Mennonite

Mennonite
Total population
2,100,000[1]
Founder
Peaceful Anabaptists
Regions with significant populations
Africa 35%
North America 32%
Asia and Pacific 20%
Latin America and Caribbean 10%
Europe 3%
Religions
Anabaptist
Scriptures
The Bible

The Mennonites are Christian groups belonging to the church communities of Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons (1496–1561) of Friesland in what is now the Netherlands. Through his writings, Simons articulated and formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders. The early teachings of the Mennonites were founded on the belief in both the mission and ministry of Jesus, which the original Anabaptist followers held to with great conviction despite persecution by the various Roman Catholic and Protestant states. Rather than fight, the majority of these followers survived by fleeing to neighboring states where ruling families were tolerant of their radical belief in believer's baptism. Over the years, Mennonites have become known as one of the historic peace churches because of their commitment to pacifism.[2]

In contemporary 21st-century society, Mennonites either are described only as a religious denomination with members of different ethnic origins[3][4] or as both an ethnic group and a religious denomination. There is controversy among Mennonites about this issue, with some insisting that they are simply a religious group while others argue that they form a distinct ethnic group.[5] Some historians and sociologists treat Mennonites as an ethno-religious group,[6] while other historians challenge that perception.[7] There is also a discussion about the term "ethnic Mennonite". Conservative Mennonite groups, who speak Pennsylvania German, Plautdietsch (Low German), or Bernese German fit well into the definition of an ethnic group, while more liberal groups and converts in developing countries do not.

There are about 2.1 million Anabaptists worldwide as of 2015 (including Mennonites, Amish, Mennonite Brethren, and many other Anabaptist groups formally part of the Mennonite World Conference).[1] Mennonite congregations worldwide embody the full scope of Mennonite practice from "plain people" to those who are indistinguishable in dress and appearance from the general population. The largest populations of Mennonites are in India, Ethiopia,[8] Canada, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the United States. Mennonites can also be found in tight-knit communities in at least 87 countries on six continents or scattered amongst the populace of those countries. There are German Mennonite colonies in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia,[9] Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay,[10] and Paraguay,[11] who are mostly descendants of Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites who formed as a German ethnic group in what is today Ukraine. A small Mennonite congregation continues in the Netherlands where Simons was born.

The Mennonite Disaster Service,[12] based in North America, provides both immediate and long-term responses to hurricanes, floods, and other disasters. Mennonite Central Committee provides disaster relief around the world alongside their long-term international development programs. Other programs offer a variety of relief efforts and services throughout the world.

Since the latter part of the 20th century, some Mennonite groups have become more actively involved with peace and social justice issues, helping to found Christian Peacemaker Teams and Mennonite Conciliation Service.[13]

Radical Reformation

Main article: Radical Reformation
Spread of the early Anabaptists, 1525–1550

The early history of the Mennonites starts with the Anabaptists in the German and Dutch-speaking parts of central Europe. The German term is "Täufer" or "Wiedertäufer" ("Again-Baptists" or "Anabaptists" using the Greek ana ["another"]). Though some Mennonite historians would propound the "ana" coming from the Greek, which would mean "again", this is definitively and linguistically incorrect as a prefix that is transliterated rather than independently translated. The the Greek word palin is the single most used term translated as "again" throughout the Greek MSS translated into the English KJV Bible (see Hebrews 1:5, 6/ 2:13/ 4:5). When the Greek prepositional prefix ana (or its derivative anti, ani) is used, it is always translated separately, and not transliterated. The English transliteration (letter for letter rendering) of anbaptizmo demands a transliterated rendering as "an-other baptism", hence "ANA baptism", rather than a definitive translation of the Greek preposition. These forerunners of modern Mennonites were part of the Protestant Reformation, a broad reaction against the practices and theology of the Roman Catholic Church. Its most distinguishing feature is the rejection of infant baptism, an act that had both religious and political meaning since almost every infant born in western Europe was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church. Other significant theological views of the Mennonites developed in opposition to Roman Catholic views or to the views of other Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli.

Some of the followers of Zwingli's Reformed church thought that requiring church membership beginning at birth was inconsistent with the New Testament example. They believed that the church should be completely removed from government (the proto–free church tradition), and that individuals should join only when willing to publicly acknowledge belief in Jesus and the desire to live in accordance with his teachings. At a small meeting in Zurich on January 21, 1525, Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, and George Blaurock, along with twelve others, baptized each other.[14] This meeting marks the beginning of the Anabaptist movement. In the spirit of the times, many groups followed, preaching about reducing hierarchy, relations with the state, eschatology, and sexual license, running from utter abandon to extreme chastity. These movements are together referred to as the "Radical Reformation".

Many government and religious leaders, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, considered voluntary church membership to be dangerous—the concern of some deepened by reports of the Münster Rebellion, led by a violent sect of Anabaptists. They joined forces to fight the movement, using methods such as banishment, torture, burning, drowning or beheading.[15]:142

Despite strong repressive efforts of the state churches, the movement spread slowly around western Europe, primarily along the Rhine. Officials killed many of the earliest Anabaptist leaders in an attempt to purge Europe of the new sect.[15]:142 By 1530, most of the founding leaders had been killed for refusing to renounce their beliefs. Many believed that God did not condone killing or the use of force for any reason and were therefore unwilling to fight for their lives. The pacifist branches often survived by seeking refuge in neutral cities or nations, such as Strasbourg. Their safety was often tenuous, as a shift in alliances or an invasion could mean resumed persecution. Other groups of Anabaptists, such as the Batenburgers, were eventually destroyed by their willingness to fight. This played a large part in the evolution of Anabaptist theology.

Menno Simons

In the early days of the Anabaptist movement, Menno Simons, a Catholic priest in the Low Countries, heard of the movement and started to rethink his Catholic faith. He questioned the doctrine of transubstantiation, but was reluctant to leave the Roman Catholic Church. His brother, a member of an Anabaptist group, was killed when he and his companions were attacked and refused to defend themselves. In 1536, at the age of 40, Simons left the Roman Catholic Church. He soon became a leader within the Anabaptist movement, and was wanted by authorities for the rest of his life. His name became associated with scattered groups of nonviolent Anabaptists whom he helped to organize and consolidate.

Fragmentation and variation

During the 16th century, the Mennonites and other Anabaptists were relentlessly persecuted. This period of persecution has had a significant impact on Mennonite identity. Martyrs Mirror, published in 1660, documents much of the persecution of Anabaptists and their predecessors. Today, the book is still the most important book besides the Bible for many Mennonites and Amish, in particular for the Swiss–South German branch of the Mennonites. Persecution was still going on until 1710 in various parts of Switzerland.[16]

Disagreements within the church over the years led to other splits; sometimes the reasons were theological, sometimes practical, sometimes geographical. For instance, near the beginning of the 20th century, some members in the Amish church wanted to begin having Sunday Schools and participate in progressive Protestant-style para-church evangelism. Unable to persuade the rest of the Amish, they separated and formed a number of separate groups including the Conservative Mennonite Conference. Mennonites in Canada and other countries typically have independent denominations because of the practical considerations of distance and, in some cases, language. Many times these divisions took place along family lines, with each extended family supporting their own branch.

The first recorded account of this group is in a written order by Countess Anne, who ruled a small province in central Europe. The presence of some small groups of violent Anabaptists was causing political and religious turmoil in her state, so she decreed that all Anabaptists were to be driven out. The order made an exception for the non-violent branch known at that time as the Menists.

Political rulers often admitted the Menists or Mennonites into their states because they were honest, hardworking and peaceful. When their practices upset the powerful state churches, princes would renege on exemptions for military service, or a new monarch would take power, and the Mennonites would be forced to flee again, usually leaving everything but their families behind. Often, another monarch in another state would grant them welcome, at least for a while.

Mennonite churches blended into city architecture to avoid offending the religious sensibilities of the majority. Doopsgezinde Gemeente, Amsterdam.

While Mennonites in Colonial America were enjoying considerable religious freedom, their counterparts in Europe continued to struggle with persecution and temporary refuge under certain ruling monarchs. They were sometimes invited to settle in areas of poor soil that no one else could farm. By contrast, in The Netherlands the Mennonites (nl: Doopsgezinden) enjoyed a relatively high degree of tolerance. The Mennonites often farmed and reclaimed land in exchange for exemption from mandatory military service. However, once the land was arable again, this arrangement would often change, and the persecution would begin again. Because the land still needed to be tended, the ruler would not drive out the Mennonites but would pass laws to force them to stay, while at the same time severely limiting their freedom. Mennonites had to build their churches facing onto back streets or alleys, and they were forbidden from announcing the beginning of services with the sound of a bell.

In addition, high taxes were enacted in exchange for both continuing the military service exemption, and to keep the states' best farmers from leaving. In some cases, the entire congregation would give up their belongings to pay the tax to be allowed to leave. If a member or family could not afford the tax, it was often paid by others in the group.

A strong emphasis on "community" was developed under these circumstances. It continues to be typical of Mennonite churches. As a result of frequently being required to give up possessions in order to retain individual freedoms, Mennonites learned to live very simply. This was reflected both in the home and at church, where their dress and their buildings were plain. The music at church, usually simple German chorales, was performed a cappella. This style of music serves as a reminder to many Mennonites of their simple lives, as well as their history as a persecuted people. Some branches of Mennonites have retained this "plain" lifestyle into modern times.

Russian Mennonites

Main article: Russian Mennonite

The "Russian Mennonites" (German: "Russlandmennoniten")[17] today are of German language, tradition and ethnicity. They are descended from Dutch Anabaptists, who came from the Netherland and started around 1530 to settle around Danzig and in West Prussia, where they lived for about 250 years. During that time they mixed with German Mennonites from different regions. Starting 1791 they established colonies in the south west of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine). Their ethno-language is Plautdietsch, a German dialect of the East Low German group, with some Dutch admixture. Today the majority of traditional "Russian" Mennonites uses Standard German in church and for reading and writing. The term "Russian Mennonite" is considered by some to be a misnomer because their original ethnic ancestry and present day culture is not from Russia.

In 1768 Catherine the Great of Russia acquired a great deal of land north of the Black Sea (in present-day Ukraine) following a war with the Ottoman Empire and the takeover of their vassal, the Crimean Khanate. Russian government officials invited Mennonites living in Prussia to farm the Ukrainian steppes depopulated by Tatar raids in exchange for religious freedom and military exemption. Over the years the Mennonite farmers were very successful.

Between 1874 and 1880 some 16,000 Mennonites of approximately 45,000 left Russia. About nine thousand departed for the United States (mainly Kansas and Nebraska) and seven thousand for Canada (mainly Manitoba). In the 1920s Russian Mennonites from Canada started to migrate to Latin America (Mexico and Paraguay), soon followed by Mennonite refugees from the Soviet Union. Further migrations of these Mennonites led to settlements in Brazil, Uruguay, Belize, Bolivia and Argentina.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the Mennonites in Russia owned large agricultural estates and some had become successful as industrial entrepreneurs in the cities, employing wage labor. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War (1917–1921), all of these farms (whose owners were called Kulaks) and enterprises were expropriated by local peasants or the Soviet government. Beyond expropriation, Mennonites suffered severe persecution during the course of the Civil War, at the hands of workers, the Bolsheviks and, particularly, the communist-anarchists of Nestor Makhno, who considered the Mennonites to be privileged foreigners of the upper class and targeted them. During expropriation, hundreds of Mennonite men, women and children were murdered in these attacks.[18] After the Ukrainian–Soviet War and the takeover of Ukraine by the Russian Bolsheviks, people who openly practiced religion were in many cases imprisoned by the Soviet government. This led to a wave of Mennonite emigration to the Americas (U.S., Canada and Paraguay).

When the German army invaded the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941 during World War II, many in the Mennonite community perceived them as liberators from the communist regime under which they had suffered. When the tide of war turned, many of the Mennonites fled with the German army back to Germany where they were accepted as Volksdeutsche. The Soviet government believed that the Mennonites had "collectively collaborated" with the Germans. After the war, many of the Mennonites in the Soviet Union were forcibly relocated to Siberia and Kazakhstan, and many were sent to gulags, as part of the Soviet program of mass internal deportations of various ethnic groups whose loyalty was seen as questionable. Many German-Russian Mennonites who lived to the east (not in Ukraine) were deported to Siberia before the German army's invasion, and were also often placed in labor camps. In the decades that followed, as the Soviet regime became less brutal, a number of Mennonites returned to Ukraine and Western Russia where they had formerly lived. In the 1990s the governments of Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine gave these people the opportunity to emigrate, and the vast majority emigrated to Germany. The Russian Mennonite immigrants in Germany from the 1990s outnumber the pre-1989 community of Mennonites by three to one.

By 2015 the majority of Russian Mennonites live in Latin America, while ten thousands live in Germany and Canada.

The world's most conservative Mennonites (in terms of culture and technology) are the Mennonites affiliated with the Lower and Upper Barton Creek Colonies in Belize. Lower Barton is inhabited by Plautdietsch speaking Russian Mennonites, whereas Upper Barton Creek is mainly inhabited by Pennsylvania German speaking Mennonites from North America. Both groups do not use motors, paint, or compressed air.[19]

Jakob Ammann and the Amish schisms

Main articles: Amish and Subgroups of Amish

In 1693 Jakob Ammann led an effort to reform the Mennonite church in Switzerland and South Germany to include shunning, to hold communion more often, and other differences. When the discussions fell through, Ammann and his followers split from the other Mennonite congregations. Ammann's followers became known as the Amish Mennonites or just Amish. In later years, other schisms among Amish resulted in such groups as the Old Order Amish, New Order Amish, Kaufman Amish Mennonites, Conservative Mennonite Conference and Biblical Mennonite Alliance.

North America

Germantown Mennonite Meetinghouse, built 1770
Ten Thousand Villages Store in New Hamburg, Ontario

Persecution and the search for employment forced Mennonites out of the Netherlands eastward to Germany in the 17th century. As Quaker Evangelists moved into Germany they received a sympathetic audience among the larger of these German-Mennonite congregations around Krefeld, Altona-Hamburg, Gronau and Emden.[20] It was among this group of Quakers and Mennonites, living under ongoing discrimination, that William Penn solicited settlers for his new colony. The first permanent settlement of Mennonites in the American colonies consisted of one Mennonite family and twelve Mennonite-Quaker[21] families of German extraction who arrived from Krefeld, Germany, in 1683 and settled in Germantown, Pennsylvania. Among these early settlers was William Rittenhouse, a lay minister and owner of the first American paper mill. Jacob Gottschalk was the first bishop of this Germantown congregation. This early group of Mennonites and Mennonite-Quakers wrote the first formal protest against slavery in the United States. The treatise was addressed to slave-holding Quakers in an effort to persuade them to change their ways.[22]

In the early 18th century, 100,000 Germans from the Palatinate emigrated to Pennsylvania, where they became known collectively as the Pennsylvania Dutch (from the Anglicization of Deutsch or German.) The area had been repeatedly overrun by the French in religious wars, and Queen Anne had invited the Germans to go to the British colonies. Of these immigrants, around 2,500 were Mennonites and 500 were Amish.[23] This group settled farther west than the first group, choosing less expensive land in the Lancaster area. The oldest Mennonite meetinghouse in the United States is the Hans Herr House in West Lampeter Township.[24] A member of this second group, Christopher Dock, authored Pedagogy, the first American monograph on education. Today, Mennonites also reside in Kishacoquillas Valley (also known as Big Valley), a valley in Huntingdon and Mifflin counties in Pennsylvania.

During the Colonial period, Mennonites were distinguished from other Pennsylvania Germans in three ways:[25] their opposition to the American Revolutionary War, which other German settlers participated in on both sides; resistance to public education; and disapproval of religious revivalism. Contributions of Mennonites during this period include the idea of separation of church and state, and opposition to slavery.

From 1812 to 1860, another wave of Mennonite immigrants settled farther west in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. These Swiss-German speaking Mennonites, along with Amish, came from Switzerland and the Alsace-Lorraine area. These immigrants, along with the Amish of northern New York State, formed the nucleus of the Apostolic Christian Church in the United States.

There were also Mennonite settlements in Canada, who emigrated there chiefly from the United States (Upstate New York and Pennsylvania):

"Old" Mennonite Church (MC)

Mennonite Church logo

The Swiss-German Mennonites who emigrated to North America in the 18th and 19th centuries and settled first in Pennsylvania, then across the midwestern states (initially Ohio, Indiana, and Kansas), are the root of the former Mennonite Church denomination (MC), colloquially called the "Old Mennonite Church". This denomination had offices in Elkhart, Indiana, and was the most populous progressive Mennonite denomination before merging with the General Conference Mennonite Church (GCMC) in 2002.

Mennonite Church USA

Mennonite Church USA logo

The Mennonite Church USA, or MCUSA, is the largest Mennonite denomination in the United States, with a total 2015 membership of 91,952 members.[1] Pennsylvania remains the hub of the denomination, with over 300 congregations and over 40,000 members. There are also large numbers of members in Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, and Illinois.[26] The MCUSA and the Mennonite Church Canada are each a fairly recent 2002 merger of the (General Assembly) Mennonite Church and the General Conference Mennonite Church.

In 1983 the General Assembly of the Mennonite Church met jointly with the General Conference Mennonite Church in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in celebration of 300 years of Mennonite witness in the Americas. Beginning in 1989, a series of consultations, discussions, proposals, and sessions (and a vote in 1995 in favor of merger) led to the unification of these two major North American Mennonite bodies into one denomination organized on two fronts - the Mennonite Church USA and the Mennonite Church Canada. The merger was "finalized" at a joint session in St. Louis, Missouri in 1999, and the Canadian branch moved quickly ahead. The United States branch did not complete their organization until the meeting in Nashville, Tennessee in 2001, which became effective February 1, 2002.

The merger of 1999-2002 at least partially fulfilled the desire of the founders of the General Conference Mennonite Church to create an organization under which all Mennonites could unite. Yet not all Mennonites favored the merger. The Alliance of Mennonite Evangelical Congregations represents one expression of the disappointment with the merger and the events that led up to it.

Mennonite Church Canada

Mennonite Church Canada logo

Mennonite Church Canada is a conference of Mennonites in Canada, with head offices in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Currently (2003) the body has about 35,000 members in 235 churches. Beginning in 1989, a series of consultations, discussions, proposals, and sessions led to the unification of two North American bodies (the Mennonite Church & General Conference Mennonite Church) and the related Canadian Conference of Mennonites in Canada into the Mennonite Church USA and the Mennonite Church Canada in 2000.

The organizational structure is divided into five regional conferences. Denominational work is administered through a board elected by the delegates to the annual assembly. The MCC participates in the Canadian Council of Churches, the Evangelical Fellowship of Canada, and the Mennonite World Conference.

Alternative service

Mennonites in Canada were automatically exempt from any type of military service during World War I by provisions of the Order in Council of 1873, yet initially many were imprisoned for their beliefs until this was affirmed by the government of the time.

During World War II, Mennonite conscientious objectors were given the options of noncombatant military service, serving in the medical or dental corps under military control, or working in parks and on roads under civilian supervision. Over 95% chose the latter and were placed in Alternative Service camps.[27] Initially the men worked on road building, forestry and firefighting projects. After May 1943, as a labour shortage developed within the nation, men were shifted into agriculture, education and industry. The 10,700 Canadian objectors were mostly Mennonites (63%) and Doukhobors (20%).[28]

Mennonite conscientious objector Harry Lantz distributes rat poison for typhus control in Gulfport, Mississippi (1946).

In the United States, Civilian Public Service (CPS) provided an alternative to military service during World War II. From 1941 to 1947, 4,665 Mennonites, Amish and Brethren in Christ[29] were among nearly 12,000 conscientious objectors who performed work of national importance in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. The draftees worked in areas such as soil conservation, forestry, fire fighting, agriculture, social services and mental health.

The CPS men served without wages and with minimal support from the federal government. The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families. Mennonite Central Committee coordinated the operation of the Mennonite camps. CPS men served longer than regular draftees, not being released until well past the end of the war. Initially skeptical of the program, government agencies learned to appreciate the men's service and requested more workers from the program. CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention, erosion and flood control, medical science and reform of the mental health system.

Schisms

Prior to emigration to America, Anabaptists in Europe were divided between those of Dutch/North German and Swiss/South German background. First the Dutch/North German group took their name from Menno Simons, who led them in their early years. Later the Swiss/South German group also adopted the name "Mennonites". A third group of early Anabaptists, mainly from south east Germany and Austria were organized by Jakob Hutter and became the Hutterites. The vast majority of Anabaptists of Swiss/South German ancestry today lives in the US and Canada, while the largest group of Dutch/North German Anabaptists are the Russian Mennonites, who live today mostly in Latin America.

A trickle of North German Mennonites began the migration to America in 1683, followed by a much larger migration of Swiss/South German Mennonites beginning in 1707.[30] The Amish are an early split from the Swiss/South German, that occurred in 1693. Over the centuries many Amish individuals and whole churches left the Amish and became Mennonites again.

After immigration to America, many of the early Mennonites split from the main body of North American Mennonites and formed their own separate and distinct churches. The first schism in America occurred in 1778 when Bishop Christian Funk's support of the American Revolution led to his excommunication and the formation of a separate Mennonite group known as Funkites. In 1785 the Orthodox Reformed Mennonite Church was formed, and other schisms occurred into the 21st century. Many of these churches were formed as a response to deep disagreements about theology, doctrine, and church discipline as evolution both inside and outside the Mennonite faith occurred. Many of the modern churches are descended from those groups that abandoned traditional Mennonite practices.

Larger groups of Dutch/North German Mennonites came to North America from the Russian Empire after 1873, especially to Kansas and Manitoba. While the more progressive element of these Mennonites assimilated into mainstream society, the more conservative element emigrated to Latin America. Since then there has been a steady flow of Mennonite remigrants from Latin America to North America.

These historical schisms have had an influence on creating the distinct Mennonite denominations, sometimes using mild or severe shunning to show its disapproval of other Mennonite groups.

Schools

Several Mennonite groups have their own private or parochial schools. Conservative groups, like the Holdeman, have not only their own schools, but their own curriculum and teaching staff (usually, but not exclusively, young unmarried women).

Secondary schools

This list of secondary Mennonite Schools is not an exhaustive list. Most are members of the Mennonite Schools Council, endorsed by the Mennonite Education Agency.[31]

Canada
Mennonite teacher holding class in a one-room, eight-grade school house, Hinkletown, Pennsylvania, March 1942
United States

Controversy in Quebec

Quebec does not allow these parochial schools, in the sense of allowing them to have an independent curriculum. As of 2007, the Quebec government imposed a standard curriculum on all schools (public and private). While private schools may add optional material to the compulsory curriculum, they may not replace it. The Quebec curriculum is unacceptable to the parents of the only Mennonite school in the province.[32] They said they would leave Quebec after the Education Ministry threatened legal actions. The Province threatened to invoke Youth Protection services if the Mennonite children were not registered with the Education Ministry; they either had to be home-schooled using the government approved material, or attend a "sanctioned" school. The local population and its mayor supported[33] the local Mennonites. The Evangelical Fellowship of Canada wrote that year to the Quebec government to express its concerns[34] about this situation. By September 2007, some Mennonite families had already left Quebec.[35]

Post-secondary schools

Canada
United States
Bethel College, North Newton Kansas

Sexuality, marriage, and family mores

The Mennonite church has no formal celibate religious order similar to monasticism, but recognizes the legitimacy of and honours both the single state and the sanctity of marriage of its members. Single persons are expected to be chaste, and marriage is held to be a lifelong, monogamous and faithful covenant between a man and a woman. In conservative groups, divorce is discouraged, and it is believed that the "hardness of the heart" of people is the ultimate cause of divorce. Some conservative churches have disciplined members who have unilaterally divorced their spouses outside of cases of sexual unfaithfulness or acute abuse. Until approximately the 1960s or 1970s, before the more widespread urbanization of the Mennonite demographic, divorce was quite rare. In recent times, divorce is more common, and also carries less stigma, particularly in cases where abuse was known.

Some Mennonite churches identify as LGBT-affirming churches. Congregations have been disciplined by or expelled from their regional conferences for taking such a stance,[36] while other congregations have been allowed to remain "at variance" with official Mennonite Church USA policy.[37] Some pastors who performed same-sex unions have had their credentials revoked by their conference,[38] and some within the Mennonite Church USA have had their credentials reviewed without any disciplinary actions taken.[39][40] Most recently, the Mountain States Mennonite Conference licensed an openly gay pastor in February 2014.[41]

Traditionally, very modest dress was expected, particularly in conservative Mennonite circles. As the Mennonite population has become urbanized and more integrated into the wider culture, this visible difference has disappeared outside of conservative Mennonite groups.

Some expelled congregations were affiliated both with the Mennonite Church and the General Conference Mennonite Church. The latter did not expel the same congregations. When these two Mennonite denominations formally completed their merger in 2002 to become the new Mennonite Church USA and Mennonite Church Canada denominations, it was still not clear, whether the congregations that were expelled from one denomination, yet included in the other, are considered to be "inside" or "outside" of the new merged denomination. Some Mennonite conferences have chosen to maintain such "disciplined" congregations as "associate" or "affiliate" congregations in the conferences, rather than to expel such congregations. In virtually every case, a dialogue continues between the disciplined congregations and the denomination, as well as their current or former conferences.[42]

In 1911 the Mennonite church in the Netherlands (Doopsgezinde Kerk) was the first Dutch church to have a female pastor authorized; she was Anna Zernike.[43]

Theology

Mennonite theology emphasizes the primacy of the teachings of Jesus as recorded in New Testament scripture. They hold in common the ideal of a religious community based on New Testament models and imbued with the spirit of the Sermon on the Mount. Their core beliefs deriving from Anabaptist traditions are:

One of the earliest expressions of Mennonite faith was the Schleitheim Confession, adopted on February 24, 1527. Its seven articles covered:

The Dordrecht Confession of Faith was adopted on April 21, 1632, by Dutch Mennonites, by Alsatian Mennonites in 1660, and by North American Mennonites in 1725. There is no official creed or catechism of which acceptance is required by congregations or members. However, there are structures and traditions taught as in the Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective[45] of Mennonite Church Canada and Mennonite Church USA.

Worship, doctrine, and tradition

Interior of the Mennonite Church Friedelsheim, Germany
Interior of the Mennonite Church Giethoorn, Netherlands

There is a wide scope of worship, doctrine and traditions among Mennonites today. This section shows the main types of Mennonites as seen from North America. It is far from a specific study of all Mennonite classifications worldwide but it does show a somewhat representative sample of the complicated classifications within the Mennonite faith worldwide.

Mennonite farmer's wife dressmaking, Pennsylvania, 1942

Moderate Mennonites include the largest denominations, the Mennonite Brethren and the Mennonite Church. In most forms of worship and practice they differ very little from other Protestant congregations. There is no special form of dress and no restrictions on use of technology. Worship styles vary greatly between different congregations. There is no formal liturgy; services typically consist of singing, scripture reading, prayer and a sermon. Some churches prefer hymns and choirs; others make use of contemporary Christian music with electronic instruments. Mennonite congregations are self-supporting and appoint their own ministers. There is no requirement for ministers to be approved by the denomination, and sometimes ministers from other denominations will be appointed. A small sum, based on membership numbers, is paid to the denomination, which is used to support central functions such as publication of newsletters and interactions with other denominations and other countries. The distinguishing characteristics of moderate Mennonite churches tend to be ones of emphasis rather than rule. There is an emphasis on peace, community and service. However, members do not live in a separate community—they participate in the general community as "salt and light" to the world (Matt 5:13,14). The main elements of Menno Simons' doctrine are retained, but in a moderated form. Banning is rarely practiced and would in any event have much less effect than those denominations where the community is more tight-knit. Excommunication can occur, and was notably applied by the Mennonite Brethren to members who joined the military during the Second World War. Service in the military is generally not permitted, but service in the legal profession or law enforcement is acceptable. Outreach and help to the wider community at home and abroad is encouraged. The Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) is a leader in foreign aid provision.

The Reformed Mennonite Church, with members in the United States and Canada, represents the first division in the original North American Mennonite body. Called the "First Keepers of the Old Way" by author Stephen Scott, the Reformed Mennonite Church formed in the very early 19th century. Reformed Mennonites see themselves as true followers of Menno Simons' teachings and of the teachings of the New Testament. They have no church rules, but they rely solely on the Bible as their guide. They insist on strict separation from all other forms of worship and dress in conservative plain garb that preserves 18th century Mennonite details. However, they refrain from forcing their Mennonite faith on their children, allow their children to attend public schools, and have permitted the use of automobiles. They are notable for being the church of Milton S. Hershey's mother and famous for the long and bitter ban of Robert Bear, a Pennsylvania farmer who rebelled against what he saw as dishonesty and disunity in the leadership.

Holdeman Mennonites, officially called Church of God in Christ, Mennonite, were founded from a schism in 1859 and has about 22,000 members worldwide. They are known as Holdeman Mennonites after their founder. They emphasize Evangelical conversion and strict church discipline. They stay separate from other Mennonite groups because of their emphasis on the one-true-church doctrine and their use of avoidance toward their own excommunicated members. The Holdeman Mennonites do not believe that the use of modern technology is a sin in itself, but they discourage too intensive a use of the Internet and avoid television, cameras and radio.

Mennonite Horse and Carriage

Old Order Mennonites cover several distinct groups. Some groups use horse and buggy for transportation and speak German while others drive cars and speak English. What most Old Orders share in common is conservative doctrine, dress, and traditions, common roots in 19th century and early 20th century schisms, and a refusal to participate in politics and other so-called "sins of the world". Most Old Order groups also school their children in Mennonite-operated schools.

Stauffer Mennonites, or Pike Mennonites, represent one of the first and most conservative forms of North American Horse and Buggy Mennonites. They were founded in 1845, following conflicts about how to discipline children and spousal abuse by a few Mennonite Church members. They almost immediately began to split into separate churches themselves. Today these groups are among the most conservative of all Swiss Mennonites outside the Amish. They stress strict separation from "the world", adhere to "strict withdrawal from and shunning of apostate and separated members", forbid and limit cars and technology and wear plain clothing.

Conservative Mennonites are generally considered those Mennonites who maintain somewhat conservative dress, although carefully accepting other technology. They are not a unified group and are divided into various independent conferences and fellowships such as the Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church Conference. Despite the rapid changes that precipitated the Old Order schisms in the last quarter of the 19th century, most Mennonites in the United States and Canada retained a core of traditional beliefs based on a literal interpretation of the New Testament scriptures as well as more external "plain" practices into the beginning of the 20th century. However, disagreements in the United States and Canada between conservative and progressive (i.e. less emphasis on literal interpretation of scriptures) leaders began in the first half of the 20th century and continue to some extent today. Following WWII, a conservative movement emerged from scattered separatist groups as a reaction to the Mennonite churches drifting away from their historical traditions. "Plain" became passé as open criticisms of traditional beliefs and practices broke out in the 1950s and 1960s. The first conservative withdrawals from the progressive group began in the 1950s. These withdrawals continue to the present day in what is now the growing Conservative Movement formed from Mennonite schisms and from combinations with progressive Amish groups. While moderate and progressive Mennonite congregations have dwindled in size, the Conservative Movement congregations continue to exhibit considerable growth. Other conservative Mennonite groups descended from the former Amish-Mennonite churches which split, like the Wisler Mennonites, from the Old Order Amish in the latter part of the 19th century. (The Wisler Mennonites are a grouping descended from the Old Mennonite Church.) There are also other Conservative Mennonite churches that descended from more recent groups that have left the Amish like the Beachy Amish or the Tennessee Brotherhood Churches.

Progressive Mennonite churches allow LGBT members to worship as church members and have been banned from membership in some cases in the moderate groups as result. The Germantown Mennonite Church in Germantown, Pennsylvania is one example of such a progressive Mennonite church.[46]

Some progressive Mennonite Churches place a great emphasis on the Mennonite tradition's teachings on peace and non-violence. Some progressive Mennonite Churches are part of moderate Mennonite denominations (such as the Mennonite Church USA) while others are independent congregations.

Membership

Children in an Old Order Mennonite community selling peanuts near Lamanai in Belize.

In 2009, there were 1,616,126 Mennonites in 82 countries. The United States had the highest number of Mennonites with 387,103 members, followed by the Democratic Republic of the Congo with 220,444 members. The third largest concentration of Mennonites was in Ethiopia with 172,306 members, while the fourth largest population was in India with 156,922 members. Europe, the birthplace of Mennonites, had 64,740 members.[1]

Africa has the highest membership growth rate by far, with an increase of 10% to 12% every year, particularly in Ethiopia due to new conversions. African Mennonite churches underwent a dramatic 228% increase in membership during the 1980s and 1990s, attracting thousands of new converts in Tanzania, Kenya, and the Congo.[47] Programs were also founded in Botswana and Swaziland during the 1960s.[48] Mennonite organizations in South Africa, initially stifled under apartheid due to the Afrikaner government's distrust of foreign pacifist churches, have expanded substantially since 1994.[48] In recognition of the dramatic increase in the proportion of African adherents, the Mennonite World Conference held its assembly in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, in 2003.[47]

In Latin America growth is not a high as in Africa, but strong because of the high birth rates of traditional Mennonites of German ancestry. Growth in Mennonite membership is slow but steady in North America, the Asia/Pacific region and Caribbean region. Europe has seen a slow and accelerating decline in Mennonite membership since about 1980.

Organization worldwide

Bethesda Mennonite Church in Henderson, Nebraska, U.S.
Mennonite Church in Hamburg-Altona, Germany
Old Order Mennonite children from San Ignacio, Paraguay.

The most basic unit of organization among Mennonites is the church. There are hundreds or thousands of Mennonite churches and groups, many of which are separate from all others. Some churches are members of regional or area conferences. And some regional or area conferences are affiliated with larger national or international conferences. Thus, there is no single authorized organization that includes all Mennonite peoples worldwide.

For the most part, there is a host of independent Mennonite churches along with a myriad of separate conferences with no particular responsibility to any other group. Independent churches can contain as few as fifty members or as many as 20,000 members. Similar size differences occur among separate conferences. Worship, church discipline and lifestyles vary widely between progressive, moderate, conservative, Old Order and orthodox Mennonites in a vast panoply of distinct, independent, and widely dispersed classifications. For these reasons, no single group of Mennonites anywhere can credibly claim to represent, speak for, or lead all Mennonites worldwide.

The twelve largest Mennonite/Anabaptist groups are:

  1. Mennonite Brethren (300,000 members on six continents worldwide)
  2. Old Order Amish (300,000 in North America)
  3. Meserete Kristos Church in Ethiopia (120,600 members; 126,000 more followers attending alike churches)[49]
  4. Old Colony Mennonite Church (120,000 in the U.S., Canada, Mexico, Bolivia, Paraguay, Belize and Argentina)
  5. Communauté Mennonite au Congo (87,000)
  6. Mennonite Church USA with 79,150 members in the United States
  7. Old Order Mennonites with 60,000 to 80,000 members in in the U.S., Canada and Belize
  8. Kanisa La Mennonite Tanzania with 50,000 members in 240 congregations
  9. Deutsche Mennonitengemeinden with 40,000 members in Germany[50]
  10. Mennonite Church Canada with 35,000 members in Canada
  11. Conservative Mennonites with 30,000 members in over 500 U.S. churches[51]
  12. Church of God in Christ, Mennonite with 21,765 members in about 19,000 in the U.S. and Canada, with the remaining in members in 32 other countries (2008 data)

The Mennonite World Conference is a global community of 95 Mennonite and Brethren in Christ Mennonite national churches from 51 countries on six continents. It exists to "facilitate community between Anabaptist-related churches worldwide, and relate to other Christian world communions and organizations", but it is not a governing body of any kind. It is a voluntary community of faith whose decisions are not binding on member churches. The member churches of Mennonite World Conference include the Mennonite Brethren, the Mennonite Church USA, and the Mennonite Church Canada, with a combined total membership of at least 400,000, or about 30% of Mennonites worldwide.

Organization: North America

Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church in rural Goessel, Kansas

In 2003, there were about 323,000 Mennonites in the United States.[52] About 114,000 were members of Mennonite Church USA churches, about 26,000 were members of Mennonite Brethren churches, and about 40,000[51] were members of conservative churches. There are between 60,000 and 80,000 Old Order Mennonites. Other sources list 236,084 total United States Mennonites.[53]

Total membership in Mennonite Church USA denominations decreased from about 133,000, before the MC-GC merger in 1998, to about 114,000 after the merger in 2003. In 2016 it had fallen to 79,150. Membership of the Mennonite Church USA is on the decline.[52]

In Canada, there were approximately 130,000 Mennonite church members in 2003 with the largest concentrations in Manitoba, Ontario, and British Columbia.[54] About 37,000 of those were members of Mennonite Church Canada churches and another 35,000 of those members of Mennonite Brethren churches. Approximately 5,000 belonged to conservative Old Order Mennonite churches, or other ultra-conservative and orthodox churches. The remaining 55,000 Mennonites belonged to various other Canadian churches. In 1972 Mennonites in Altona, Manitoba, established the Mennonite Thrift Shop[55] which has now become a world-wide source of assistance to the needy.[56]

As of 2012, there were an estimated 100,000 Old Colony Mennonites in Mexico.[57][58] These Mennonites descend from a mass migration in the 1920s of roughly 6,000 Old Colony Mennonites from the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. In 1921, a Canadian Mennonite delegation arriving in Mexico received a privilegium, a promise of non-interference, from the Mexican government. This guarantee of many freedoms was the impetus that created the two original Old Colony settlements near Patos Nuevo Ideal, Durango, Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua and La Honda, Zacatecas as well as many communities in Aguascalientes.[59]

Organization: United Kingdom

There is the United Kingdom Mennonite Ministry, which is part of the Nationwide Mennonites from Wisconsin (U.S.) which meets in Old Sodbury. There are also the British Conference of Mennonites,[60] and the London Mennonite Centre.[61]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 "Global Statistics - 2015 Directory; Mennonite World Conference". Mwc-cmm.org. 2015-07-14. Retrieved 2015-08-28.
  2. ↑ "Historic Peace Churches". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
  3. ↑ "Who are the Mennonites?". Third Way Cafe. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
  4. ↑ "Did you know...". Mennonite Historical Society of Canada. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
  5. ↑ "The Mennonite Game". Mennonite Historical Society of Canada. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
  6. ↑ "Multicultural Canada: Mennonites". Multiculturalcanada.ca. Retrieved Nov 6, 2012.
  7. ↑ "Ethnicity". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved Jan 12, 2013.
  8. ↑ "Ethiopian conference tops membership". Mennonite Weekly Review. Jul 13, 2005. Retrieved Jul 25, 2011.
  9. ↑ "Bolivian Reforms Raise Anxiety on Mennonite Frontier". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  10. ↑ Aus Montevideo: Galizische Mennoniten in Uruguay (Nov 1, 2012). "Mennonites from Galitzia in Uruguay". Galizien.org. Retrieved Nov 6, 2012.
  11. ↑ Antonio De La Cova (Dec 28, 1999). "Paraguay's Mennonites resent 'fast buck' outsiders". Latinamericanstudies.org. Retrieved Oct 29, 2011.
  12. ↑ "Mennonite Disaster Service". Retrieved May 30, 2007.
  13. ↑ "Mennonite Conciliation Service". Retrieved May 30, 2007.
  14. ↑ Strasser, Rolf Christoph (2006). "Die Zürcher Täufer 1525" [The Zurich Anabaptists 1525] (PDF) (in German). EFB Verlag Wetzikon. p. 30. Retrieved Jan 28, 2012.
  15. 1 2 Murray, Stuart (2010). The Naked Anabaptist: The Bare Essentials of a Radical Faith. Herald Press. ISBN 978-0-8361-9517-0.
  16. ↑  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Mennonites". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  17. ↑ "Ukrainian Mennonite General Conference — GAMEO". Gameo.org. 1926-10-08. Retrieved 2012-11-13.
  18. ↑ Rempel, John G. (1957). "Makhno, Nestor (1888–1934)". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 2010-11-01. Two hundred forty names appear on a list of November 1919 of those murdered in Zagradovka. In Borzenkovo in the village of Ebenfeld alone 63 persons were murdered, and in Steinbach of the same settlement 58 persons.
  19. ↑ "Altkolonier-Mennoniten in Belize". Taeufergeschichte.net. Retrieved Oct 4, 2014.
  20. ↑ Smith p.139
  21. ↑ Smith p.360. Smith uses Mennonite-Quaker to refer to Quakers who were formerly Mennonite and retained distinctive Mennonite beliefs and practices.
  22. ↑ "First Protest Against Slavery, 1688". Qhpress.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  23. ↑ Pannabecker p. 7.
  24. ↑ "National Historic Landmarks & National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania" (Searchable database). CRGIS: Cultural Resources Geographic Information System. Note: This includes J. Michael Sausman (August 1970). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Hans Herr House" (PDF). Retrieved Feb 18, 2012.
  25. ↑ Pannabecker p. 12.
  26. ↑ "2000 Religious Congregations and Membership Study". Glenmary Research Center. Retrieved 2009-12-16.
  27. ↑ Gingerich p. 420.
  28. ↑ Krahn, pp. 76–78.
  29. ↑ Gingerich p. 452.
  30. ↑ Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975, I, 292–293.
  31. ↑ "Mennonite Education Agency > Home". Mennoniteeducation.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  32. ↑ Westen, John-Henry; Elizabeth O'Brien (Sep 14, 2007). "Forced Education in Homosexuality and Evolution Leads to Exodus of Mennonites from Quebec". LifeSiteNews.com. Archived from the original on Sep 14, 2007. Retrieved Oct 29, 2011.
  33. ↑ The Gazette (Aug 16, 2007). "Townsfolk sad to see Mennonites move away". Canada.com. Retrieved Oct 29, 2011.
  34. ↑ Hutchinson, Don (Sep 8, 2007). "Faith-Based Education May Result in Loss of House and Home in Quebec". christianity.ca. Archived from the original on Sep 8, 2007. Retrieved Oct 29, 2011.
  35. ↑ Archived April 12, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  36. ↑ Huber, Tim. "MWR : Eastern District cuts ties with Germantown church". Mennoworld.org. Retrieved Jan 13, 2013.
  37. ↑ "Western District amends one resolution, tables another". The Mennonite. Jul 1, 2012. Retrieved Jan 13, 2013.
  38. ↑ "Southeast Conference removes ministerial credential". Themennonite.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  39. ↑ "Central District takes 2-part action on pastor’s credentials". Mennoworld.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  40. ↑ "Decision not to discipline pastor stands at WDC". Themennonite.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  41. ↑ "First Openly Gay Pastor Approved by Mennonite Conference as License Approved". Christiasnpost.com. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  42. ↑ "Homosexual and bisexual orientation among Mennonites". Religioustolerance.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  43. ↑ "Mankes-Zernike, Anna (1887-1972)". gameo.org. Retrieved 2016-04-10.
  44. ↑ In connection with the Lord's Supper, some Mennonites practice feet washing as a continuing outer sign of humility within the church. Feet washing was not originally an Anabaptist practice. Pilgram Marpeck before 1556 included it, and it became widespread in the late 1500s and the 1600s. Today it is practiced by some as a memorial sacrament, in memory of Christ washing the feet of his disciples as recorded in the thirteenth chapter of the Gospel of John.
  45. ↑ "Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective". Retrieved May 30, 2007.
  46. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on December 6, 2008. Retrieved January 25, 2006.
  47. 1 2 Donald B. Kraybill (2010). Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites and Mennonites. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 3–4.
  48. 1 2 Robert Herr and Judy Zimmermann Herr, “Building peace in South Africa: A case study in the Mennonite program” in From the Ground Up – Mennonite Contributions to International Peacebuilding (Oxford U. Press, 2000), edited by Cynthia Sampson and John Paul Lederach, pp. 59-69.
  49. ↑ Archived July 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  50. ↑ "Mennoniten in Deutschland". Mennoniten.de. Retrieved Nov 6, 2012.
  51. 1 2 2008 CLP church directory
  52. 1 2 "Mennonite Church Membership Statistics". Mcusa-archives.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  53. ↑ "Mennonites in the United States" (PDF). Mennonite Weekly Review. Jun 20, 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on Dec 13, 2006. Retrieved Jan 21, 2007.
  54. ↑ "Mennonites in Canada". Archived from the original on May 16, 2007. Retrieved May 30, 2007.
  55. ↑ "Mennonite Thrift Shop". Thrift.mcc.org. Retrieved 2015-04-05.
  56. ↑ CBC, The World at Six, Mar 17, 2012
  57. ↑ Cascante, Manuel M. (8 August 2012). "Los menonitas dejan México". ABC (in Spanish). Retrieved 19 February 2013. Los cien mil miembros de esta comunidad anabaptista, establecida en Chihuahua desde 1922, se plantean emigrar a la república rusa de Tartaristán, que se ofrece a acogerlos
  58. ↑ "The Mennonite Old Colony Vision: Under siege in Mexico and the Canadian Connection" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 4, 2013. Retrieved September 10, 2014.
  59. ↑ Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  60. ↑ "2003 Europe Mennonite & Brethren in Christ Churches". Mwc-cmm.org. Retrieved Mar 2, 2010.
  61. ↑ "London Mennonite Centre". Menno.org. Retrieved Mar 2, 2010.

Further reading

External links

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