Moctezuma II

Moctezuma II
Motecuhzoma Xocoyoti
9th Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan
Ruler of the Aztec Triple Alliance

Moctezuma II in the Codex Mendoza
Reign 1502–1520
Predecessor Ahuitzotl
Successor Cuitláhuac
Born c. 1466
Died June 29, 1520 (aged 53–54)
Tenochtitlan
Consort Teotlalco
Tlapalizquixochtzin
Issue Isabel Moctezuma
Another daughter
Chimalpopoca
Tlaltecatzin
Father Axayacatl
Mother Xochicueyetl

Moctezuma II (c. 1466 – 29 June 1520), otherwise spelled as a number of variant spellings including Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma and referred to in full by early Nahuatl texts as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (Moctezuma the Young),[N.B. 1] was the ninth tlatoani or ruler of Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520. The first contact between indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign, and he was killed during the initial stages of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, when Conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men fought to escape from the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.

During his reign the Aztec Empire reached its greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma expanded the territory as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Zapotec and Yopi people into the empire.[1] He changed the previous meritocratic system of social hierarchy and widened the divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from working in the royal palaces.[1]

The portrayal of Moctezuma in history has mostly been colored by his role as ruler of a defeated nation, and many sources describe him as weak-willed and indecisive. The biases of some historical sources make it difficult to understand his actions during the Spanish invasion.[2]

Family

Moctezuma had many wives and concubines but only two women were his Queens – Tlapalizquixochtzin and Teotlalco. He was also a King Consort of Ecatepec because Tlapalizquixochtzin was Queen of that city.

His many children included Princess Isabel Moctezuma — and sons Chimalpopoca (not to be confused with the previous huey tlatoani) and Tlaltecatzin.[3]

Name

Aztec feather headdress attributed to Moctezuma II exhibited at the Museo Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México

The Nahuatl pronunciation of his name is [motekʷˈsoːma]. It is a compounds of a noun meaning "lord" and a verb meaning "to frown in anger", and so is interpreted as "he is one who frowns like a lord"[4] or "he who is angry in a noble manner."[5]

His name glyph, shown in the upper left corner of the image from the Codex Mendoza above, was composed of a diadem (xiuhuitzolli) on straight hair with an attached earspool, a separate nosepiece and a speech scroll.[6]

Regnal number

The use of a regnal number is only for modern distinction from the first Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I, because regnal ordinals is a modern idea and were not used by the Aztecs, but have been given him retroactively by historians so to easier differentiate between the two.[2] The Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma ("Old Moctezuma"). Xocoyotzin (IPA: [ʃokoˈjotsin]) means "honored young one".

The descriptions of the life of Moctezuma are full of contradictions, and thus nothing is known for certain about his personality and rule.[7]

Bernal Díaz del Castillo

Moctezuma II, from Historia de la conquista de México by Antonio de Solis

The firsthand account of Bernal Díaz del Castillo's True History of the Conquest of New Spain paints a portrait of a noble leader who struggles to maintain order in his kingdom after he is taken prisoner by Hernán Cortés. In his first description of Moctezuma, Díaz del Castillo writes:

"The Great Montezuma was about forty years old, of good height, well proportioned, spare and slight, and not very dark, though of the usual Indian complexion. He did not wear his hair long but just over his ears, and he had a short black beard, well-shaped and thin. His face was rather long and cheerful, he had fine eyes, and in his appearance and manner could express geniality or, when necessary, a serious composure. He was very neat and clean, and took a bath every afternoon. He had many women as his mistresses, the daughters of chieftains, but two legitimate wives who were Caciques[N.B. 2] in their own right, and only some of his servants knew of it. He was quite free from sodomy. The clothes he wore one day he did not wear again till three or four days later. He had a guard of two hundred chieftains lodged in rooms beside his own, only some of whom were permitted to speak to him." (Díaz del Castillo 1568/1963: 224–25)

When Moctezuma was allegedly killed by being stoned to death by his own people "Cortés and all of us captains and soldiers wept for him, and there was no one among us that knew him and had dealings with him who did not mourn him as if he were our father, which was not surprising, since he was so good. It was stated that he had reigned for seventeen years, and was the best king they ever had in Mexico, and that he had personally triumphed in three wars against countries he had subjugated. I have spoken of the sorrow we all felt when we saw that Montezuma was dead. We even blamed the Mercederian friar for not having persuaded him to become a Christian." (Díaz del Castillo 1568/1963: 294)[8]

Bernardino de Sahagún

The Florentine Codex, made by Bernardino de Sahagún and his native informants of Tenochtitlan-subjugated Tlatelolco, generally portrays Tlatelolco and Tlatelolcan rulers in a favorable light relative to the Tenocha, and Moctezuma in particular is depicted unfavorably as a weak-willed, superstitious, and indulgent ruler (Restall 2003). Historian James Lockhart suggests that the people needed to have a scapegoat for the Aztec defeat, and Moctezuma naturally fell into that role.[9]

Hernán Cortés

Moctezuma II, from Le vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustres, París 1584

Unlike Bernal Díaz, who was recording his memories many years after the fact, Cortés wrote his Cartas de relación (Letters from Mexico) to justify his actions to the Spanish Crown. His prose is characterized by simple descriptions and explanations, along with frequent personal addresses to the King. In his Second Letter, Cortés describes his first encounter with Moctezuma thus:

Mutezuma [sic] came to greet us and with him some two hundred lords, all barefoot and dressed in a different costume, but also very rich in their way and more so than the others. They came in two columns, pressed very close to the walls of the street, which is very wide and beautiful and so straight that you can see from one end to the other. Mutezuma came down the middle of this street with two chiefs, one on his right hand and the other on his left. And they were all dressed alike except that Mutezuma wore sandals whereas the others went barefoot; and they held his arm on either side. (Translation: Anthony Pagden 1986:84)[10]

Cortés' truthfulness and motives have been called into question by many scholars. Anthony Pagden[11] and Eulalia Guzmán (Relaciones de Hernán Cortés 1958:279)[12] have pointed the Biblical messages that Cortés seems to ascribe to Moctezuma's retelling of the legend of Quetzalcoatl as a vengeful Messiah who would return to rule over the Mexica. Pagden has written that "There is no preconquest tradition which places Quetzalcoatl in this role, and it seems possible therefore that it was elaborated by Sahagún and Motolinía from informants who themselves had partially lost contact with their traditional tribal histories" (Pagden 1986:467)

Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc

Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, who wrote the Crónica Mexicayotl, was a grandson of Moctezuma II and his chronicle mostly relates the genealogy of the Aztec rulers. He describes Moctezuma's issue and counts that Moctezuma had nineteen children – eleven sons and eight daughters.[13]

Depiction in early post-conquest literature

Some of the Aztec stories about Moctezuma describe him as being fearful of the Spanish newcomers, and some sources, such as the Florentine Codex, comment that the Aztecs believed the Spaniards to be gods and Cortés to be the returned god Quetzalcoatl. The veracity of this claim is difficult to ascertain, though some recent ethnohistorians specialising in early Spanish/Nahua relations have discarded it as post-conquest mythicalisation.[14]

Much of the idea of Cortés being seen as a deity can be traced back to the Florentine Codex, written some 50 years after the conquest. In the codex's description of the first meeting between Moctezuma and Cortés, the Aztec ruler is described as giving a prepared speech in classical oratorial Nahuatl, a speech which as described verbatim in the codex (written by Sahagún's Tlatelolcan informants) included such prostrate declarations of divine or near-divine admiration as, "You have graciously come on earth, you have graciously approached your water, your high place of Mexico, you have come down to your mat, your throne, which I have briefly kept for you, I who used to keep it for you," and, "You have graciously arrived, you have known pain, you have known weariness, now come on earth, take your rest, enter into your palace, rest your limbs; may our lords come on earth." While some historians such as Warren H. Carroll consider this as evidence that Moctezuma was at least open to the possibility that the Spaniards were divinely sent based on the Quetzalcoatl legend, others such as Matthew Restall argue that Moctezuma politely offering his throne to Cortés (if indeed he did ever give the speech as reported) may well have been meant as the exactly opposite of what it was taken to mean, as politeness in Aztec culture was a way to assert dominance and show superiority.[15] Other parties have also propagated the idea that the Native Americans believed the conquistadors to be gods, most notably the historians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta.[16] Bernardino de Sahagún, who compiled the Florentine Codex, was also a Franciscan priest.

Indigenous accounts of omens and Moctezuma's beliefs

Bernardino de Sahagún (1499–1590) includes in Book 12 of the Florentine Codex eight events said to have occurred prior to the arrival of the Spanish. These were purportedly interpreted as signs of a possible disaster, e.g. a comet, the burning of a temple, a crying ghostly woman, and others. Some speculate that the Aztecs were particularly susceptible to such ideas of doom and disaster because the particular year in which the Spanish arrived coincided with a "tying of years" ceremony at the end of a 52-year cycle in the Aztec calendar, which in Aztec belief was linked to changes, rebirth and dangerous events. The belief of the Aztecs being rendered passive by their own superstition is referred to by Matthew Restall as part of "The Myth of Native Desolation" to which he dedicates chapter 6 in his book Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest.[17] These legends are likely a part of the post-conquest rationalization by the Aztecs of their defeat, and serve to show Moctezuma as indecisive, vain, and superstitious, and ultimately the cause of the fall of the Aztec Empire.[9]

Ethnohistorian Susan Gillespie has argued that the Nahua understanding of history as repeating itself in cycles also led to a subsequent rationalization of the events of the conquests. In this interpretation the description of Moctezuma, the final ruler of the Aztec Empire prior to the Spanish conquest, was tailored to fit the role of earlier rulers of ending dynasties—for example Quetzalcoatl, the mythical last ruler of the Toltecs.[18] In any case it is within the realm of possibility that the description of Moctezuma in post-conquest sources was colored by his role as a monumental closing figure of Aztec history.

Contact with the Spanish

First interactions with the Spanish

Meeting place of Moctezuma and Hernán Cortés

In 1517, Moctezuma received the first reports of Europeans landing on the east coast of his empire; this was the expedition of Juan de Grijalva who had landed on San Juan de Ulúa, which although within Totonac territory was under the auspices of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma ordered that he be kept informed of any new sightings of foreigners at the coast and posted extra watch guards to accomplish this. (Díaz del Castillo 1963: 220).

When Cortés arrived in 1519, Moctezuma was immediately informed and he sent emissaries to meet the newcomers; one of them known to be an Aztec noble named Tentlil in the Nahuatl language but referred to in the writings of Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo as "Tendile". As the Spaniards approached Tenochtitlan they made an alliance with the Tlaxcalteca, who were enemies of the Aztec Triple Alliance, and they helped instigate revolt in many towns under Aztec dominion. Moctezuma was aware of this and he sent gifts to the Spaniards, probably in order to show his superiority to the Spaniards and Tlaxcalteca.[19]

On 8 November 1519, Moctezuma met Cortés on the causeway leading into Tenochtitlan and the two leaders exchanged gifts. Moctezuma gave Cortés the gift of an Aztec calendar, one disc of crafted gold and another of silver. Cortés later melted these down for their material value (Díaz del Castillo 1963: 216–19).

Host and prisoner of the Spaniards

Moctezuma captured and imprisoned by Cortés

Moctezuma brought Cortés to his palace where the Spaniards lived as his guests for several months. Moctezuma continued to govern his empire and even undertook conquests of new territory during the Spaniards' stay at Tenochtitlan.

At some time during that period Moctezuma became a prisoner in his own house. Exactly why this happened is not clear from the extant sources. The Aztec nobility reportedly became increasingly displeased with the large Spanish army staying in Tenochtitlan, and Moctezuma told Cortés that it would be best if they left. Shortly thereafter Cortés left to fight Pánfilo de Narváez and during his absence the Massacre in the Great Temple turned the tense situation between the Spaniards and Aztecs into direct hostilities, and Moctezuma became a hostage used by the Spaniards to assure their security.[N.B. 3]

Death

Death and cremation of Moctezuma as depicted in the Florentine Codex, Book 12

In the subsequent battles with the Spaniards after Cortés' return, Moctezuma was killed. The details of his death are unknown, with different versions of his demise given by different sources.

In his Historia, Bernal Díaz del Castillo states that on 1 July 1520, the Spanish forced Moctezuma to appear on the balcony of his palace, appealing to his countrymen to retreat. The people were appalled by their emperor's complicity and pelted him with rocks and darts. He died a short time after that. Bernal Díaz gives this account:

"Barely was the emperor's speech to his subjects finished when a sudden shower of stones and darts descended. Our men who had been shielding Montezuma had momentarily neglected their duty when they saw the attack cease while he spoke to his chiefs. Montezuma was hit by three stones, one on the head, one on the arm, and one on the leg; and though they begged him to have his wounds dressed and eat some food and spoke very kindly to him, he refused. Then quite unexpectedly we were told that he was dead."[20]

Cortés similarly reported that Moctezuma was stabbed by his countrymen. On the other hand, the indigenous accounts claim that he was killed by the Spanish prior to their leaving the city.

Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún recorded two versions of the conquest of Mexico from the Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco viewpoint. In Book 12 of the twelve-volume Florentine Codex the account in Spanish and Nahuatl is accompanied by illustrations by natives. One is of the death of Moctezuma II, which the indigenous assert was due to the Spaniards.

Aftermath

The Spaniards were forced to flee the city and they took refuge in Tlaxcala, and signed a treaty with them to conquer Tenochtitlan, offering to the Tlaxcalans freedom from any kind of tribute and the control of Tenochtitlan.

Moctezuma was then succeeded by his brother Cuitláhuac, who died shortly after during a smallpox epidemic. He was succeeded by his adolescent nephew, Cuauhtémoc. During the siege of the city, the sons of Moctezuma were murdered by the Aztec, possibly because they wanted to surrender. By the following year, the Aztec empire had fallen to an army of Spanish and their Indian allies, primarily Tlaxcalans who were traditional enemies of the Aztecs.

Following the conquest, Moctezuma's daughter Techichpotzin became known as Isabel Moctezuma. She was given a large estate by Cortés, who also fathered a child by her, Leonor Cortés Moctezuma.[21][22] Isabel was married and widowed by a conqueror in Cortés's original group, Alonso Grado (died. ca. 1527) and poblador (a Spaniard who had arrived after the fall of Tenochtitlan), Pedro Gallego (died ca. 1531), and conqueror Juan Cano, who survived her.[23]

Descendants in Mexico and the Spanish nobility

Anonymous portrait of Moctezuma II, 17th century

Moctezuma had many wives and concubines by whom he fathered an enormous family. Though the exact number of his children is unknown and the names of most of his children were lost to history, according to a Spanish chronicler, by the time he was taken captive, Moctezuma had fathered 100 children (including dozens of sons) and fifty of his wives and concubines were then in some stage of pregnancy, though this estimate may have been exaggerated.[24] As Aztec culture made class distinctions between the children of senior wives, lesser wives, and concubines, not all of his children were considered equal in nobility or inheritance rights.

Of his many wives may be named the princesses Teitlalco, Acatlan, and Miahuaxochitl, of whom the first named appears to have been the only legitimate consort. By her he left a son, Asupacaci, who fell during the Noche Triste, and a daughter, Tecuichpo, baptized as Isabel, married consecutively to Quauhtemotzin (the last Mexican sovereign), to visitador general Alonso Grado, to Pedro Andrade Gallego, and to Juan Cano de Saavedra. She had children by the latter two, from whom descend the illustrious families of Andrade-Montezuma and Cano-Montezuma. By the Princess Acatlan were left two daughters, baptized as Maria and Marina (also known as Leonor). The latter alone left offspring, from whom descends the Sotelo-Montezuma family.[25]

Several lines of descendants exist in Mexico and Spain through Moctezuma II's son and daughters, notably Tlacahuepan Ihualicahuaca, or Pedro Moctezuma and Tecuichpo Ixcaxochitzin, or Isabel Moctezuma.

The grandson of Moctezuma II, Pedro's son, Ihuitemotzin, baptized as Diego Luis de Moctezuma, was brought to Spain by King Philip II. There he married Francisca de la Cueva de Valenzuela.[26] In 1627, their son Pedro Tesifón de Moctezuma was given the title Count of Moctezuma (later altered to Moctezuma de Tultengo), and thus became part of the Spanish nobility. In 1766, the holder of the title became a Grandee of Spain. In 1865 (coincidentally during the Second Mexican Empire) the title, which was held by Antonio María Moctezuma-Marcilla de Teruel y Navarro, 14th Count of Moctezuma de Tultengo, was elevated to that of a Duke, thus becoming Duke of Moctezuma, with de Tultengo again added in 1992 by Juan Carlos I.

Descendants of Pedro Tesifón de Moctezuma included (through an illegitimate child of his son Diego Luis) General Jerónimo Girón-Moctezuma, 3rd Marquis de las Amarilas (1741-1819), a 9th generation descendant of Moctezuma II, who was commander of the Spanish forces at the Battle of Fort Charlotte, and his grandson, Francisco Javier Girón y Ezpeleta, 2nd duque de Ahumada and 5th marqués de las Amarillas who was the founder of the Guardia Civil in Spain.[27]

Other holders of Spanish noble titles that descend from the Aztec emperor include Dukes of Atrisco.[28]

Native American mythology and folklore

Many Native American peoples are reported to worship deities named after the Aztec ruler, and often a part of the myth is that someday the deified Moctezuma shall return to vindicate his people. In Mexico the modern day Pames, the Otomi, Tepehuán, Totonac and Nahua peoples are reported to worship earth deities named after Moctezuma.[29] The name also appears in Tzotzil Maya ritual in Zinacantán where dancers dressed as a raingod are called "Moctezumas"[30]

Hubert Howe Bancroft, writing in the 19th century (Native Races, Volume #3), speculated that the name of the historical Aztec Emperor Moctezuma had been used to refer to a combination of different cultural heroes who were united under the name of a particularly salient representative of Native American identity.

Symbol of indigenous leadership

Map showing the expansion of the Aztec empire through conquest. The conquests of Moctezuma II are marked by the colour green (based on the maps by Ross Hassig in Aztec Warfare)

As a symbol of resistance towards Spanish the name of Moctezuma has been invoked in several indigenous rebellions.

One such example was the rebellion of the Virgin Cult in Chiapas in 1721, where the followers of the Virgin Mary rebelled against the Spanish after having been told by an apparition of the virgin that Moctezuma would be resuscitated to assist them against their Spanish oppressors. In the Quisteil rebellion of the Yucatec Maya in 1761 the rebel leader Jacinto Canek reportedly called himself "Little Montezuma".[31]

Portrayals and cultural references

Montezuma II

The Mexican emperor is the title character in several 18th-century operas: Motezuma (1733) by Antonio Vivaldi; Motezuma (1771) by Josef Mysliveček; Montezuma (1755) by Carl Heinrich Graun; and Montesuma (1781) by Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli. He is also the subject of Roger Sessions' opera Montezuma (1963), and the protagonist in the modern opera La Conquista (2005) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, where his part is written in the Nahuatl language.

Moctezuma (spelled Montezuma) is portrayed in Lew Wallace's first novel The Fair God (1873). He is portrayed as influenced by the belief that Cortes was Quetzalcoatl returned, and weak and indecisive, saving the conquistadores from certain defeat in one battle by ordering the Aztecs to stop.[32]

The Marines' Hymn's opening line "From the Halls of Montezuma" refers to the Battle of Chapultepec in Mexico City during the Mexican–American War, 1846–48.

Montezuma is mentioned in Neil Young's song "Cortez the Killer", from the 1975 album Zuma (the title of which is also believed to have come from "Montezuma"). The Aztec empire also served as the backdrop of the song.

Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma Brewery, a brewery of Heineken International found in Monterrey, Mexico, is named after Montezuma II and his nephew, Cuauhtémoc.

Montezuma Castle and Montezuma Well, 13th century Puebloan ruins in central Arizona, were named by 19th century American pioneers who mistakenly thought they were built by the Aztecs.

Moctezuma River and Mount Moctezuma, a volcano in Mexico City, are named after him.

Montezuma is a playable ruler for the Aztec in several of the video games of the Civilization series.

Several species of animals and plants such as Montezuma quail, Montezuma oropendola, Argyrotaenia montezumae and Pinus montezumae have been named after him.

Montezuma's Revenge is a colloquialism for traveler's diarrhea in visitors to Mexico. The urban legend states that Montezuma II initiated the onslaught of diarrhea on "gringo" travelers to Mexico in retribution for the slaughter and subsequent enslavement of the Aztec people by Hernán Cortés on Aug 13, 1521.[33]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Classical Nahuatl: Motēuczōma Xōcoyōtzin [moteːkʷˈsoːma ʃoːkoˈjoːtsin]
  2. ↑ Cacique is a hispanicized word of Caribbean origins, meaning "hereditary lord/chief" or "(military) leader". After first encountering the term and office in the Caribbean, conquest-era writers such as Díaz often used it to describe indigenous rulers generally.
  3. ↑ See the account of Moctezuma's captivity, as given in Díaz del Castillo (1963, pp. 245–299).

References

  1. 1 2 Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec warfare: imperial expansion and political control. Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 188 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press). p. 231. ISBN 0-8061-2121-1. OCLC 17106411.
  2. 1 2 Williamson, Edwin (1992). The Penguin history of Latin America. New York: Penguin Books. p. 18. ISBN 0-14-012559-0. OCLC 29998568.
  3. ↑ González-Obregón, Luis (1992). Las Calles de México (1st ed.). Ciudad de México, DF: Editorial Porrúa. ISBN 968-452-299-1.
  4. ↑ Andrews, J. Richard (2003) [1975]. Introduction to Classical Nahuatl. Revised Edition. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 599.
  5. ↑ Brinton, Daniel G. (1890). Ancient Nahuatl Poetry.
  6. ↑ British Museum Exhibition Guide for Moctezuma: Aztec Ruler (2009)
  7. ↑ adjunctprofessor.tripod.com/bravehorseswarriors/id53.html
  8. ↑ The Conquest of New Spain. Bernal Díaz del Castillo. Translated by J.M. Cohen, New York: Penguin, 1963.
  9. 1 2 Lockhart 1993, pp. 17–19
  10. ↑ Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. Translated by Anthony Pagden. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1986.
  11. ↑ Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. Translated by Anthony Pagden. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1986:467.
  12. ↑ Guzman, Eulalia. Relaciones de Hernan Cortes a Carlos V sobre la invasion de Anáhuac. Vol. I. Mexico, 1958.
  13. ↑ Tezozomoc, Fernando Alvarado, 1992 (1949), Crónica Mexicayotl, Translated by Adrián León, UNAM, México
  14. ↑ Restall 2003, chapter 6
  15. ↑ Restall, 2003, p. 97
  16. ↑ Martínez 1980
  17. ↑ Restall, 2003, chapter 6
  18. ↑ Gillespie, 1989, Chapter 5.
  19. ↑ Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford University Press (2003), ISBN 0-19-516077-0
  20. ↑ Díaz del Castillo (1963, p. 294)
  21. ↑ Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521-1555. Austin: University of Texas Press 1991, p.196.
  22. ↑ Donald E. Chipman, Moctezuma's Children: Aztec Royalty Under Spanish Rule, 1520-1700. Austin: University of Texas Press 2005, p. 68.
  23. ↑ Robert Himmerich y Valencia, ibid. p.195, 134-35.
  24. ↑ Sweet, David G. and Gary B. Nash, Luis (1981). Struggle and Survival in Colonial America (1st ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04110-0., page 215
  25. ↑ Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1883) History of Mexico, Vol. L 1516-1521.
  26. ↑ "Project MUSE". Muse.jhu.edu. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
  27. ↑ "A Descendant of Moctezuma at the Battle of Mobile, 1780". Book-smith.tripod.com. 4 January 2001. Archived from the original on March 4, 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
  28. ↑ Chipman, Donald E (2005). "Moctezuma's children: Aztec royalty under Spanish rule, 1520–1700". ISBN 978-0-292-70628-6.
  29. ↑ Gillespie 1989:165–66
  30. ↑ Bricker,1981:138–9
  31. ↑ Bricker,1981:73
  32. ↑ Wallace, Lew (1873). The Fair God or the Last of the 'Tzins. New York: Grosset and Dunlap.
  33. ↑ http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/aztec-capital-falls-to-corts

Further reading

González-Obregón, Luis (1992). Las Calles de México (1st ed.). Ciudad de México, DF: Editorial Porrúa. ISBN 968-452-299-1. 
Hajovsky, Patrick Thomas. On the Lips of Others: Moteuczoma's Fame in Aztec Monuments and Rituals. Austin: University of Texas Press 2015.
Lockhart, James (ed. and trans.) (1993);We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Martínez, Jose Luis (1980). "Gerónimo de Mendieta". Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl, UNAM, Mexico 14: 131–197. 
Phelan, John Leddy (1970) [1956]. The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World: A Study of the Writings of Gerónimo de Mendieta (1525–1604) (2nd edition, revised ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-01404-9. OCLC 88926. 
Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs (2nd edition, revised ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28132-7. OCLC 43337963. 
Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-739065-0. OCLC 25832740. 
Bueno Bravo,Isabel (2006). "Moctezuma Xocoyotzin y Hernán Cortés: dos visiones de una misma realidad" (PDF). Revista Española de Antropología Americana 36 (2): 17–37.  (Spanish)
Graulich, Michel (1994). Montezuma ou l’apogée et la chute de l’empire aztèque (in French). Paris: Fayard. 
Vazquez Chamorro, Germán (1981). "Las reformas socio-económicas de Motecuhzoma II". Revista española de antropología americana (in Spanish) 11: 207–218. ISSN 0556-6533. 
Vazquez Chamorro, Germán (2006). Moctezuma (in Spanish). EDAF. ISBN 978-84-96107-53-3. 
McEwan Colin and Leonardo López Luján (eds) (2009). London. The British Museum Press. 

External links

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Preceded by
Ahuitzotl		 Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan
1502–1520 		Succeeded by
Cuitláhuac
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