Istishhad

Istishhad (Arabic: استشهاد‎) is the Arabic word for "martyrdom", "death of a martyr", or "heroic death".[1] In recent years the term has been said to "emphasize... heroism in the act of sacrifice" rather than "victimization", and has "developed...into a military and political strategy", often called "martyrdom operations".[2] One who martyrs themselves is given the honorific shahid.

Since the 1980s militant Islamists have challenged the traditional Islamic rules of warfare in an attempt to justify suicide attacks despite clear contradictions to established Islamic laws.

History

Muslim Acehnese from the Aceh Sultanate performed suicide attacks known as Parang-sabil against Dutch invaders during the Aceh War. It was considered as part of personal jihad in the Islamic religion of the Acehnese. The Dutch called it Atjèh-moord,[3][4] (Acehmord, Aceh mord, Aceh-mord) or (Aceh Pungo). The Acehnese work of literature, the Hikayat Perang Sabil provided the background and reasoning for the "Aceh-mord"- Acehnese suicide attacks upon the Dutch, .[5][6][7] The Indonesian translations of the Dutch terms are Aceh bodoh (Aceh pungo) or Aceh gila (Aceh mord).[8]

Atjèh-moord was also used against the Japanese by the Acehnese during the Japanese occupation of Aceh.[9] The Acehnese Ulama (Islamic clerics) fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Religious Scholars' Association ( PUSA). The Japanese suffered 18 dead in the uprising while they slaughtered up to 100 or over 120 Acehnese.[10][11] The revolt happened in Bayu and was centred around Tjot Plieng village's religious school.[12][13][14][15] During the revolt, the Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were charged by sword wielding Acehnese under Teungku Abduldjalil (Tengku Abdul Djalil) in Buloh Gampong Teungah and Tjot Plieng on 10 and 13 November.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22] In May 1945 the Acehnese rebelled again.[23]

The original Jawi script Acehnese language work Hikayat Perang Sabil (w:ace:Hikayat Prang Sabi, w:id:Hikayat Prang Sabi) has been transliterated into the Latin alphabet and annotated by Ibrahim Alfian (Teuku.) published in Jakarta.[24] Perang sabi was the Acehnese word for jihad, a holy war and Acehnese language literary works on perang sabi were distributed by Islamic clerics ('ulama) such as Teungku di Tiro to help the resistance against the Dutch in the Aceh War.[25] The recompense awarded by in paradise detailed in Islamic Arabic texts and Dutch atrocities were expounded on in the Hikayat Perang Sabil which was communally read by small cabals of Ulama and Acehnese who swore an oath before going to achieve the desired status of "martyr" by launching suicide attacks on the Dutch.[26] Perang sabil was the Malay equivalent to other terms like Jihad, Ghazawat for "Holy war", the text was also spelled "Hikayat perang sabi".[27] Fiction novels like Sayf Muhammad Isa's Sabil: Prahara di Bumi Rencong on the war by Aceh against the Dutch include references ro Hikayat Perang Sabil.[28] Mualimbunsu Syam Muhammad wrote the work called "Motives for Perang Sabil in Nusantara", Motivasi perang sabil di Nusantara: kajian kitab Ramalan Joyoboyo, Dalailul-Khairat, dan Hikayat Perang Sabil on Indonesia's history of Islamic holy war (Jihad).[29] Children and women were inspired to do suicide attacks by the Hikayat Perang Sabil against the Dutch.[5] Hikayat Perang Sabil is also known as "Hikayat Prang Sabi.[30] Hikayat Perang Sabil is considered as part of 19th century Malay literature.[31] In Dutch occupied Aceh, Hikayat Perang Sabil was confiscated from Sabi's house during a Police raid on September 27, 1917.[32][33][34]

In the Philippines the Moro Muslims are reported to have engaged in suicide attacks against enemies as early as the 16th century. Those who performed suicide attacks were called mag-sabil, and the suicide attacks were known as Parang-sabil. The Spanish called them juramentado. The idea of the juramentado was considered part of jihad in the Moros' Islamic religion. During an attack, a Juramentado would throw himself at his targets and kill them with bladed weapons such as barongs and kris until he himself was killed. The Moros performed juramentado suicide attacks against the Spanish in the Spanish–Moro conflict of the 16th to the 19th centuries, against the Americans in the Moro Rebellion (1899–1913), and against the Japanese in World War II.[35] The Moro Juramentados aimed their attacks specifically against their enemies, and not against non-Muslims in general. They launched suicide attacks on the Japanese, Spanish, Americans and Filipinos, but did not attack the non-Muslim Chinese as the Chinese were not considered enemies of the Moro people.[36][37][38][39][40] The Japanese responded to these suicide attacks by massacring all the relatives of the attacker.[41]

The origins of modern Istishhadi attacks lie among the Shia in Iran during the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988. Mohammed Hossein Fahmideh, a 13-year-old boy who fought in the war, is said to be the first Muslim to have participated in such an attack in contemporary history. He strapped rocket-propelled grenades to his chest and blew himself up under an Iraqi tank in November 1980. Ayatollah Khomeini declared Fahmideh a national hero and inspiration for further volunteers for martyrdom.[42][43] Other Iranian basij volunteers ran through minefields to detonate buried landmines and clear a safe battlefield path for following soldiers.

Shia usually refer to the martyrdom of Hussain ibn Ali and his companions and family members in the Battle of Karbala as role models and inspiration for martyrdom as a glorious and noble death.

When the Palestinian Islamist group Hamas first carried out suicide attacks – involved strapping the body of the mission carrier with explosives – in the Israeli-inhabited towns of Afula and Khidara in the spring of 1994, it "described these operations as `amaliyat istishhadiya (martyrdom operations)" rather than the more secular a'maliyat fida'iyah (self-sacrifice operations). The term 'amaliyat istishhadiya has caught on and "today, istishhad is the most frequently used term to refer to acts of sacrifice in the Palestinian resistance and is used by Islamic, secular, and Marxist groups alike".[2]

According to one scholar, Noah Feldman: "The vocabulary of martyrdom and sacrifice, the formal videotaped preconfession of faith, the technological tinkering to increase deadliness—all are now instantly recognizable to every Muslim." Feldman sees a worrying trend in the steady expansion of the targets of Istishhad since its debut in 1983 when successful bombing of barracks and embassy buildings drove the U.S. military out of Lebanon.

First the targets were American soldiers, then mostly Israelis, including women and children. From Lebanon and Israel, the technique of suicide bombing moved to Iraq, where the targets have included mosques and shrines, and the intended victims have mostly been Shiite Iraqis. The newest testing ground is Afghanistan, where both the perpetrators and the targets are orthodox Sunni Muslims. Not long ago, a bombing in Lashkar Gah, the capital of Helmand Province, killed Muslims, including women, who were applying to go on pilgrimage to Mecca. Overall, the trend is definitively in the direction of Muslim-on-Muslim violence. By a conservative accounting, more than three times as many Iraqis have been killed by suicide bombings in the last 3 years as have Israelis in the last 10. Suicide bombing has become the archetype of Muslim violence—not just to frightened Westerners but also to Muslims themselves.[44]
General Statistics for
suicide attacks in 22 conflicts[Note 1]
from 1982 to late 2015[45]
total attacks total deaths total wounded
4421 43796 112003

Martyrdom operation

See also: Martyrdom video

Militant groups term attacks on military or civilian targets in which the attacker is expected to die, most frequently by detonation of a bomb, as "martyrdom operations". The term is usually used by Muslim militants, although non-Muslim groups, such as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, have also engaged in suicide attacks. Islamist militants prefer the term "martyrdom operation" to "suicide attack", as suicide is forbidden under classical Islamic law. While combat inherently involves a risk of death, a "martyrdom operation" implies a deliberate act leading to death as part of the attack.

Acts of istishhad are governed by Islamic legal rules associated with armed warfare or military jihad. The rules governing jihad, literally meaning struggle but often called "holy war" by non-Muslims, are covered in exquisite detail in the classical texts of Islamic jurisprudence.[44] In orthodox Islamic law, jihad is a collective religious obligation on the Muslim community, when the community is endangered or Muslims are subjected to oppression and subjugation. The rules governing such conflicts include not killing women, children or non-combatants, and leaving cultivated or residential areas undamaged.[44][46][47]

For more than a millennium, these tenets were accepted by Sunnis and Shiites; however, since the 1980s militant Islamists have challenged the traditional Islamic rules of warfare in an attempt to justify suicide attacks despite clear contradictions to established Islamic laws.[44][46]

Scholarship

Some Western and Muslim scholars of Islam find suicide attacks to be a clear violation of classical Islamic law. Nevertheless, the militant groups that carry out "martyrdom operations" believe that their actions fulfill the obligation of jihad, and some clerics support this view.

Against suicide attacks

Suicide bombings as acts of terrorism have spurred some Muslims to provide scholastic refutations of suicide bombings and to condemn them. For example, Ihsanic Intelligence, a London-based Islamic think tank, published a study on suicide bombings that concluded, "suicide bombing is anathema, antithetical and abhorrent to Sunni Islam. It is considered legally forbidden, constituting a reprehensible innovation in the Islamic tradition, morally an enormity of sin combining suicide and murder and theologically an act which has consequences of eternal damnation".[48]

Oxford-based Malaysian jurist Shaykh Afifi al-Akiti, issued his fatwa forbidding suicide bombing and targeting innocent civilians: "If the attack involves a bomb placed on the body or placed so close to the bomber that when the bomber detonates it the bomber is certain [yaqin] to die, then the More Correct Position according to us is that it does constitute suicide. This is because the bomber, being also the Maqtul [the one killed], is unquestionably the same Qatil [the immediate/active agent that kills] = Qatil Nafsahu [killing oneself, i.e., suicide]."[49]

In January 2006, a Shiite marja cleric, Ayatollah al-Udhma Yousof al-Sanei decreed a fatwa against suicide bombing declaring it as a "terrorist act" and the Saudi grand mufti as well as other Sunni scholars similarly denounced suicide attacks regardless of their offensive or defensive characterization.[44][50][51]

Scholar Bernard Lewis states, "At no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism. Nor indeed is there any evidence of the use of terrorism as it is practiced nowadays".[46] Similarly, Noah Feldman writes that the Islamic reasoning of suicide attackers is not convincing as martyrdom in Islam typically refers to another person killing a Muslim warrior, not the warrior pushing "the button himself". In addition, "The killing of women and children has proved harder to explain away as a permissible exercise of jihad." This "illustrates the nature of the difficulty of reconciling suicide bombing with Islamic law".[44]

As Charles Kimball, the University of Oklahoma's Director of Religious Studies, pointed out that Islam "clearly prohibits suicide" by citing "the hadith materials, which are the authoritative sayings and actions of the prophet, Muhammad, includes many unambiguous statements about suicide: one who 'throws himself off a mountain' or 'drinks poison' or 'kills himself with a sharp instrument' will be in the fire of Hell. Suicide is not allowed even to those in extreme conditions such as painful illness or a serious wound".[52] Other Islamic groups such as the European Council for Fatwa and Research cite the Quran'ic verse Al-An'am 6:151 as a prohibition against suicide: "And take not life, which Allah has made sacred, except by way of justice and law".[53] Dr. Hassan Ali El-Najjar says that the hadith unambiguously forbid suicide.[54]

Proponents of suicide operations

The blue text at top of this mural in Tehran, Iran, honoring Hezbollah suicide bombers says "luminaries of istishhad".

Islamist militant organisations (including Al-Qaeda, Hamas and Islamic Jihad) continue to argue that suicide operations are justified according to Islamic law, despite Islam's strict prohibition of suicide and murder.[55][56] Irshad Manji, in a conversation with one leader of Islamic Jihad noted their ideology.

"What's the difference between suicide, which the Koran condemns, and martyrdom?" I asked. "Suicide," he replied, "is done out of despair. But remember: most of our martyrs today were very successful in their earthly lives." In short, there was a future to live for—and they detonated it anyway.

Another rationale provided for why istishhad is not against Islamic law is that the civilians caught in the crossfire "were destined to die". The Saudi exile Muhammad al-Massari explains that any civilian killed in an attack on the enemy "won't suffer [but instead]…becomes a martyr himself".[57] During the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah war, Hezbollah secretary-general Hassan Nasrallah apologized for an attack on Nazareth that killed two Israeli-Arab children—but said the two children should be considered "martyrs".[58][59]

Further justifications have been given by Iranian cleric Ayatollah Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi, "when protecting Islam and the Muslim community depends on martyrdom operations, it not only is allowed, but even is an obligation as many of the Shi'ah great scholars and Maraje', including Ayatullah Safi Golpayegani and Ayatullah Fazel Lankarani, have clearly announced in their fatwas".[60] Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini of Iran showered those who performed martyrdom operations during the Iran–Iraq War and against Israel with accolades. Indeed, Sayyed Abbas al-Musawi, the second Secretary General of Hezbollah and student of Khomeini, created a supplication that became popular among the Hezbollah youths and fighters.[61]

Other clerics have supported suicide attacks largely in connection with the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Sunni cleric Yusuf al-Qaradawi has supported such attacks by Palestinians in perceived defense of their homeland as heroic and an act of resistance.[62] Shiite Lebanese cleric Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, the spiritual authority recognized by Hezbollah, is reported to have similar views.[44]

After the 7 July 2005 London bombings, journalist Mona Eltahawy published an op-ed in the Washington Post noting the fact that there were "22 imams and scholars who met at London's largest mosque to condemn the bombings but who would not criticize all suicide attacks", such as Sayed Mohammed Musawi, the head of the World Islamic League, who said "there should be a clear distinction between the suicide bombing of those who are trying to defend themselves from occupiers, which is something different from those who kill civilians, which is a big crime".[63] After the knighting of Salman Rushdie in June 2007, Pakistan's acting Minister of Religious Affairs Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq publicly justified and called for a suicide attack against him.[64]

There have been conflicting reports about the stances of Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy (who was then the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar- he is now deceased) and Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb (who was then the Grand Mufti of Egypt and is now the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar). Shortly after the September 11 attacks Sheikh Tantawy issued a statement opposing suicide attacks.[65] However, a translation from Al Azhar website quotes him as supporting suicide attacks on Jews in Israel as part of the Palestinian struggle "to strike horror into the hearts of the enemies of Islam".[66] Yet, in 2003 he was quoted again as saying "groups which carried out suicide bombings were the enemies of Islam", and that all suicide attacks were sinful including those against Israelis. His comments condemning all suicide attacks were echoed by Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad and Lebanese cleric Husam Qaraqirah.[67]

Public opinion

In addition to the views of Muslim scholars, conflicting viewpoints are apparent among the public in Muslim-majority countries. As a reporter for The Guardian notes in an article written during the second intifada in August 2001, the Muslim world celebrates "martyr-bombers" as heroes defending the things held sacred. Polls in the Middle East at that time show that 75% of people were in favor of martyr-bombings.[68]

However, the Pew Research Center has found decreases in Muslim support for suicide attacks. In 2011 surveys, less than 15% of Pakistanis, Jordanians, Turks, and Indonesians thought that suicide bombings were sometimes/often justified. Approximately 28% of Egyptians and 35% of Lebanese felt that suicide bombings were sometimes/often justified. However, 68% of Palestinians reported that suicide attacks were sometimes/often justified.[69] In 2013, Pew found that "clear majorities of Muslims oppose violence in the name of Islam"; 89% in Pakistan, 81% in Indonesia, 78% in Nigeria, and 77% in Tunisia said that "suicide bombings or other acts of violence that target civilians are never justified".[70]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Year:1982–2015. Campaign: Afghan Rebels vs. U.S. & Allies, Al Qaeda vs. U.S. & Allies, Al-Qaida in Islamic North Africa, Chechen Separatists vs. Russia, Egyptian Rebels, Hezbollah vs. Israel, Hezbollah vs. U.S. & France, Indonesian Rebels vs. Indonesian Government & Allies, Iraqi Rebels vs. Iraqi Government & Allies, Iraqi Rebels vs. U.S. & Allies, Jundullah vs. Iran, Kashmiri Rebels vs. India, Libyan Rebels, Pakistani Rebels vs. Pakistan & U.S. Allies, Palestinian Resistance vs. Israel, Rebels vs. Nigeria & Allies, Rebels vs. Saudi Arabia, Rebels vs. Syria & Allies, Rebels vs. Yemen, Somali Rebels vs. Ethiopia & Allies, Uzbek Rebels vs. U.S., Xinjiang Rebels vs. Chinese Government

References

  1. ↑ Hans Wehr, Arabic-English dictionary: The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 4th edition, ed. J Milton Cowan, Urbana, IL: Spoken Language Services, Inc., 1994, p. 572
  2. 1 2 Neil L. Whitehead and Nasser Abufarha, "Suicide, violence, and cultural conceptions of martyrdom in Palestine", Social Research, Summer 2008
  3. ↑ Atjeh. Brill Archive. 1878. pp. 613–. GGKEY:JD7T75Q7T5G.
  4. ↑ J. Kreemer (1923). Atjèh: algemeen samenvattend overzicht van land en volk van Atjèh en onderhoorigheden. E.J. Brill. p. 613.
  5. 1 2 John Braithwaite; Valerie Braithwaite; Michael Cookson; Leah Dunn (2010). Anomie and Violence: Non-truth and Reconciliation in Indonesian Peacebuilding. ANU E Press. pp. 347–. ISBN 978-1-921666-23-0.
  6. ↑ http://press.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/ch0617.pdf
  7. ↑ http://www.academia.edu/18313161/Anomie_and_Violence_Non-Truth_and_Reconciliation_in_Indonesian_Peacebuilding
  8. ↑ Sayed Mudhahar Ahmad; Aceh Selatan (Indonesia) (1992). Ketika pala mulai berbunga: seraut wajah Aceh Selatan. Pemda Aceh Selatan. p. 131.
  9. ↑ A. J. Piekaar (1949). Atjèh en de oorlog met Japan. W. van Hoeve. p. 3.
  10. ↑ Ricklefs 2001, p. 252.
  11. ↑ Martinkus 2004, p. 47.
  12. ↑ "Tempo: Indonesia's Weekly News Magazine, Volume 3, Issues 43–52" 2003, p. 27.
  13. ↑ http://www.atjehcyber.net/2011/08/sejarah-jejak-perlawanan-aceh.html
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  15. ↑ Pepatah Lama Di Aceh Utara
  16. ↑ "Berita Kadjian Sumatera: Sumatra Research Bulletin, Volumes 1–4" 1971, p. 35.
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  18. ↑ "Sedjarah Iahirnja Tentara Nasional Indonesia" 1970, p. 12.
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  20. ↑ "Sedjarah TNI-Angkatan Darat, 1945–1965. [Tjet. 1.]" 1965, p. 8.
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  22. ↑ Atjeh Post, Minggu Ke III September 1990. halaman I & Atjeh Post, Minggu Ke IV September 1990 halaman I
  23. ↑ Jong 2000, p. 189.
  24. ↑ Ibrahim Alfian (Teuku.) (1992). Sastra perang: sebuah pembicaraan mengenai Hikayat Perang Sabil. PT Balai Pustaka. ISBN 978-979-407-422-0.
  25. ↑ Keat Gin Ooi (1 January 2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
  26. ↑ Anthony Reid (17 March 2014). The Blood of the People: Revolution and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra. NUS Press. pp. 10–. ISBN 978-9971-69-637-5.
  27. ↑ Vladimir Braginsky (19 October 2015). The Turkic-Turkish Theme in Traditional Malay Literature: Imagining the Other to Empower the Self. BRILL. pp. 291–. ISBN 978-90-04-30594-6.
  28. ↑ Sayf Muhammad Isa (8 October 2014). Sabil: Prahara di Bumi Rencong. Qanita. GGKEY:EZ5D51UPWRR.
  29. ↑ Mualimbunsu Syam Muhammad (2013). Motivasi perang sabil di Nusantara: kajian kitab Ramalan Joyoboyo, Dalailul-Khairat, dan Hikayat Perang Sabil. Media Madania. ISBN 978-602-19227-2-9.
  30. ↑ Jelani Harun. Jalan ke Taman: Esei-esei Penghargaan untuk Profesor Ali Ahmad (Penerbit USM). Penerbit USM. pp. 68–. ISBN 978-983-861-671-3.
  31. ↑ Siti Hawa Hj. Salleh (2010). Malay Literature of the 19th Century. ITBM. pp. 366–. ISBN 978-983-068-517-5.
  32. ↑ Akademika. Jawatankuasa Penerbitan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 1972. pp. 98, 100, 102.
  33. ↑ Ibrahim Alfian (Teuku.) (1987). Perang di Jalan Allah: Perang Aceh, 1873–1912. Pustaka Sinar Harapan. p. 130.
  34. ↑ http://www.acehbooks.org/pdf/ACEH_02603.pdf
  35. ↑ Federspiel, Howard M. (2007). Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia (illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 125. ISBN 0-8248-3052-0. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
  36. ↑ Roces, Alfredo R. Filipino Heritage: The Spanish Colonial period (Late 19th Century): The awakening. Volume 7 of Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation, Alfredo R. Roces. Lahing Pilipino Publishing. p. 1702. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
  37. ↑ Roces, Alfredo R. (1978). Filipino Heritage: The Spanish colonial period (late 19th century). Volume 7 of Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation. Lahing (Manila). p. 1702. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
  38. ↑ Filipinas, Volume 11, Issues 117–128. Filipinas Pub. 2002. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
  39. ↑ Gowing, Peter G., ed. (1988). Understanding Islam and Muslims in the Philippines (illustrated ed.). New Day Publishers. p. 56. ISBN 9711003864. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
  40. ↑ Kiefer, Th. M. (January 1, 1973). "Parrang Sabbil: Ritual suicide among the Tausug of Jolo". Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde/Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 129 (1): 111. doi:10.1163/22134379-90002734.
  41. ↑ Midnight on Mindanao: Wartime Remembances 1945–1946. iUniverse. 2008. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0-595-63260-2. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
  42. ↑ Our leader: Mohammed Hossein Fahmideh
  43. ↑ "The making of a suicide bomber". The Times (London). September 3, 2006. Retrieved May 5, 2010.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Noah Feldman, "Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age", New York Times, October 29, 2006
  45. ↑ Connect to the Suicide Attack Database
  46. 1 2 3 Bernard Lewis and Buntzie Ellis Churchill, Islam: The Religion and the People, Wharton School Publishing, 2008, pp. 145–153
  47. ↑ Muhammad Hamidullah, The Muslim Conduct of State (Ashraf Printing Press 1987): pp. 205–208
  48. ↑ "The Hijacked Caravan: Refuting Suicide Bombings as Martyrdom Operations in Contemporary Jihad Strategy", Ihsanic Intelligence
  49. ↑ Shaykh Afifi al-Akiti, "Defending The Transgressed By Censuring The Reckless Against The Killing Of Civilians"
  50. ↑ "Interview with Christiane Amanpour", CNN, February 2007
  51. ↑ Terrorism and Suicide bombings
  52. ↑ Burek, Josh (October 4, 2001). "Q&A: Islamic fundamentalism". Christian Science Monitor.
  53. ↑ "Euthanasia: Types and Rulings"
  54. ↑ "Committing Suicide Is Strictly Forbidden in Islam"
  55. ↑ "The Islamic Ruling on the Permissibility of Martyrdom Operations"
  56. ↑ "Fatwa of Sheikh Yousef Al-Qaradhawi"
  57. ↑ The New York Times, June 10, 2007
  58. ↑ Al-Manar (Beirut), July 20, 2006
  59. ↑ Irwin J. Mansdorf and Mordechai Kedar, "The Psychological Asymmetry of Islamist Warfare", Middle East Quarterly, Spring 2008, pp. 37–44
  60. ↑ Ayatollah Mesbah Yazdi. "Martyrdom Operations". Ayatollah Mesbah Yazdi.
  61. ↑ The Islamic Counterterrorism Center (2008). "The Supplication of the Second Secretary General of 'Hezbollah'". Arcs Network.
  62. ↑ David Bukay, From Muhammad to Bin Laden: Religious and Ideological Sources of the Homicide Bombers Phenomenon, 2011.
  63. ↑ Mona Eltahawy, "After London, Tough Questions for Muslims", Washington Post, 22 July 2005.
  64. ↑ "Rushdie knighthood 'justifies suicide attacks'", The Guardian, 18 June 2007.
  65. ↑ Frank Gardner, "Grand Sheikh condemns suicide bombings", BBC, 4 December 2001.
  66. ↑ lailatalqadr.com, April 4, 2002.
  67. ↑ "Cleric condemns suicide attacks", BBC, 11 July 2003.
  68. ↑ Bodi, Faisal (August 28, 2001). "Bombing for God". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2006-07-19. -
  69. ↑ "Chapter 4. Views of Extremist Groups and Suicide Bombing". Arab Spring Fails to Improve U.S. Image: Obama’s Challenge in the Muslim World. Pew Research Center. 17 May 2011. pp. 30–31.
  70. ↑ "Muslim Publics Share Concerns about Extremist Groups: Much Diminished Support for Suicide Bombing". Pew Research Center. 10 September 2013.

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