↑ The spectacular airburst over (Lugo) Italy on January 19, 1993
  26. ↑ Tagliaferri, E.; Spalding, R.; Jacobs, C.; Ceplecha, Z. (1995). "Analysis of the Marshall Islands Fireball of February 1, 1994". Earth, Moon, and Planets 68 (1–3): 563–572. Bibcode:1995EM&P...68..563T. doi:10.1007/BF00671553.
  27. ↑ Greenland meteor at goes.gsfc.nasa.gov
  28. ↑ July 2002 Asteroid/Comet News
  29. 1 2 Brown, P.; Spalding, R. E.; ReVelle, D. O.; Tagliaferri, E.; Worden, S. P. (2002). "The flux of small near-Earth objects colliding with the Earth". Nature 420 (6913): 294–296. doi:10.1038/nature01238. PMID 12447433. (table #1)
  30. ↑ January 18, 2000 Yukon/Northern BC Fireball (The Tagish Lake Meteorite)
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 B612 list of infrasound detections from 2000-2013
  32. ↑ "Low sounds detect meteor blast". 2001-09-03.
  33. ↑ Near-Earth objects dangerous, general says BBC News, September 9, 2002.
  34. ↑ Cambridge Conference Correspondence. Asteroids 'could spark a nuclear war'
  35. ↑ "CCNet 55/2003 - 10 July 2003". Cambridge Conference Network archive. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
  36. ↑ Cosmic hole-in-one: capturing dust from a meteoroid's fiery demise Australian Antarctic Magazine, issue 8 Autumn 2005
  37. ↑ http://yle.fi/uutiset/super-meteor_lights_up_northern_sky/5803349
  38. 1 2 Yeomans, Don; et al. "Asteroid Impactor Reported over Indonesia". Near Earth Object Program Office. NASA-NEOP. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Fireball and Bolide Reports (JPL)
  40. ↑ T P Cooper (June 2011). "Fireball and Bolide Observations; 2009-2010" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-09-22.
  41. ↑ http://www.rgj.com/article/20120423/NEWS/304230032/Scientist-says-sound-signal-from-exploding-meteor-lasted-18-minutes
  42. ↑ http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/
  43. ↑ Bright Meteor Rocks Argentina Rock Concert
  44. ↑ "Meteor strike in Quebec? Bright flash of light and loud boom widely reported". 2013-11-27. Archived from the original on 2013-11-27. Retrieved 2013-11-29.
  45. ↑ "Meteor in Quebec, Ontario". 2013-11-28. Retrieved 2013-11-29. Jaymie Matthews, professor of astrophysics at the University of British Columbia, says a meteor was likely the cause of a strange boom heard Tuesday night in Quebec and Ontario
  46. ↑ "Massive blast heard near Quebec, Ontario border likely a meteor: expert". 2013-11-26. Archived from the original on 2013-11-27. Retrieved 2013-11-29. "[...] This has the hallmark of a meteor blast," said Andrew Fazekas, a spokesman with the Montreal Centre of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
  47. ↑ "'Huge flash of blue light' spotted around Montreal, Ottawa most likely a meteor". The Globe and Mail (Toronto). 2013-11-27. Archived from the original on 2013-11-27. Retrieved 2013-11-29. Reports have come from throughout the Ottawa region, through Montreal, Laval, and as far south as upper New York state, near the city of Plattsburgh, he said. There have been no reports of damage.
  48. ↑ Anne Sutherland (2013-11-28). "Mystery of Tuesday’s big boom near Montreal solved". montrealgazette.com. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
  49. ↑ The First Discovered Asteroid of 2014 Collides With The Earth - An Update
  50. ↑ "Scientists probe meteor link to Argentina explosion". Phys.org. 2014-02-18. INERC
  51. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3RavHx9peVM Meteor Meteor over Bangkok, Thailand, 7 September 2015, youtube.com (video 00:51, 7 sights, review of youtube) 07 September 2015, retrieved 08 September 2015.
  52. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvBWiz7z6_Y Meteor Fireball Falls in Bangkok Thailand 09/07/201 (Different Angles) VIDEO, youtube.com (video 04:04, 2 sights, repeated) 07 September 2015, retrieved 08 September 2015.

Further reading

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Sunday, April 10, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.