Aromanians

Not to be confused with Armenians.
Aromanians, Vlachs, Macedo-Romanians
Aromanian: Rrãmãnji, Armãnji
Total population
c. 100,000[1]–250,000[2]
Regions with significant populations
 Greece 39,855 (1951 census); est. up to 200,000[3]
 Albania 8,266 (2011 census); est. up to 200,000[4][5]
 Romania 28,600[6]
 Macedonia 9,695 (2002 census)[7]
 Bulgaria 891 "Rumuni", 3,684 "Vlasi" (2011 census)[8]
 Serbia 243 "Cincari" (2011 census); est. up to 15,000[9][10]
Languages
Aromanian
Religion
† Eastern Orthodox Christianity

The Aromanians (Aromanian: Rrãmãnji, Armãnji[11]), are a Latin-speaking ethnic group native to the southern Balkans; traditionally living in northern and central Greece, Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, and south-western Bulgaria. Especially in Greece, the term Vlachs (/'Vlaçi/) is widespread, but this term is internationally used to encompass all Latin-descended peoples of the Balkans and Tatra Mountains regions, including the modern-day Romanians. Vlach is a blanket term covering several modern Latin peoples descending from the Latinized population of the Balkans and Central-Eastern Europe.[12]

The Aromanians speak the Aromanian language, a Latin-derived language similar to Romanian, which has many slightly varying dialects of its own.[13] It descends from the vulgar Latin spoken by the Paleo-Balkan peoples subsequent to their Romanization. It is a mix of domestic and Latin language with additional influences from other surrounding languages of the Balkans, such as Bulgarian, Greek, Macedonian, and Albanian.[14]

Names and classification

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Aromanians
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Related groups

Ethnonyms

Geographical names

Distinguished according to geographic area, Aromanians are grouped into several "branches" such as:

The first two groups call themselves Rrãmãnji, while the other three groups (with a distinct dialect) call themselves Armãnji.

Nicknames

They have several nicknames depending on the country where they are living.

In Greece:

In the South Slavic countries, such as Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria, the nicknames used to refer to the Aromanians are usually Vlasi (South Slavic for Vlachs and Wallachians) and Tsintsar (also spelled Tzintzar, Cincar or similar), which is derived from the way the Aromanians pronounce the word meaning five, tsintsi.

Albanians use their own nicknames to refer to the Aromanians, such as Vllah/Vllehë and Chobans, (derived from Albanian word Çobenj; Çoban meaning pastoral mountain folk and shepherd. The word stems from Turkish çoban, which means "shepherd".

Origins

Map of the Roman Empire
The Jireček Line is an imaginary line that shows where Latin and Greek influences meet in the Balkans, according to epigraphic archaeological data.

It is hypothesized that the Vlachs originated from the Roman colonisation of the Balkans and are the descendants of Latinised native peoples and of the legionaries that settled in the Balkans. The fact that the Roman colonisation of Epirus and Macedonia began earlier and lasted longer than that of Dacia would suggest that the ethnogenesis of the Aromanians may have preceded the Romanians in history.

There are many theories regarding the origins of the Aromanians. In Greece, some scholars consider them to be descended from a local Greek population that was deeply Latinised immediately following the Roman conquest of Greece, or later, during the first centuries of the Byzantine Empire when Latin continued to be the official language. On the contrary, in other neighbouring countries Aromanians are considered to be the descendants of Thracian peoples who moved into the mountains of the southern Balkans after the Avar and Slavic invasions. To be noted that Byzantine chroniclers have described Aromanians as descending from Thracian tribes; one of them being the Bessi.[18]

In total, the main theories regarding the origins of Aromanians describe them as:

It is clear, however, that until the 7th, 8th or 9th centuries AD, Romanians and Aromanians spoke the same eastern variant of the Balkan Vulgar Latin, also known as the Eastern Romance language. Linguists who support the Romanian theory declare that the Aromanian, Meglenian and Istro-Romanian languages are dialects of Proto-Romanian. This term was not accepted by Greek linguists, because it only denoted a form of the Romanian language, and thus supports only the Romanian theory. This in fact puts the other two languages which developed from this form of Vulgar Latin—the Megleno-Romanian and Istro-Romanian languages—in the same position as Aromanian. Some modern Serbian linguists, during former Yugoslavia, believed that the Istro-Romanians migrated to their present region of Istria about 1,000 (or 600) years ago from Transylvania.[19][20]

In reality, in none of the three theories regarding the origin of Aromanians, can the term "Proto-Romanian" be taken to encompass either the Aromanian nor the Meglenian language, because this term only applies to the language spoken by the ancestors of the modern Romanians (Dacians and Getae). However even here, the term Proto-Romanian would be misleading, because Dacians and Getae represented only a part of the Thracian people in the Balkans, (Aromanians and Meglens being descendants of Epirots and Macedonians). So, the correct term to include all Latin languages spoken in Balkans at that time is the term, Balkan Vulgar Latin or Eastern Romance languages.

Religion

The Aromanians are predominantly Orthodox Christians, and follow the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.

History and self-identification

Aromanian shepherd in traditional clothes, photo from the early 1900s, Archive: Manachia Brothers.

The Aromanians or Vlachs first appear in medieval Byzantine sources in the 11th century, in the Strategikon of Kekaumenos and Anna Komnene's Alexiad, in the area of Thessaly.[21] In the 12th century, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela records the existence of the district of "Vlachia" near Halmyros in eastern Thessaly, while the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates places "Great Vlachia" near Meteora. Thessalian Vlachia was apparently also known as "Vlachia in Hellas".[22] Later medieval sources also speak of an "Upper Vlachia" in Epirus, and a "Little Vlachia" in Aetolia-Acarnania, but "Great Vlachia" is no longer mentioned after the late 13th century.[21]

Aromanians within the Balkan nationalisms of the 19th and 20th centuries

A distinct Aromanian consciousness was not developed until the 19th century, and was influenced by the rise of other national movements in the Balkans. Until then, the Aromanians, as Eastern Orthodox Christians, were subsumed with other ethnic groups into the wider ethnoreligious group of the "Romans" (in Greek Rhomaioi, after the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire), which in Ottoman times formed the distinct Rum millet.[23] The Rum millet was headed by the Greek-dominated Patriarchate of Constantinople, and the Greek language was used as a lingua franca among Balkan Orthodox Christians throughout the 17th–19th centuries. As a result, wealthy, urbanized Aromanians were culturally hellenized and played a major role in the dissemination of Greek language and culture; indeed, the first book written in Aromanian was written in the Greek alphabet and aimed at spreading Greek among Aromanian-speakers.[24]

Map showing areas with Romanian schools for Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians in the Ottoman Empire (1886)

By the early 19th century, however, the distinct Latin-derived nature of the Aromanian language began to be studied in a series of grammars and language booklets.[25] In 1815, the Aromanians of Budapest requested permission to use their language in liturgy, but it was turned down by the local metropolitan.[25]

The establishment of a distinct Aromanian national consciousness, however, was hampered by the tendency of the Aromanian upper classes to be absorbed in the dominant surrounding ethnicities, and espouse their respective national causes as their own.[26] So much did they become identified with the host nations that Balkan national historiographies portray the Aromanians as the "best Albanians", "best Greeks" and "best Bulgarians", leading to researchers calling them the "chameleons of the Balkans".[27] Consequently, many Aromanians played a prominent role in the modern history of the Balkan nations: Pitu Guli, also known as "Peter the Vlach" (Macedonian revolutionary), Ioannis Kolettis (Prime minister of Greece), Georgios Averoff (Greek magnate), Evangelos Averoff (Defence Minister of Greece), Nikola Pašić (Prime minister of Serbia), Vladan Đorđević (Prime minister of Serbia), Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople, Andrei Şaguna, (Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan of Transylvania and Romanian patriot), the Ghica family (Wallachian and Moldavian voivodes and Romanian Prime Ministers), etc.

Following the establishment of independent Romania and the autocephaly of the Romanian Orthodox Church in the 1860s, the Aromanians increasingly began to come under the influence of the Romanian national movement. Although vehemently opposed by the Greek church, the Romanians established an extensive state-sponsored cultural and educative network in the southern Balkans: the first Romanian school was established in 1864, and by the early 20th century, there were 100 Romanian churches and 106 schools with 4,000 pupils and 300 teachers.[28] As a result, Aromanians were divided into two main factions, one pro-Greek, the other pro-Romanian; and a smaller focusing exclusively on its Aromanian identity.[23]

With the support of the Great Powers, and especially Austria-Hungary, the "Aromanian-Romanian movement" culminated in the recognition of the Aromanians as a distinct millet (Ullah millet) by the Ottoman Empire on 22 May 1905, with corresponding freedoms of worship and education in their own language.[29] Nevertheless, due to the advanced assimilation of the Aromanians, this came too late to lead to the creation of a distinct Aromanian national identity; indeed, as Gustav Weigand noted in 1897, most Aromanians were not only indifferent, but actively hostile to their own national movement.[30]

At the same time, the Greek–Romanian antagonism over Aromanian loyalties intensified with the armed Macedonian Struggle, leading to the rupture of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 1906. During the Macedonian Struggle, most Aromanians participated on the "patriarchist" (pro-Greek) side, but some sided with the "exarchists" (pro-Bulgarians).[29] However, following the Balkan Wars of 1912–13, Romanian interest waned, and when it revived in the 1920s it was designed more towards encouraging the Romanians' "Macedonian brothers" to emigrate to Southern Dobruja, where there were strong non-Romanian minorities.[30]

While Romanian activity declined, from World War I on and its involvement in Albania, Italy made some efforts—not very successful—in converting pro-Romanian sympathies into pro-Italian ones.[30] In World War II, during the Axis occupation of Greece, Italy encouraged Aromanian nationalists to form an "Aromanian homeland", the so-called Principality of the Pindus. The project never gained much traction among the local population, however. On the contrary, many leading figures of the Greek Resistance against the Axis, like Andreas Tzimas, Stefanos Sarafis, and Alexandros Svolos, were Aromanians. The "principality" project collapsed with the Italian armistice in 1943.

Modern Aromanian identities

The date of the Ottoman irade of 23 May 1905 has been adopted in recent times by Aromanians in Albania, Australia, Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia as the "National Day of the Aromanians", but notably not in Greece or among the Aromanians in the Greek diaspora.[31]

In modern times, Aromanians generally have adopted the dominant national culture, often with a dual identity as both Aromanian and Greek/Albanian/Bulgarian/etc.[32] Aromanians are also found outside the borders of Greece.there re many Aromanians in southern Albania and in towns all over the Balkans,[31] while Aromanians identifying as Romanians are still to be found in areas where Romanian schools were active.[32] There are also many Aromanians who identify themselves as solely Aromanian, even, as in the case of the "Cincars", when they no longer speak the language. Such groups are to be found in southwestern Albania, the eastern parts of the Republic of Macedonia, the Aromanians who immigrated to Romania in 1940, and in Greece in the Veria and Grevena areas and in Athens.[31]

Aromanians today

In Greece

Map of Balkans with regions inhabited by Aromanians in yellow

In Greece, Aromanians are not recognised as an ethnic but as a linguistic minority and, like the Arvanites, have been indistinguishable in many respects from other Greeks since the 19th century.[33][34] Although Greek Aromanians would differentiate themselves from native Greek speakers (Grets) when speaking in Aromanian, most still consider themselves part of the broader Greek nation (Elini, Hellenes), which also encompasses other linguistic minorities such as the Arvanites or the Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia.[35] Greek Aromanians have long been associated with the Greek national state, actively participated in the Greek Struggle for Independence, and have obtained very important positions in government.[36] Aromanians have been very influential in Greek politics, business and the army. Revolutionary Rigas Feraios,[37] Prime Minister Ioannis Kolettis,[38] billionaire and benefactor Evangelos Zappas, Field Marshal and later Prime Minister Alexandros Papagos, and conservative politician Evangelos Averoff[39] were all Vlachs.

It is difficult to estimate the exact number of Aromanians in Greece today. The Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 estimated their number between 150,000 and 200,000, but the last two censuses to differentiate between Christian minority groups, in 1940 and 1951, showed 26,750 and 22,736 Vlachs respectively.[35] Estimates on the number of Aromanians in Greece range between 40,000[3] and 200,000.[40] Aromanian nationalists in Greece put the number as high as 600,000. Thede Kahl estimates the total number of people with Aromanian origin who still understand the language as no more than 300,000, with the number of fluent speakers under 100,000.[35]

The majority of the Aromanian population lives in northern and central Greece; Epirus, Macedonia and Thessaly. The main areas inhabited by these populations are the Pindus Mountains, around the mountains of Olympus and Vermion, and around the Prespa Lakes near the border with Albania and the Republic of Macedonia. Some Aromanians can still be found in isolated rural settlements such as Samarina, Perivoli and Smixi. There are also Aromanians (Vlachs) in towns and cities such as Ioannina, Metsovo, Veria, Katerini, and Thessaloniki.

Generally, the use of the minority languages has been discouraged in Greece,[41] although recently, there have been efforts to preserve the endangered languages (including Aromanian) of Greece.

Since 1994, the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki offers beginners and advanced courses in "Koutsovlach", and cultural festivals with over 40,000 participants—the largest Aromanian cultural gatherings in the world—regularly take place in Metsovo.[42] Nevertheless, there are no exclusively Aromanian newspapers, and the Aromanian language is almost totally absent from television.[42] Indeed, although as of 2002 there were over 200 Vlach cultural associations in Greece, many did not even feature the term "Vlach" in their titles, and only a few are active in preserving the Aromanian language.[42]

In 1997, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe passed a resolution encouraging the Balkan states to take steps to rectify the "critical situation" of Aromanian culture and language.[43] In response, the then President of Greece, Konstantinos Stefanopoulos, publicly urged Greek Aromanians to teach the language to their children.

However, the largest Aromanian group in Greece (and across the world), the Pan-Hellenic Union of Cultural Associations of Vlachs in Greece,[42] has repeatedly rejected the classification of Aromanian as a minority language or the Vlachs as a distinct ethnic group separate from the Greeks, considering the Aromanians as an "integral part of Hellenism".[44][45][46]The Aromanian (Vlach) Cultural Society, which is associated with the fringe figure Sotiris Bletsas, is represented on the Member State Committee of the European Bureau for Lesser Spoken Languages in Greece.[47]

In Albania

Spread of Aromanians in Albania:
  Aromanians are the exclusive population in the settlement
  Aromanians form a majority or a substantial minority in the settlement

There is a large Aromanian community in Albania, which is also called Vlach Community (Albanian: Komuniteti Vllah), specifically in the southern and central regions of the country. Various scholars placed the number of Albanian Aromanians at up to 200,000.[5] There are currently timid attempts to establish education in their native language in the town of Divjaka. The Aromanians, under the name "Vlachs", are a recognized cultural minority in the Albanian law.[48]

For the last years there seems to be a renewal of the former policies of supporting and sponsoring of Romanian schools for Aromanians of Albania. As a recent article in the Romanian media points out, the kindergarten, primary and secondary schools in the Albanian town of Divjaka where the local Albanian Aromanians pupils are taught classes both in Aromanian and Romanian were granted substantial help directly from the Romanian government. The only Aromanian language church in Albania, the 'Schimbarea la fata' of Korçë (Curceau in Aromanian) was given 2 billion lei help from the Romanian government too. They also have a political party named Alliance For Equality and European Justice (ABDE), founded in 2012 by actual leader, Valentino Mustaka. Many of the Albanian Aromanians (Arvanito Vlachs) have immigrated to Greece, since they are considered in Greece part of the Greek minority in Albania.[49]

Notable Aromanians whose family background hailed from today's Albania include bishop Andrei Şaguna, and reverend Llambro Ballamaci, whereas notable Albanians with an Aromanian family background are actors Sandër Prosi, Margarita Xhepa, and Prokop Mima, as well as composer Nikolla Zoraqi.[50] and singers Eli Fara and Parashqevi Simaku.

In Republic of Macedonia

Spread of Aromanians in the Republic of Macedonia:
  Localities where Aromanians are an officially recognised minority group
  Other localities with an Aromanian population
  Areas where Megleno-Romanians are concentrated

According to official government figures (census 2002), there are 9,695 Aromanians or Vlachs, as they are officially called in the Republic of Macedonia. According to the census of 1994 there were 8,467 Vlachs, 6,392 in 1981 and 8,669 in 1953.[51] Aromanians are recognized as an ethnic minority, and are hence represented in Parliament and enjoy ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious rights and the right to education in their language.

They have also received financial support from the Romanian government, which made recognition of the Republic of Macedonia's independence conditional on the extension of minority rights to the Aromanians. There are Aromanian cultural societies and associations such as the Union for Aromanian Culture from the Republic of Macedonia, The Aromanian League of the Republic of Macedonia, The International League of Aromanians, Comuna Armãneascã ("Frats Manachia", The Aromanian Community Manachia Brothers in Bitola), Partia-a Armãnjlor di tu Machedonia (The Party of the Aromanians from the Republic of Macedonia) and Unia Democraticã-a Armãnjlor di tu Machedonia (The Democratic Union of the Aromanians from the Republic of Macedonia).

There are Aromanian classes provided in primary schools and the state funds some Aromanian published works (magazines and books) as well as works that cover Aromanian culture, language and history. The latter is mostly done by the first Aromanian Scientific Society, "Constantin Belemace" in Skopje, which has organized symposiums on Aromanian history and has published papers from them. According to the last census, there were 9,596 Aromanians (0.48% of the total population). There are concentrations in Kruševo 1,020 (20%), Štip 2,074 (4.3%), Bitola 1,270 (1.3%), Struga 656 (1%), Sveti Nikole 238 (1.4%), Kisela Voda 647 (1.1%) and Skopje 2,557 (0.5%).[52]

In Romania

Since the Middle Ages, due to the Turkish occupation and the destruction of their cities, such as Moscopole, Gramoshtea, Linotopi and later on Kruševo, many Aromanians fled their native homelands in the Balkans to settle the Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, which had a similar language and a certain degree of autonomy from the Turks. These immigrant Aromanians were more or less assimilated into the Romanian population.

In 1925, 47 years after Dobruja was incorporated into Romania, King Ferdinand gave the Aromanians land and privileges to settle in this region, which resulted in a significant migration of Aromanians into Romania. Today, the 25% of the population of the region are descendants of Aromanian immigrants (especially from Thessaly, Epirus, Greek Macedonia and Vardar Macedonia).

There are currently between 50,000 and 100,000 Aromanians in Romania, most of which are concentrated in Dobruja. According to the Union for Aromanian Language and Culture there are some 100,000 Aromanians in Romania, and they are often called Makidon. Some Aromanian associations even place the total number of people of Aromanian descent in Romania as high as 250,000. Due to their cultural closeness to ethnic Romanians, most of them do not consider themselves to be a distinct ethnic minority but rather a "cultural minority".

Recently, there has been a growing movement in Romania, both by Aromanians and by Romanian lawmakers, to recognize the Aromanians either as a separate cultural group or as a separate ethnic group, and extend to them the rights of other minorities in Romania, such as mother-tongue education and representatives in parliament.

In Bulgaria

Most of the Aromanians in the Sofia region are descendants of Macedonia and northern Greek emigrants who arrived between 1850 and 1914.[53]

In Bulgaria most Aromanians were concentrated in the region south-west of Sofia, in the region called Pirin, formerly part of the Ottoman Empire until 1913. Due to this reason, a large number of these Aromanians moved to Southern Dobruja, part of the Kingdom of Romania after the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913. After the reinclusion of Southern Dobruja in Bulgaria with the Treaty of Craiova of 1940, most moved to Northern Dobruja. Another group moved to northern Greece. Nowadays, the largest group of Aromanians in Bulgaria is found in the southern mountainous area, around Peshtera. Most Aromanians in Bulgaria originate from Gramos Mountains, with some from Macedonia, Pindus Mountains and Moscopole.[54]

After the fall of communism in 1989, Aromanians, Romanians and Vlachs have started initiatives to organize themselves under one common association.[55][56][57]

According to the 1926 official census, there were: 69,080 Romanians, 5,324 Aromanians, 3,777 Cutzovlachs, and 1,551 Tsintsars.

According to the 2001 census, there are 1,088 Romanians and 10,566 Vlachs in Bulgaria.[58] The last figure includes Romanian and Aromanian speakers.

In Serbia

The Aromanians, known as Cincari (Цинцари), migrated to Serbia in the 18th and early 19th centuries. They most often were bilingual in Greek, and were often called "Greeks" (Grci). They were influential in the forming of Serbian statehood, having contributed with rebel fighters, merchants, and educated people. Many Greek-Aromanians (Грко-Цинцари) came to Serbia with Alija Gušanac as krdžalije, mercenaries, and did later join the Serbian Revolution (1804–17). Some of the notable rebels include Konda Bimbaša and Papazogli.[59] Among the notable people of Aromanian descent are playwright Jovan Sterija Popović (1806–1856), novelist Branislav Nušić (1864–1938), and politician Vladan Đorđević (1844–1930).

The majority of Serbian people of Aromanian descent do not speak Aromanian and espouse a Serb identity. They live in Niš, Belgrade and some smaller communities of Southern Serbia. A small Aromanian settlement is situated in Knjaževac. An Aromanian association named "Lunjina" was founded in Belgrade in 1991. According to the 2011 census, there were 243 Serbian citizens that identified as Cincari.[60]

Diaspora

Aside from the Balkan countries, there are also communities and groups of Aromanian emigrants living in the United States, Canada, France and Germany. Freiburg, Germany has one of the most important Aromanian organisations, the 'Union for Culture and Language of the Aromanians', and one of the largest libraries in the Aromanian language. In the United States, 'The Society Fãrshãrotul' is one of the oldest and most-known associations of Aromanians, founded in 1903 by Nicolae Cican, an Aromanian native of Albania. In France, the Aromanians are grouped in the 'Trã Armãnami' cultural association. Aromanians may have settled in Turkey due to the influence of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. However, there are a small number of any Aromanians living in Turkey.

Genetic studies

Y-DNA haplogroups[61]
Sample population Sample size R1b R1a I E1b1b E1b1a J G N T L
Aromanians from Dukasi, Albania[61] 39 2.6 2.6 17.9 17.9 0.0 48.7 10.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
Aromanians from Andon Poci, Albania[61] 19 36.8 0.0 42.1 15.8 0.0 5.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Aromanians from Kruševo, Macedonia[61] 43 27.9 11.6 20.9 20.9 0.0 11.6 7.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Aromanians from Štip, Macedonia[61] 65 23.1 21.5 16.9 18.5 0.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Aromanians in Romania[61] 42 23.8 2.4 19.0 7.1 0.0 33.3 0.0 — — —

See also

References and footnotes

  1. ↑ "Eurominority - Aromanians - Stateless Nations, national, cultural and linguistic minorities, native peoples, ethnic groups in Europe". Eurominority.eu. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  2. ↑ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Recommendation 1333(1997)". Assembly.coe.int. 1997-06-24. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  3. 1 2 According to INTEREG - quoted by Eurominority: Aromanians in Greece
  4. ↑ "Albanian census 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  5. 1 2 Arno Tanner. The forgotten minorities of Eastern Europe: the history and today of selected ethnic groups in five countries. East-West Books, 2004 ISBN 978-952-91-6808-8, p. 218: "In Albania, Vlachs are estimated to number as many as 200,000"
  6. ↑ Joshua Project. "Country - Romania". Joshua Project. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  7. ↑ "Macedonia census 2002" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  8. ↑ "2011 Bulgaria Census". Censusresults.nsi.bg. 2011. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  9. ↑ "Ethnologue". Ethnologue. 1999-02-19. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  10. ↑ http://media.popis2011.stat.rs/2012/Etnicke%20zajednice%20sa%20manje%20od%20%202000%20pripadnika%20i%20dvojako%20izjasnjeni.pdf
  11. 1 2 Kahl 2002, p. 145.
  12. ↑ "Vlach".
  13. ↑ According to Encyclopædia Britannica
  14. ↑ James Minahan (1 January 2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A-C. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 175–. ISBN 978-0-313-32109-2. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
  15. ↑ cf. Marko Cepenkov
  16. ↑ Winnifrith T.J. The Vlachs: The history of a Balkan people, St. Matin's Press, N. York, p. 35, footnote 11.: "P. Neiescu, "Recherches dialectales" ... Describing the position before the war, Tamas locates the Vlachs in four main areas, ... those near Frasher, shepherds living in nine villages ..."
  17. ↑ Katsanis N.A. & Dinas K.D. The Vlachs of Greece. Ch. 6. The names of the Vlachs. In Greek language: "Στην Αλβανία υπάρχουν οι Φρασαριώτες Βλάχοι (από την περιοχή Φράσαρι) γνωστοί και ως Αρβανιτόβλαχοι, οι περισσότεροι από τους οποίους είναι Ελληνόβλαχοι βορειοηπειρώτες που κατά καιρούς, λόγω των ιστορικών συνθηκών, εγκαθίστανται στον ελληνικό χώρο."
    N.A. Katsanis is Associate Professor of Philology at the University of Thessalonike. K.D. Dinas is Associate Professor of Linguistics at the Univ. of West Macedonia, Greece.
  18. ↑ Curta, Florin and Stephenson, Paul. Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250. Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-521-81539-8
  19. ↑ "Istro-Romanian Community Worldwide, a site created by Istro-Romanians". Istro-romanian.com. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  20. ↑ Bogdan Banu (2002-01-05). "Istro-Romanians of Croatia". Istro-romanian.net. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  21. 1 2 ODB, "Vlachs" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 2183–2184.
  22. ↑ ODB, "Vlachia" (A. Kazhdan), p. 2183.
  23. 1 2 Kahl 2002, p. 146.
  24. ↑ Kahl 2002, pp. 146–147.
  25. 1 2 Kahl 2002, p. 147.
  26. ↑ Kahl 2002, pp. 149–150.
  27. ↑ Kahl 2002, p. 150.
  28. ↑ Kahl 2002, pp. 147–148.
  29. 1 2 Kahl 2002, p. 148.
  30. 1 2 3 Kahl 2002, p. 149.
  31. 1 2 3 Kahl 2002, p. 151.
  32. 1 2 Kahl 2002, p. 152.
  33. ↑ Elisabeth Kontogiorgi, Population exchange in Greek Macedonia the rural settlement of refugees 1922-1930, page 22
  34. ↑ Viktor Meier. Yugoslavia: a history of its demise. Routledge, 1999 ISBN 978-0-415-18596-7, p. 184: "The problem of the linguistic minorities in Greece is a complex one. ... They both consider themselves Greeks."
  35. 1 2 3 Kahl 2002, p. 153.
  36. ↑ John S. Koliopoulos, Plundered loyalties Axis occupation in Greek West Macedonia 1941-1949, pages 81-85
  37. ↑ Artemis Leontis (2009). Culture and customs of Greece. Greenwood Press. p. 13.
  38. ↑ Merry, Bruce (2004). Encyclopedia of modern Greek literature. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 163.
  39. ↑ Brown, James F. (2001). The grooves of change: Eastern Europe at the turn of the millennium. Duke University Press. p. 261.
  40. ↑ Ahttp://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=GR
  41. ↑ Greek Monitor of Human and Minority Rights vol I. No 3 December 1995
  42. 1 2 3 4 Kahl 2002, p. 155.
  43. ↑ "RECOMMENDATION 1333 (1997) on the Aromanian culture and language". 1997. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  44. ↑ Έκδοση ψηφίσματος διαμαρτυρίας κατά του Στέτ Ντιπαρτμεντ (in Greek). 28 February 2001. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  45. ↑ "Έκδοση Δελτίου Τύπου για την διοργάνωση του Συνεδρίου του Ελληνικού παραρτήματος της μη κυβερνητικής οργάνωσης του Ε.Β.L.U.L., στη Θεσσαλονίκη" (in Greek). 14 November 2002. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  46. ↑ "Έκδοση ψηφίσματος διαμαρτυρίας κατά της έκθεσης της Αμερικανικής οργάνωσης Freedom House" (in Greek). 18 August 2003. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  47. ↑ "Learn a Foreign Language". eblul.org.
  48. ↑ "Aromanians in Albania" (PDF). Ecmi.de. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  49. ↑ Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers. The Albanian Aromanians´ Awakening: Identity Politics and Conflicts in Post-Communist Albania, p. 12-13.
  50. ↑ Collaku, Robert (July–August 2011). "Fratia (Vellazeria)". Calendaru 2011. Arumunet e Shqiperise. p. 2.
  51. ↑ The Vlachs of Macedonia, Tom J. Winnifrith.
  52. ↑ http://www.stat.gov.mk/pdf/kniga_13.pdf
  53. ↑ Conseil de l'Europe. Assemblée parlementaire. Session ordinaire (1997). Documents de séance. Council of Europe. p. xxi. ISBN 978-92-871-3239-0.
  54. ↑ "Армъните в България ("The Aromanians in Bulgaria")" (in Bulgarian). Архитектурно-етнографски комплекс "Етър" - Габрово. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
  55. ↑ "Ministerul Afacerilor Externe". MAE.ro. 2014-07-23. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  56. ↑ Archived September 5, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
  57. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20071007143801/http://www.rgnpress.ro/index2.php?option=content&task=view&id=707&pop=1&page=0. Archived from the original on October 7, 2007. Retrieved May 17, 2006. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  58. ↑ http://www.nsi.bg/Census/Ethnos.htm
  59. ↑ Mitološki zbornik 7–8. Centar za mitološki studije Srbije. 2002. p. 35. Многи Грко-Цинцари су дошли у Србију са Гушанцем као крхалије, па су касније пришли устаницима. У ову групу спадају Конда и Папазоглија. У Гушанчевој војсци Конда је био буљубаша, све до 1806. године, када су устаници ...
  60. ↑ Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011. у Републици Србији: Становништво према националној припадности - „Oстали“ етничке заједнице са мање од 2000 припадника и двојако изјашњени
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