Moons of Saturn

Artist's concepts of the Saturnian ring–moon system

Saturn, its rings and major icy moons—from Mimas to Rhea

Images of several moons of Saturn. From left to right: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea; Titan in the background; Iapetus (top) and irregularly shaped Hyperion (bottom). Some small moons are also shown. All to scale.

The moons of Saturn are numerous and diverse,^[1] ranging from tiny moonlets less than 1 kilometer across to the enormous Titan, which is larger than the planet Mercury. Saturn has 62 moons with confirmed orbits, 53 of which have names and only 13 of which have diameters larger than 50 kilometers.^[2][3][4] Seven Saturnian moons are large enough to be ellipsoidal in shape, though only two of those, Titan and Rhea, are currently in hydrostatic equilibrium, as well as dense rings with complex orbital motions of their own. Particularly notable among Saturn's moons are Titan, the second-largest moon (after Jupiter's Ganymede) in the Solar System, with a nitrogen-rich Earth-like atmosphere and a landscape including hydrocarbon lakes and dry river networks;^[5] and Enceladus, which is seemingly similar in chemical makeup to comets,^[6] emits jets of gas and dust and may harbor liquid water under its south pole region.^[7]

Twenty-four of Saturn's moons are regular satellites; they have prograde orbits not greatly inclined to Saturn's equatorial plane.^[8] They include the seven major satellites, four small moons that exist in a trojan orbit with larger moons, two mutually co-orbital moons and two moons that act as shepherds of Saturn's F Ring. Two other known regular satellites orbit within gaps in Saturn's rings. The relatively large Hyperion is locked in a resonance with Titan. The remaining regular moons orbit near the outer edge of the A Ring, within G Ring and between the major moons Mimas and Enceladus. The regular satellites are traditionally named after Titans and Titanesses or other figures associated with the mythological Saturn.

The remaining 38, all small except one, are irregular satellites, whose orbits are much farther from Saturn, have high inclinations, and are mixed between prograde and retrograde. These moons are probably captured minor planets, or debris from the breakup of such bodies after they were captured, creating collisional families. The irregular satellites have been classified by their orbital characteristics into the Inuit, Norse, and Gallic groups, and their names are chosen from the corresponding mythologies. The largest of the irregular moons is Phoebe, the ninth moon of Saturn, discovered at the end of the 19th century.

The rings of Saturn are made up of objects ranging in size from microscopic to moonlets hundreds of meters across, each in its own orbit around Saturn.^[9] Thus a precise number of Saturnian moons cannot be given, because there is no objective boundary between the countless small anonymous objects that form Saturn's ring system and the larger objects that have been named as moons. Over 150 moonlets embedded in the rings have been detected by the disturbance they create in the surrounding ring material, though this is thought to be only a small sample of the total population of such objects.^[10]

History

Saturn (overexposed) and the moons Iapetus, Titan, Dione, Hyperion, and Rhea viewed through a 12.5-inch telescope

Early observations

Before the advent of telescopic photography, eight moons of Saturn were discovered by direct observation using optical telescopes. Saturn's largest moon, Titan, was discovered in 1655 by Christiaan Huygens using a 57-millimeter (2.2 in) objective lens^[11] on a refracting telescope of his own design.^[12] Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus (the "Sidera Lodoicea") were discovered between 1671 and 1684 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini.^[13] Mimas and Enceladus were discovered in 1789 by William Herschel.^[13] Hyperion was discovered in 1848 by W.C. Bond, G.P. Bond^[14] and William Lassell.^[15]

The use of long-exposure photographic plates made possible the discovery of additional moons. The first to be discovered in this manner, Phoebe, was found in 1899 by W.H. Pickering.^[16] In 1966 the tenth satellite of Saturn was discovered by Audouin Dollfus, when the rings were observed edge-on near an equinox.^[17] It was later named Janus. A few years later it was realized that all observations of 1966 could only be explained if another satellite had been present and that it had an orbit similar to that of Janus.^[17] This object is now known as Epimetheus, the eleventh moon of Saturn. It shares the same orbit with Janus—the only known example of co-orbitals in the Solar System.^[18] In 1980 three additional Saturnian moons were discovered from the ground and later confirmed by the Voyager probes. They are trojan moons of Dione (Helene) and Tethys (Telesto and Calypso).^[18]

Observations by spacecraft

Four moons of Saturn can be seen on this image by the Cassini spacecraft: Huge Titan and Dione at the bottom, small Prometheus (under the rings) and tiny Telesto above center.

Five moons in another Cassini image: Rhea bisected in the foreground, Mimas behind it, bright Enceladus above and beyond the rings, Pandora eclipsed by the F Ring, and Janus off to the left.

The study of the outer planets has since been revolutionized by the use of unmanned space probes. The arrival of the Voyager spacecraft at Saturn in 1980–1981 resulted in the discovery of three additional moons—Atlas, Prometheus and Pandora, bringing the total to 17.^[18] In addition, Epimetheus was confirmed as distinct from Janus. In 1990, Pan was discovered in archival Voyager images.^[18]

The Cassini mission,^[1] which arrived at Saturn in the summer of 2004, initially discovered three small inner moons including Methone and Pallene between Mimas and Enceladus as well as the second Lagrangian moon of Dione—Polydeuces. It also observed three suspected but unconfirmed moons in the F Ring.^[19] In November 2004 Cassini scientists announced that the structure of Saturn's rings indicates the presence of several more moons orbiting within the rings, although only one, Daphnis, has been visually confirmed so far (in 2005).^[20] In 2007 Anthe was announced.^[21] In 2008 it was reported that Cassini observations of a depletion of energetic electrons in Saturn's magnetosphere near Rhea might be the signature of a tenuous ring system around Saturn's second largest moon.^[22] In March 2009, Aegaeon, a moonlet within the G Ring, was announced.^[23] In July of the same year, S/2009 S 1, the first moonlet within the B Ring, was observed.^[4] In April 2014, the possible beginning of a new moon, within the A Ring, was reported.^[24] (related image)

Outer moons

Quadruple Saturn–moon transit captured by the Hubble Space Telescope

Study of Saturn's moons has also been aided by advances in telescope instrumentation, primarily the introduction of digital charge-coupled devices which replaced photographic plates. For the entire 20th century, Phoebe stood alone among Saturn's known moons with its highly irregular orbit. Beginning in 2000, however, three dozen additional irregular moons have been discovered using ground-based telescopes.^[25] A survey starting in late 2000 and conducted using three medium-size telescopes found thirteen new moons orbiting Saturn at a great distance, in eccentric orbits, which are highly inclined to both the equator of Saturn and the ecliptic.^[26] They are probably fragments of larger bodies captured by Saturn's gravitational pull.^[25][26] In 2005, astronomers using the Mauna Kea Observatory announced the discovery of twelve more small outer moons,^[27][28] in 2006, astronomers using the Subaru 8.2 m telescope reported the discovery of nine more irregular moons,^[29] in April 2007, Tarqeq (S/2007 S 1) was announced and in May of the same year S/2007 S 2 and S/2007 S 3 were reported.^[30]

Naming

The modern names for Saturnian moons were suggested by John Herschel in 1847.^[13] He proposed to name them after mythological figures associated with the Roman god of agriculture and harvest, Saturn (equated to the Greek Cronus).^[13] In particular, the then known seven satellites were named after Titans, Titanesses and Giants—brothers and sisters of Cronus.^[16] In 1848 Lassell proposed that the eighth satellite of Saturn be named Hyperion after another Titan.^[15] When in the 20th century the names of Titans were exhausted, the moons were named after different characters of the Greco-Roman mythology or giants from other mythologies.^[31] All the irregular moons (except Phoebe) are named after Inuit and Gallic gods and after Norse ice giants.^[32]

Some asteroids share the same names as moons of Saturn: 55 Pandora, 106 Dione, 577 Rhea, 1809 Prometheus, 1810 Epimetheus, and 4450 Pan. In addition, two more asteroids previously shared the names of Saturnian moons until spelling differences were made permanent by the International Astronomical Union (IAU): Calypso and asteroid 53 Kalypso; and Helene and asteroid 101 Helena.

Sizes

The relative masses of Saturn's moons. Mimas, the rings, and the small moons are invisible at this scale.

Saturn's satellite system is very lopsided: one moon, Titan, comprises more than 96% of the mass in orbit around the planet. The six other planemo (ellipsoidal) moons constitute roughly 4% of the mass, and the remaining 55 small moons, together with the rings, comprise only 0.04%.^{[lower-alpha 1]}

Saturn's major satellites, compared to the Moon
Name	Diameter (km)[33]	Mass (kg)[34]	Orbital radius (km)[35]	Orbital period (days)[35]
Mimas	396 (12% Moon)	0.4×10^20 (0.05% Moon)	185,539 (48% Moon)	0.9 (3% Moon)
Enceladus	504 (14% Moon)	1.1×10^20 (0.2% Moon)	237,948 (62% Moon)	1.4 (5% Moon)
Tethys	1,062 (30% Moon)	6.2×10^20 (0.8% Moon)	294,619 (77% Moon)	1.9 (7% Moon)
Dione	1,123 (32% Moon)	11×10^20 (1.5% Moon)	377,396 (98% Moon)	2.7 (10% Moon)
Rhea	1,527 (44% Moon)	23×10^20 (3% Moon)	527,108 (137% Moon)	4.5 (20% Moon)
Titan	5,150 (148% Moon) (75% Mars)	1,350×10^20 (180% Moon)	1,221,870 (318% Moon)	16 (60% Moon)
Iapetus	1,470 (42% Moon)	18×10^20 (2.5% Moon)	3,560,820 (926% Moon)	79 (290% Moon)

Orbital groups

Although the boundaries may be somewhat vague, Saturn's moons can be divided into ten groups according to their orbital characteristics. Many of them, such as Pan and Daphnis, orbit within Saturn's ring system and have orbital periods only slightly longer than the planet's rotation period.^[36] The innermost moons and most regular satellites all have mean orbital inclinations ranging from less than a degree to about 1.5 degrees (except Iapetus, which has an inclination of 7.57 degrees) and small orbital eccentricities.^[37] On the other hand, irregular satellites in the outermost regions of Saturn's moon system, in particular the Norse group, have orbital radii of millions of kilometers and orbital periods lasting several years. The moons of the Norse group also orbit in the opposite direction to Saturn's rotation.^[32]

Ring moonlets

Daphnis in the Keeler gap

During late July 2009, a moonlet was discovered in the B Ring,^[4] 480 km from the outer edge of the ring, by the shadow it cast. It is estimated to be 300 m in diameter. Unlike the A Ring moonlets (see below), it does not induce a 'propeller' feature, probably due to the density of the B Ring.^[38]

Possible beginning of a new moon of Saturn imaged on 15 April 2014

Saturn's F Ring along with the moons, Enceladus and Rhea.

In 2006, four tiny moonlets were found in Cassini images of the A Ring.^[39] Before this discovery only two larger moons had been known within gaps in the A Ring: Pan and Daphnis. These are large enough to clear continuous gaps in the ring.^[39] In contrast, a moonlet is only massive enough to clear two small—about 10 km across—partial gaps in the immediate vicinity of the moonlet itself creating a structure shaped like an airplane propeller.^[40] The moonlets themselves are tiny, ranging from about 40 to 500 meters in diameter, and are too small to be seen directly.^[10] In 2007, the discovery of 150 more moonlets revealed that they (with the exception of two that have been seen outside the Encke gap) are confined to three narrow bands in the A Ring between 126,750 and 132,000 km from Saturn's center. Each band is about a thousand kilometers wide, which is less than 1% the width of Saturn's rings.^[10] This region is relatively free from the disturbances caused by resonances with larger satellites,^[10] although other areas of the A Ring without disturbances are apparently free of moonlets. The moonlets were probably formed from the breakup of a larger satellite.^[40] It is estimated that the A Ring contains 7,000–8,000 propellers larger than 0.8 km in size and millions larger than 0.25 km.^[10]

Similar moonlets may reside in the F Ring.^[10] There, "jets" of material may be due to collisions, initiated by perturbations from the nearby small moon Prometheus, of these moonlets with the core of the F Ring. One of the largest F Ring moonlets may be the as-yet unconfirmed object S/2004 S 6. The F Ring also contains transient "fans" which are thought to result from even smaller moonlets, about 1 km in diameter, orbiting near the F Ring core.^[41]

One of the recently discovered moons, Aegaeon, resides within the bright arc of G Ring and is trapped in the 7:6 mean-motion resonance with Mimas.^[23] This means that it makes exactly seven revolutions around Saturn while Mimas makes exactly six. The moon is the largest among the population of bodies that are sources of dust in this ring.^[42]

In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon, within the A Ring, of the planet Saturn.^[24]

Ring shepherds

Shepherd satellites are small moons that orbit within, or just beyond, a planet's ring system. They have the effect of sculpting the rings: giving them sharp edges, and creating gaps between them. Saturn's shepherd moons are Pan (Encke gap), Daphnis (Keeler gap), Atlas (A Ring), Prometheus (F Ring) and Pandora (F Ring).^[19][23] These moons together with co-orbitals (see below) probably formed as a result of accretion of the friable ring material on preexisting denser cores. The cores with sizes from one-third to one-half the present day moons may be themselves collisional shards formed when a parental satellite of the rings disintegrated.^[36]

Co-orbitals

Janus and Epimetheus are called co-orbital moons.^[18] They are of roughly equal size, with Janus being slightly larger than Epimetheus.^[36] Janus and Epimetheus have orbits with only a few kilometers difference in semi-major axis, close enough that they would collide if they attempted to pass each other. Instead of colliding, however, their gravitational interaction causes them to swap orbits every four years.^[43]

Inner large moons

Tiger stripes on Enceladus

Saturn's rings and moons

Tethys, Hyperion and Prometheus

Tethys and Janus

Tethys and the rings of Saturn

The innermost large moons of Saturn orbit within its tenuous E Ring, along with three smaller moons of the Alkyonides group.

• Mimas is the smallest and least massive of the inner round moons,^[34] although its mass is sufficient to alter the orbit of Methone.^[43] It is noticeably ovoid-shaped, having been made shorter at the poles and longer at the equator (by about 20 km) by the effects of Saturn's gravity.^[44] Mimas has a large impact crater one-third its diameter, Herschel, situated on its leading hemisphere.^[45] Mimas has no known past or present geologic activity, and its surface is dominated by impact craters. The only tectonic features known are a few arcuate and linear troughs, which probably formed when Mimas was shattered by the Herschel impact.^[45]
• Enceladus is one of the smallest of Saturn's moons that is spherical in shape—only Mimas is smaller^[44]—yet is the only small Saturnian moon that is currently endogenously active, and the smallest known body in the Solar System that is geologically active today.^[46] Its surface is morphologically diverse; it includes ancient heavily cratered terrain as well as younger smooth areas with few impact craters. Many plains on Enceladus are fractured and intersected by systems of lineaments.^[46] The area around its south pole was found by Cassini to be unusually warm and cut by a system of fractures about 130 km long called "tiger stripes", some of which emit jets of water vapor and dust.^[46] These jets form a large plume off its south pole, which replenishes Saturn's E ring^[46] and serves as the main source of ions in the magnetosphere of Saturn.^[47] The gas and dust are released with a rate of more than 100 kg/s. Enceladus may have liquid water underneath the south-polar surface.^[46] The source of the energy for this cryovolcanism is thought to be a 2:1 mean-motion resonance with Dione.^[46] The pure ice on the surface makes Enceladus one of the brightest known objects in the Solar System—its geometrical albedo is more than 140%.^[46]
• Tethys is the third largest of Saturn's inner moons.^[34] Its most prominent features are a large (400 km diameter) impact crater named Odysseus on its leading hemisphere and a vast canyon system named Ithaca Chasma extending at least 270° around Tethys.^[45] The Ithaca Chasma is concentric with Odysseus, and these two features may be related. Tethys appears to have no current geological activity. A heavily cratered hilly terrain occupies the majority of its surface, while a smaller and smoother plains region lies on the hemisphere opposite to that of Odysseus.^[45] The plains contain fewer craters and are apparently younger. A sharp boundary separates them from the cratered terrain. There is also a system of extensional troughs radiating away from Odysseus.^[45] The density of Tethys (0.985 g/cm³) is less than that of water, indicating that it is made mainly of water ice with only a small fraction of rock.^[33]
• Dione is the second-largest inner moon of Saturn. It has a higher density than the geologically dead Rhea, the largest inner moon, but lower than that of active Enceladus.^[44] While the majority of Dione's surface is heavily cratered old terrain, this moon is also covered with an extensive network of troughs and lineaments, indicating that in the past it had global tectonic activity.^[48] The troughs and lineaments are especially prominent on the trailing hemisphere, where several intersecting sets of fractures form what is called "wispy terrain".^[48] The cratered plains have a few large impact craters reaching 250 km in diameter.^[45] Smooth plains with low impact-crater counts are present as well on a small fraction its surface.^[49] They were probably tectonically resurfaced relatively later in the geological history of Dione. At two locations within smooth plains strange landforms (depressions) resembling oblong impact craters have been identified, both of which lie at the centers of radiating networks of cracks and troughs;^[49] these features may be cryovolcanic in origin. Dione may be geologically active even now, although on a scale much smaller than the cryovolcanism of Enceladus. This follows from Cassini magnetic measurements that show Dione is a net source of plasma in the magnetosphere of Saturn, much like Enceladus.^[49]

Alkyonides

Cassini image of Methone's leading side taken on 20 May 2012

Three small moons orbit between Mimas and Enceladus: Methone, Anthe, and Pallene. Named after the Alkyonides of Greek mythology, they are some of the smallest moons in the Saturn system. Anthe and Methone have very faint ring arcs along their orbits, whereas Pallene has a faint complete ring.^[50] Of these three moons, only Methone has been photographed at close range, showing it to be egg-shaped with very few or no craters.^[51]

Trojan moons

Trojan moons are a unique feature only known from the Saturnian system. A trojan body orbits at either the leading L₄ or trailing L₅ Lagrange point of a much larger object, such as a large moon or planet. Tethys has two trojan moons, Telesto (leading) and Calypso (trailing), and Dione also has two, Helene (leading) and Polydeuces (trailing).^[19] Helene is by far the largest trojan moon,^[44] while Polydeuces is the smallest and has the most chaotic orbit.^[43] These moons are coated with dusty material that has smoothened out their surfaces.^[52]

Outer large moons

These moons all orbit beyond the E Ring. They are:

Inktomi or "The Splat", a relatively young crater with prominent butterfly-shaped ejecta on Rhea's leading hemisphere

• Rhea is the second-largest of Saturn's moons.^[44] In 2005 Cassini detected a depletion of electrons in the plasma wake of Rhea, which forms when the co-rotating plasma of Saturn's magnetosphere is absorbed by the moon.^[22] The depletion was hypothesized to be caused by the presence of dust-sized particles concentrated in a few faint equatorial rings.^[22] Such a ring system would make Rhea the only moon in the Solar System known to have rings.^[22] However, subsequent targeted observations of the putative ring plane from several angles by Cassini's narrow-angle camera turned up no evidence of the expected ring material, leaving the origin of the plasma observations unresolved.^[53] Otherwise Rhea has rather a typical heavily cratered surface,^[45] with the exceptions of a few large Dione-type fractures (wispy terrain) on the trailing hemisphere^[54] and a very faint "line" of material at the equator that may have been deposited by material deorbiting from present or former rings.^[55] Rhea also has two very large impact basins on its anti-Saturnian hemisphere, which are about 400 and 500 km across.^[54] The first, Tirawa, is roughly comparable to the Odysseus basin on Tethys.^[45] There is also a 48 km-diameter impact crater called Inktomi^{[56][lower-alpha 2]} at 112°W that is prominent because of an extended system of bright rays,^[57] which may be one of the youngest craters on the inner moons of Saturn.^[54] No evidence of any endogenic activity has been discovered on the surface of Rhea.^[54]

Three crescent moons of Saturn: Titan, Mimas and Rhea

• Titan, at 5,150 km diameter, is the second largest moon in the Solar System and Saturn's largest.^[34] Out of all the large moons, Titan is the only one with a dense (surface pressure of 1.5 atm), cold atmosphere, primarily made of nitrogen with a small fraction of methane.^[58] The dense atmosphere frequently produces bright white convective clouds, especially over the south pole region.^[58] On June 6, 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan.^[59] On June 23, 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times.^[60] The surface of Titan, which is difficult to observe due to persistent atmospheric haze, shows only a few impact craters and is probably very young.^[58] It contains a pattern of light and dark regions, flow channels and possibly cryovolcanos.^[58][61] Some dark regions are covered by longitudinal dune fields shaped by tidal winds, where sand is made of frozen water or hydrocarbons.^[62] Titan is the only body in the Solar System beside Earth with bodies of liquid on its surface, in the form of methane–ethane lakes in Titan's north and south polar regions.^[63] The largest lake, Kraken Mare, is larger than the Caspian Sea.^[64] Like Europa and Ganymede, it is believed that Titan has a subsurface ocean made of water mixed with ammonia, which can erupt to the surface of the moon and lead to cryovolcanism.^[61] On July 2, 2014, NASA reported the ocean inside Titan may be "as salty as the Earth's Dead Sea".^[65][66]
• Hyperion is Titan's nearest neighbor in the Saturn system. The two moons are locked in a 4:3 mean-motion resonance with each other, meaning that while Titan makes four revolutions around Saturn, Hyperion makes exactly three.^[34] With an average diameter of about 270 km, Hyperion is smaller and lighter than Mimas.^[67] It has an extremely irregular shape, and a very odd, tan-colored icy surface resembling a sponge, though its interior may be partially porous as well.^[67] The average density of about 0.55 g/cm^3[67] indicates that the porosity exceeds 40% even assuming it has a purely icy composition. The surface of Hyperion is covered with numerous impact craters—those with diameters 2–10 km are especially abundant.^[67] It is the only moon besides the small moons of Pluto known to have a chaotic rotation, which means Hyperion has no well-defined poles or equator. While on short timescales the satellite approximately rotates around its long axis at a rate of 72–75° per day, on longer timescales its axis of rotation (spin vector) wanders chaotically across the sky.^[67] This makes the rotational behavior of Hyperion essentially unpredictable.^[68]

Equatorial ridge on Iapetus

• Iapetus is the third-largest of Saturn's moons.^[44] Orbiting the planet at 3.5 million km, it is by far the most distant of Saturn's large moons, and also has the largest orbital inclination, at 15.47°.^[35] Iapetus has long been known for its unusual two-toned surface; its leading hemisphere is pitch-black and its trailing hemisphere is almost as bright as fresh snow.^[69] Cassini images showed that the dark material is confined to a large near-equatorial area on the leading hemisphere called Cassini Regio, which extends approximately from 40°N to 40°S.^[69] The pole regions of Iapetus are as bright as its trailing hemisphere. Cassini also discovered a 20 km tall equatorial ridge, which spans nearly the moon's entire equator.^[69] Otherwise both dark and bright surfaces of Iapetus are old and heavily cratered. The images revealed at least four large impact basins with diameters from 380 to 550 km and numerous smaller impact craters.^[69] No evidence of any endogenic activity has been discovered.^[69] A clue to the origin of the dark material covering part of Iapetus's starkly dichromatic surface may have been found in 2009, when NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope discovered a vast, nearly invisible disk around Saturn, just inside the orbit of the moon Phoebe—the Phoebe ring.^[70] Scientists believe that the disk originates from dust and ice particles kicked up by impacts on Phoebe. Because the disk particles, like Phoebe itself, orbit in the opposite direction to Iapetus, Iapetus collides with them as they drift in the direction of Saturn, darkening its leading hemisphere slightly.^[70] Once a difference in albedo, and hence in average temperature, was established between different regions of Iapetus, a thermal runaway process of water ice sublimation from warmer regions and deposition of water vapor onto colder regions ensued. Iapetus's present two-toned appearance results from the contrast between the bright, primarily ice-coated areas and regions of dark lag, the residue left behind after the loss of surface ice.^[71][72]

Irregular moons

Diagram illustrating the orbits of the irregular satellites of Saturn. The inclination and semi-major axis are represented on the Y and X-axis, respectively. The eccentricity of the orbits is shown by the segments extending from the pericenter to apocenter. The satellites with positive inclinations are prograde, those with negative are retrograde. The X-axis is labeled in km. The prograde Inuit and Gallic groups and the retrograde Norse group are identified.

Irregular moons are small satellites with large-radii, inclined, and frequently retrograde orbits, believed to have been acquired by the parent planet through a capture process. They often occur as collisional families or groups.^[25] The precise size as well as albedo of the irregular moons are not known for sure because the moons are very small to be resolved by a telescope, although the latter is usually assumed to be quite low—around 6% (albedo of Phoebe) or less.^[26] The irregulars generally have featureless visible and near infrared spectra dominated by water absorption bands.^[25] They are neutral or moderately red in color—similar to C-type, P-type, or D-type asteroids,^[32] though they are much less red than Kuiper belt objects.^{[25][lower-alpha 3]}

Inuit group

The Inuit group includes five prograde outer moons that are similar enough in their distances from the planet (186–297 radii of Saturn), their orbital inclinations (45–50°) and their colors that they can be considered a group.^[26][32] The moons are Ijiraq, Kiviuq, Paaliaq, Siarnaq, and Tarqeq.^[32] The largest among them is Siarnaq with an estimated size of about 40 km.

Gallic group

The Gallic group are four prograde outer moons that are similar enough in their distance from the planet (207–302 radii of Saturn), their orbital inclination (35–40°) and their color that they can be considered a group.^[26][32] They are Albiorix, Bebhionn, Erriapus, and Tarvos.^[32] Tarvos, as of 2009, is the most distant of Saturn's moons with a prograde orbit. The largest among these moons is Albiorix with an estimated size of about 32 km.

Norse group

Saturn's rings and moons – Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas.

The Norse (or Phoebe) group consists of 29 retrograde outer moons.^[26][32] They are Aegir, Bergelmir, Bestla, Farbauti, Fenrir, Fornjot, Greip, Hati, Hyrrokkin, Jarnsaxa, Kari, Loge, Mundilfari, Narvi, Phoebe, Skathi, Skoll, Surtur, Suttungr, Thrymr, Ymir, S/2004 S 7, S/2004 S 12, S/2004 S 13, S/2004 S 17, S/2006 S 1, S/2006 S 3, S/2007 S 2, and S/2007 S 3.^[32] After Phoebe, Ymir is the largest of the known retrograde irregular moons, with an estimated diameter of only 18 km. The Norse group may itself consist of several smaller subgroups.^[32]

• Phoebe, at 213±1.4 km in diameter, is by far the largest of Saturn's irregular satellites.^[25] It has a retrograde orbit and rotates on its axis every 9.3 hours.^[73] Phoebe was the first moon of Saturn to be studied in detail by Cassini, in June 2004; during this encounter Cassini was able to map nearly 90% of the moon's surface. Phoebe has a nearly spherical shape and a relatively high density of about 1.6 g/cm³.^[25] Cassini images revealed a dark surface scarred by numerous impacts—there are about 130 craters with diameters exceeding 10 km. Spectroscopic measurement showed that the surface is made of water ice, carbon dioxide, phyllosilicates, organics and possibly iron bearing minerals.^[25] Phoebe is believed to be a captured centaur that originated in the Kuiper belt.^[25] It also serves as a source of material for the largest known ring of Saturn, which darkens the leading hemisphere of Iapetus (see above).^[70]

List

Confirmed moons

The Saturnian moons are listed here by orbital period (or semi-major axis), from shortest to longest. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in bold, while the irregular moons are listed in red, orange and gray background.

Key
† Major icy moons	♠ Titan	‡ Inuit group	♦ Gallic group	♣ Norse group

Order	Label [lower-alpha 4]	Name	Pronunciation (key)	Image	Diameter (km)[lower-alpha 5]	Mass (×10^15 kg) [lower-alpha 6]	Semi-major axis (km) [lower-alpha 7]	Orbital period (d)[lower-alpha 7][lower-alpha 8]	Inclination [lower-alpha 7][lower-alpha 9]	Eccentricity	Position	Discovery year[31]	Discoverer [31]
1		S/2009 S/2009 S 1	—		≈ 0.3	< 0.0001	≈ 117000	≈ 0.47	≈ 0°	≈ 0	outer B Ring	2009	Cassini[4]
		(moonlets)	—		0.04 to 0.4 (Earhart)	< 0.0001	≈ 130000	≈ 0.55	≈ 0°	≈ 0	Three 1000 km bands within A Ring	2006	Cassini
2	XVIII	Pan Pan	ˈpæn		28.2±2.6 (34 × 31 × 20)	4.95±0.75	133584	+0.57505	0.001°	0.000035	in Encke Division	1990	M. Showalter
3	XXXV	Daphnis Daphnis	ˈdæfnᵻs		7.6±1.6 (9 × 8 × 6)	0.084±0.012	136505	+0.59408	≈ 0°	≈ 0	in Keeler Gap	2005	Cassini
4	XV	Atlas Atlas	ˈætləs		30.2±1.8 (41 × 35 × 19)	6.6±0.045	137670	+0.60169	0.003°	0.0012	outer A Ring shepherd	1980	Voyager 2
5	XVI	Prometheus Prometheus	proʊˈmiːθiːəs		86.2±5.4 (136 × 79 × 59)	159.5±1.5	139380	+0.61299	0.008°	0.0022	inner F Ring shepherd	1980	Voyager 2
6	XVII	Pandora Pandora	pænˈdɔərə		81.4±3.0 (104 × 81 × 64)	137.1±1.9	141720	+0.62850	0.050°	0.0042	outer F Ring Shepherd	1980	Voyager 2
7a	XI	Epimetheus Epimetheus	ˌɛpᵻˈmiːθiːəs		116.2±3.6 (130 × 114 × 106)	526.6±0.6	151422	+0.69433	0.335°	0.0098	co-orbital with Janus	1977	J. Fountain, and S. Larson
7b	X	Janus Janus	ˈdʒeɪnəs		179.0±2.8 (203 × 185 × 153)	1897.5±0.6	151472	+0.69466	0.165°	0.0068	co-orbital with Epimetheus	1966	A. Dollfus
9	LIII	Aegaeon Aegaeon	iːˈdʒiːən		≈ 0.5	≈ 0.0001	167500	+0.80812	0.001°	0.0002	G Ring moonlet	2008	Cassini
10	I	Mimas †Mimas	ˈmaɪməs / ˈmiːməs		396.4±0.8 (416 × 393 × 381)	37493±31	185404	+0.942422	1.566°	0.0202		1789	W. Herschel
11	XXXII	Methone Methone	mᵻˈθoʊniː		3.2±1.2	≈ 0.02	194440	+1.00957	0.007°	0.0001	Alkyonides	2004	Cassini
12	XLIX	Anthe Anthe	ˈænθiː		≈ 1	≈ 0.007	197700	+1.03650	0.1°	0.001	Alkyonides	2007	Cassini
13	XXXIII	Pallene Pallene	pəˈliːniː		5.0±1.2 (6 × 6 × 4)	≈ 0.05	212280	+1.15375	0.181°	0.0040	Alkyonides	2004	Cassini
14	II	Enceladus †Enceladus	ɛnˈsɛlədəs		504.2±0.4 (513 × 503 × 497)	108022±101	237950	+1.370218	0.010°	0.0047	Generates the E ring	1789	W. Herschel
15	III	Tethys †Tethys	ˈtiːθᵻs / ˈtɛθᵻs		1062±1.2 (1077 × 1057 × 1053)	617449±132	294619	+1.887802	0.168°	0.0001		1684	G. Cassini
15a	XIII	Telesto Telesto	tᵻˈlɛstoʊ		24.8±0.8 (33 × 24 × 20)	≈ 9.41	294619	+1.887802	1.158°	0.000	leading Tethys trojan	1980	B. Smith, H. Reitsema, S. Larson, and J. Fountain
15b	XIV	Calypso Calypso	kəˈlɪpsoʊ		21.4±1.4 (30 × 23 × 14)	≈ 6.3	294619	+1.887802	1.473°	0.000	trailing Tethys trojan	1980	D. Pascu, P. Seidelmann, W. Baum, and D. Currie
18	IV	Dione †Dione	daɪˈoʊniː		1122.8±0.8 (1128 × 1123 × 1119)	1095452±168	377396	+2.736915	0.002°	0.0022		1684	G. Cassini
18a	XII	Helene Helene	ˈhɛlᵻniː		35.2±0.8 (43 × 38 × 26)	≈ 24.46	377396	+2.736915	0.212°	0.0022	leading Dione trojan	1980	P. Laques and J. Lecacheux
18b	XXXIV	Polydeuces Polydeuces	ˌpɒliˈdjuːsiːz		2.6±0.8 (3 × 2 × 1)	≈ 0.03	377396	+2.736915	0.177°	0.0192	trailing Dione trojan	2004	Cassini
21	V	Rhea †Rhea	ˈriːə		1527.0±1.2 (1530 × 1526 × 1525)	2306518±353	527108	+4.518212	0.327°	0.001258		1672	G. Cassini
22	VI	Titan ♠Titan	ˈtaɪtən		5149	134520000±20000	1221930	+15.94542	0.3485°	0.0288		1655	C. Huygens
23	VII	Hyperion †Hyperion	haɪˈpɪəriən		270±8 (360 × 266 × 205)	5620±50	1481010	+21.27661	0.568°	0.123006	in 4:3 resonance with Titan	1848	W. Bond G. Bond W. Lassell
24	VIII	Iapetus †Iapetus	aɪˈæpᵻtəs		1468.6±5.6 (1491 × 1491 × 1424)	1805635±375	3560820	+79.3215	15.47°	0.028613		1671	G. Cassini
25	XXIV	Kiviuq ‡Kiviuq	ˈkɪviək		≈ 16	≈ 2.79	11294800	+448.16	49.087°	0.3288	Inuit group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
26	XXII	Ijiraq ‡Ijiraq	ˈiː.ᵻrɒk		≈ 12	≈ 1.18	11355316	+451.77	50.212°	0.3161	Inuit group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
27	IX	Phoebe ♣†Phoebe	ˈfiːbiː		213.0±1.4 (219 × 217 × 204)	8292±10	12869700	−545.09	173.047°	0.156242	Norse group	1899	W. Pickering
28	XX	Paaliaq ‡Paaliaq	ˈpɑːliɒk		≈ 22	≈ 7.25	15103400	+692.98	46.151°	0.3631	Inuit group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
29	XXVII	Skathi ♣Skathi	ˈskɒði		≈ 8	≈ 0.35	15672500	−732.52	149.084°	0.246	Norse (Skathi) Group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
30	XXVI	Albiorix ♦Albiorix	ˌælbiˈɒrɪks		≈ 32	≈ 22.3	16266700	+774.58	38.042°	0.477	Gallic group	2000	M. Holman
31		S/2007A ♣S/2007 S 2	—		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	16560000	−792.96	176.68°	0.2418	Norse group	2007	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna, B. Marsden
32	XXXVII	Bebhionn ♦Bebhionn	bɛˈviːn, ˈvɪvi.ɒn		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	17153520	+838.77	40.484°	0.333	Gallic group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
33	XXVIII	Erriapus ♦Erriapus	ˌɛriˈæpəs		≈ 10	≈ 0.68	17236900	+844.89	38.109°	0.4724	Gallic group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
34	XLVII	Skoll ♣Skoll	ˈskɒl, ˈskɜːl		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	17473800	−862.37	155.624°	0.418	Norse (Skathi) group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
35	XXIX	Siarnaq ‡Siarnaq	ˈsiːɑːrnək		≈ 40	≈ 43.5	17776600	+884.88	45.798°	0.24961	Inuit group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
36	LII	Tarqeq ‡Tarqeq	ˈtɑːrkeɪk		≈ 7	≈ 0.23	17910600	+894.86	49.904°	0.1081	Inuit group	2007	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
37		S/2004B ♣S/2004 S 13	—		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	18056300	−905.85	167.379°	0.261	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
38	LI	Greip ♣Greip	ˈɡreɪp		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	18065700	−906.56	172.666°	0.3735	Norse group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
39	XLIV	Hyrrokkin ♣Hyrrokkin	hɪˈrɒkᵻn		≈ 8	≈ 0.35	18168300	−914.29	153.272°	0.3604	Norse (Skathi) group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
40	L	Jarnsaxa ♣Jarnsaxa	jɑːrnˈsæksə		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	18556900	−943.78	162.861°	0.1918	Norse group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
41	XXI	Tarvos ♦Tarvos	ˈtɑːrvəs		≈ 15	≈ 2.3	18562800	+944.23	34.679°	0.5305	Gallic group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
42	XXV	Mundilfari ♣Mundilfari	ˌmʊndəlˈvɛri		≈ 7	≈ 0.23	18725800	−956.70	169.378°	0.198	Norse group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
43		S/2006 ♣S/2006 S 1	—		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	18930200	−972.41	154.232°	0.1303	Norse (Skathi) group	2006	S. Sheppard, D.C. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
44		S/2004C ♣S/2004 S 17	—		≈ 4	≈ 0.05	19099200	−985.45	166.881°	0.226	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
45	XXXVIII	Bergelmir ♣Bergelmir	bɛərˈjɛlmɪər		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	19104000	−985.83	157.384°	0.152	Norse (Skathi) group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
46	XXXI	Narvi ♣Narvi	ˈnɑːrvi		≈ 7	≈ 0.23	19395200	−1008.45	137.292°	0.320	Norse (Narvi) group	2003	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
47	XXIII	Suttungr ♣Suttungr	ˈsʊtʊŋɡər		≈ 7	≈ 0.23	19579000	−1022.82	174.321°	0.131	Norse group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
48	XLIII	Hati ♣Hati	ˈhɑːti		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	19709300	−1033.05	163.131°	0.291	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
49		S/2004A ♣S/2004 S 12	—		≈ 5	≈ 0.09	19905900	−1048.54	164.042°	0.396	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
50	XL	Farbauti ♣Farbauti	fɑːrˈbaʊti		≈ 5	≈ 0.09	19984800	−1054.78	158.361°	0.209	Norse (Skathi) group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
51	XXX	Thrymr ♣Thrymr	ˈθrɪmər		≈ 7	≈ 0.23	20278100	−1078.09	174.524°	0.453	Norse group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
52	XXXVI	Aegir ♣Aegir	ˈaɪ.ɪər		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	20482900	−1094.46	167.425°	0.237	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
53		S/2007B ♣S/2007 S 3	—		≈ 5	≈ 0.09	20518500	≈ −1100	177.22°	0.130	Norse group	2007	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
54	XXXIX	Bestla ♣Bestla	ˈbɛstlə		≈ 7	≈ 0.23	20570000	−1101.45	147.395°	0.5145	Norse (Narvi) group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
55		S/2007C ♣S/2004 S 7	—		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	20576700	−1101.99	165.596°	0.5299	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
56		S/2006 ♣S/2006 S 3	—		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	21076300	−1142.37	150.817°	0.4710	Norse (Skathi) group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
57	XLI	Fenrir ♣Fenrir	ˈfɛnrɪər		≈ 4	≈ 0.05	21930644	−1212.53	162.832°	0.131	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
58	XLVIII	Surtur ♣Surtur	ˈsɜːrtər		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	22288916	−1242.36	166.918°	0.3680	Norse group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
59	XLV	Kari ♣Kari	ˈkɑːri		≈ 7	≈ 0.23	22321200	−1245.06	148.384°	0.3405	Norse (Skathi) group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
60	XIX	Ymir ♣Ymir	ˈɪmɪər		≈ 18	≈ 3.97	22429673	−1254.15	172.143°	0.3349	Norse group	2000	B. Gladman, J. Kavelaars, et al.
61	XLVI	Loge ♣Loge	ˈlɔɪ.eɪ		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	22984322	−1300.95	166.539°	0.1390	Norse group	2006	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna
62	XLII	Fornjot ♣Fornjot	ˈfɔːrnjɒt		≈ 6	≈ 0.15	24504879	−1432.16	167.886°	0.186	Norse group	2004	S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, J. Kleyna

Unconfirmed moons

The following objects (observed by Cassini) have not been confirmed as solid bodies. It is not yet clear if these are real satellites or merely persistent clumps within the F Ring.^[19]

Name	Image	Diameter (km)	Semi-major axis (km)[43]	Orbital period (d)[43]	Position	Discovery year
S/2004 S 6		≈ 3–5	≈ 140130	+0.61801	uncertain objects around the F Ring	2004
S/2004 S 3/S 4[lower-alpha 10]		≈ 3–5	≈ 140300	≈ +0.619		2004

Hypothetical moons

Two moons were claimed to be discovered by different astronomers but never seen again. Both moons were said to orbit between Titan and Hyperion.^[75]

• Chiron which was supposedly sighted by Hermann Goldschmidt in 1861, but never observed by anyone else.^[75]
• Themis was allegedly discovered in 1905 by astronomer William Pickering, but never seen again. Nevertheless, it was included in numerous almanacs and astronomy books until the 1960s.^[75]

Formation

It is thought that the Saturnian system of Titan, mid-sized moons, and rings developed from a set-up closer to the Galilean moons of Jupiter, though the details are unclear. It has been proposed either that a second Titan-sized moon broke up, producing the rings and inner mid-sized moons,^[76] or that two large moons fused to form Titan, with the collision scattering icy debris that formed the mid-sized moons.^[77] On June 23, 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times.^[60] Studies based on Enceladus's tidal-based geologic activity and the lack of evidence of extensive past resonances in Tethys, Dione, and Rhea's orbits suggest that the moons inward of Titan may be only 100 million years old.^[78]

Notes

1. The mass of the rings is about the mass of Mimas,^[9] whereas the combined mass of Janus, Hyperion and Phoebe—the most massive of the remaining moons—is about one-third of that. The total mass of the rings and small moons is around 5.5×10¹⁹ kg.
2. Inktomi was once known as "The Splat".^[57]
3. The photometric color may be used as a proxy for the chemical composition of satellites' surfaces.
4. A confirmed moon is given a permanent designation by the IAU consisting of a name and a Roman numeral.^[31] The nine moons that were known before 1900 (of which Phoebe is the only irregular) are numbered in order of their distance from Saturn; the rest are numbered in the order by which they received their permanent designations. Nine small moons of the Norse group and S/2009 S 1 have not yet received a permanent designation.
5. The diameters and dimensions of the inner moons from Pan through Janus, Methone, Pallene, Telepso, Calypso, Helene, Hyperion and Phoebe were taken from Thomas 2010, Table 3.^[33] Diameters and dimensions of Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus are from Thomas 2010, Table 1.^[33] The approximate sizes of other satellites are from the website of Scott Sheppard.^[37]
6. Masses of the large moons were taken from Jacobson, 2006.^[34] Masses of Pan, Daphnis, Atlas, Prometheus, Pandora, Epimetheus, Janus, Hyperion and Phoebe were taken from Thomas, 2010, Table 3.^[33] Masses of other small moons were calculated assuming a density of 1.3 g/cm³.
7. The orbital parameters were taken from Spitale, et al. 2006,^[43] IAU-MPC Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service,^[74] and NASA/NSSDC.^[35]
8. Negative orbital periods indicate a retrograde orbit around Saturn (opposite to the planet's rotation).
9. To Saturn's equator for the regular satellites, and to the ecliptic for the irregular satellites
10. S/2004 S 4 was most likely a transient clump—it has not been recovered since the first sighting.^[19]

References

1. Corum, Jonathan (December 18, 2015). "Mapping Saturn’s Moons". New York Times. Retrieved December 18, 2015.
2. "Solar System Exploration Planets Saturn: Moons: S/2009 S1". NASA. Retrieved January 17, 2010.
3. Sheppard, Scott S. "The Giant Planet Satellite and Moon Page". Departament of Terrestrial Magnetism at Carniege Institution for science. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
4. Porco, C. and the Cassini Imaging Team (November 2, 2009). "S/2009 S1". IAU Circular 9091.
5. http://www.space.com/15257-titan-saturn-largest-moon-facts-discovery-sdcmp.html
6. Battersby, Stephen (March 26, 2008). "Saturn's moon Enceladus surprisingly comet-like". New Scientist. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
7. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Enceladus
8. http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec17.html
9. Esposito, L. W. (2002). "Planetary rings". Reports On Progress In Physics 65 (12): 1741–1783. Bibcode:2002RPPh...65.1741E. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/65/12/201.
10. Tiscareno, Matthew S.; Burns, J.A; Hedman, M.M; Porco, C.C (2008). "The population of propellers in Saturn's A Ring". Astronomical Journal 135 (3): 1083–1091. arXiv:0710.4547. Bibcode:2008AJ....135.1083T. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/3/1083.
11. Nemiroff, Robert and Bonnell, Jerry (March 25, 2005). "Huygens Discovers Luna Saturni". Astronomy Picture of the Day. Retrieved March 4, 2010.
12. Baalke, Ron. "Historical Background of Saturn's Rings (1655)". NASA/JPL. Retrieved March 4, 2010.
13. Van Helden, Albert (1994). "Naming the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn" (PDF). The Newsletter of the Historical Astronomy Division of the American Astronomical Society (32): 1–2.
14. Bond, W.C (1848). "Discovery of a new satellite of Saturn". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 9: 1–2. Bibcode:1848MNRAS...9....1B. doi:10.1093/mnras/9.1.1.
15. Lassell, William (1848). "Discovery of new satellite of Saturn". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 8: 195–197. Bibcode:1848MNRAS...8..195L. doi:10.1093/mnras/8.9.195a.
16. Pickering, Edward C (1899). "A New Satellite of Saturn". Astrophysical Journal 9: 274–276. Bibcode:1899ApJ.....9..274P. doi:10.1086/140590.
17. Fountain, John W; Larson, Stephen M (1977). "A New Satellite of Saturn?". Science 197 (4306): 915–917. Bibcode:1977Sci...197..915F. doi:10.1126/science.197.4306.915. PMID 17730174.
18. Uralskaya, V.S (1998). "Discovery of new satellites of Saturn". Astronomical and Astrophysical Transactions 15: 249–253. Bibcode:1998A&AT...15..249U. doi:10.1080/10556799808201777.
19. Porco, C. C.; Baker, E.; Barbara, J.; et al. (2005). "Cassini Imaging Science: Initial Results on Saturn's Rings and Small Satellites" (PDF). Science 307 (5713): 1226–36. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1226P. doi:10.1126/science.1108056. PMID 15731439.
20. Robert Roy Britt (2004). "Hints of Unseen Moons in Saturn's Rings". Archived from the original on February 12, 2006. Retrieved January 15, 2011.
21. Porco, C.; The Cassini Imaging Team (July 18, 2007). "S/2007 S4". IAU Circular 8857.
22. Jones, G.H.; Roussos, E.; Krupp, N.; et al. (2008). "The Dust Halo of Saturn's Largest Icy Moon, Rhea". Science 319 (1): 1380–84. Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1380J. doi:10.1126/science.1151524. PMID 18323452.
23. Porco, C.; The Cassini Imaging Team (March 3, 2009). "S/2008 S1 (Aegaeon)". IAU Circular 9023.
24. Platt, Jane; Brown, Dwayne (14 April 2014). "NASA Cassini Images May Reveal Birth of a Saturn Moon". NASA. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
25. Jewitt, David; Haghighipour, Nader (2007). "Irregular Satellites of the Planets: Products of Capture in the Early Solar System". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 45: 261–95. arXiv:astro-ph/0703059. Bibcode:2007ARA&A..45..261J. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.44.051905.092459. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-02-07.
26. Gladman, Brett; Kavelaars, J. J.; Holman, Matthew; et al. (2001). "Discovery of 12 satellites of Saturn exhibiting orbital clustering". Nature 412 (6843): 1631–166. doi:10.1038/35084032. PMID 11449267.
27. David Jewitt (May 3, 2005). "12 New Moons For Saturn". University of Hawaii. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
28. Emily Lakdawalla (May 3, 2005). "Twelve New Moons For Saturn". Retrieved March 4, 2010.
29. Sheppard, S. S.; Jewitt, D. C.; and Kleyna, J. (June 30, 2006). "Satellites of Saturn". IAU Circular No 8727. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
30. Sheppard, S. S.; Jewitt, D. C.; and Kleyna, J. (May 11, 2007). "S/2007 S 1, S/2007 S 2, AND S/2007 S 3". IAU Circular No 8836. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
31. "Planet and Satellite Names and Discoverers". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS Astrogeology. July 21, 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-06.
32. Grav, Tommy; Bauer, James (2007). "A deeper look at the colors of the Saturnian irregular satellites". Icarus 191 (1): 267–285. arXiv:astro-ph/0611590. Bibcode:2007Icar..191..267G. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.04.020.
33. Thomas, P. C. (July 2010). "Sizes, shapes, and derived properties of the saturnian satellites after the Cassini nominal mission" (PDF). Icarus 208 (1): 395–401. Bibcode:2010Icar..208..395T. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.01.025.
34. Jacobson, R. A.; Antreasian, P. G.; Bordi, J. J.; Criddle, K. E.; Ionasescu, R.; Jones, J. B.; Mackenzie, R. A.; Meek, M. C.; Parcher, D.; Pelletier, F. J.; Owen, Jr., W. M.; Roth, D. C.; Roundhill, I. M.; Stauch, J. R. (December 2006). "The Gravity Field of the Saturnian System from Satellite Observations and Spacecraft Tracking Data". The Astronomical Journal 132 (6): 2520–2526. Bibcode:2006AJ....132.2520J. doi:10.1086/508812.
35. Williams, David R. (August 21, 2008). "Saturnian Satellite Fact Sheet". NASA (National Space Science Data Center). Retrieved April 27, 2010.
36. Porco, C. C.; Thomas, P. C.; Weiss, J. W.; Richardson, D. C. (2007). "Saturn's Small Inner Satellites:Clues to Their Origins" (pdf). Science 318 (5856): 1602–1607. Bibcode:2007Sci...318.1602P. doi:10.1126/science.1143977. PMID 18063794.
37. Sheppard, Scott S. "Saturn's Known Satellites". Retrieved January 7, 2010.
38. "A Small Find Near Equinox". NASA/JPL. August 7, 2009. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
39. Tiscareno, Matthew S.; Burns, Joseph A; Hedman, Mathew M; Porco, Carolyn C.; Weiss, John W.; Dones, Luke; Richardson, Derek C.; Murray, Carl D. (2006). "100-metre-diameter moonlets in Saturn's A ring from observations of 'propeller' structures". Nature 440 (7084): 648–650. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..648T. doi:10.1038/nature04581. PMID 16572165.
40. Sremčević, Miodrag; Schmidt, Jürgen; Salo, Heikki; Seiß, Martin; Spahn, Frank; Albers, Nicole (2007). "A belt of moonlets in Saturn's A ring". Nature 449 (7165): 1019–21. Bibcode:2007Natur.449.1019S. doi:10.1038/nature06224. PMID 17960236.
41. Murray, Carl D.; Beurle, Kevin; Cooper, Nicholas J.; et al. (2008). "The determination of the structure of Saturn's F ring by nearby moonlets". Nature 453 (7196): 739–744. Bibcode:2008Natur.453..739M. doi:10.1038/nature06999. PMID 18528389.
42. Hedman, M. M.; J. A. Burns; M. S. Tiscareno; C. C. Porco; G. H. Jones; E. Roussos; N. Krupp; C. Paranicas; S. Kempf (2007). "The Source of Saturn's G Ring" (PDF). Science 317 (5838): 653–656. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..653H. doi:10.1126/science.1143964. PMID 17673659.
43. Spitale, J. N.; Jacobson, R. A.; Porco, C. C.; Owen, W. M., Jr. (2006). "The orbits of Saturn's small satellites derived from combined historic and Cassini imaging observations" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal 132 (2): 692–710. Bibcode:2006AJ....132..692S. doi:10.1086/505206.
44. Thomas, P.C; Burns, J.A.; Helfenstein, P.; et al. (2007). "Shapes of the saturnian icy satellites and their significance" (PDF). Icarus 190 (2): 573–584. Bibcode:2007Icar..190..573T. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.012.
45. Moore, Jeffrey M.; Schenk, Paul M.; Bruesch, Lindsey S.; Asphaug, Erik; McKinnon, William B. (October 2004). "Large impact features on middle-sized icy satellites" (PDF). Icarus 171 (2): 421–443. Bibcode:2004Icar..171..421M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.05.009.
46. Porco, C. C.; Helfenstein, P.; Thomas, P. C.; Ingersoll, A. P.; Wisdom, J.; West, R.; Neukum, G.; Denk, T.; Wagner, R. (10 March 2006). "Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus". Science 311 (5766): 1393–1401. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1393P. doi:10.1126/science.1123013. PMID 16527964.
47. Pontius, D.H.; Hill, T.W. (2006). "Enceladus: A significant plasma source for Saturn's magnetosphere" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research 111 (A9): A09214. Bibcode:2006JGRA..11109214P. doi:10.1029/2006JA011674.
48. Wagner, R. J.; Neukum, G.; Stephan, K.; Roatsch; Wolf; Porco (2009). "Stratigraphy of Tectonic Features on Saturn's Satellite Dione Derived from Cassini ISS Camera Data". Lunar and Planetary Science XL: 2142. Bibcode:2009LPI....40.2142W.
49. Schenk, P. M.; Moore, J. M. (2009). "Eruptive Volcanism on Saturn's Icy Moon Dione". Lunar and Planetary Science XL: 2465. Bibcode:2009LPI....40.2465S.
50. "Cassini Images Ring Arcs Among Saturn's Moons (Cassini Press Release)". Ciclops.org. September 5, 2008. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
51. Lakdawalla, E. 2012.
52. http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2009/2078.html
53. Matthew S. Tiscareno, Joseph A. Burns, Jeffrey N. Cuzzi, Matthew M. Hedman (2010). "Cassini imaging search rules out rings around Rhea". Geophysical Research Letters 37 (14): L14205. arXiv:1008.1764. Bibcode:2010GeoRL..3714205T. doi:10.1029/2010GL043663.
54. Wagner, R. J.; Neukum, G.; Giese, B.; Roatsch; Denk; Wolf; Porco (2008). "Geology of Saturn's Satellite Rhea on the Basis of the High-Resolution Images from the Targeted Flyby 049 on Aug. 30, 2007". Lunar and Planetary Science. XXXIX: 1930. Bibcode:2008LPI....39.1930W.
55. Schenk, Paul M.; McKinnon, W. B. (2009). "Global Color Variations on Saturn's Icy Satellites, and New Evidence for Rhea's Ring". American Astronomical Society (American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting #41, #3.03) 41. Bibcode:2009DPS....41.0303S.
56. "Rhea:Inktomi". USGS—Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
57. "Rhea's Bright Splat". CICLOPS. June 5, 2005. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
58. Porco, Carolyn C.; Baker, Emily; Barbara, John; et al. (2005). "Imaging of Titan from the Cassini spacecraft" (PDF). Nature 434 (7030): 159–168. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..159P. doi:10.1038/nature03436. PMID 15758990.
59. López-Puertas, Manuel (June 6, 2013). "PAH's in Titan's Upper Atmosphere". CSIC. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
60. Dyches, Preston; Clavin, Whitney (June 23, 2014). "Titan's Building Blocks Might Pre-date Saturn" (Press release). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved June 28, 2014.
61. Lopes, R.M.C.; Mitchell, K.L.; Stofan, E.R.; et al. (2007). "Cryovolcanic features on Titan's surface as revealed by the Cassini Titan Radar Mapper" (PDF). Icarus 186 (2): 395–412. Bibcode:2007Icar..186..395L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.006.
62. Lorenz, R.D.; Wall, S.; Radebaugh, J.; et al. (2006). "The Sand Seas of Titan: Cassini RADAR Observations of Longitudinal Dunes". Science 312 (5774): 724–27. Bibcode:2006Sci...312..724L. doi:10.1126/science.1123257. PMID 16675695.
63. Stofan, E.R.; Elachi, C.; Lunine, J.I.; et al. (2007). "The lakes of Titan" (PDF). Nature 445 (7123): 61–64. Bibcode:2007Natur.445...61S. doi:10.1038/nature05438. PMID 17203056.
64. "Titan:Kraken Mare". USGS—Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Retrieved January 5, 2010.
65. Dyches, Preston; Brown, Dwayne (July 2, 2014). "Ocean on Saturn Moon Could be as Salty as the Dead Sea". NASA. Retrieved July 2, 2014.
66. Mitria, Giuseppe; Meriggiolad, Rachele; Hayesc, Alex; Lefevree, Axel; Tobiee, Gabriel; Genovad, Antonio; Luninec, Jonathan I.; Zebkerg, Howard (July 1, 2014). "Shape, topography, gravity anomalies and tidal deformation of Titan". Icarus 236: 169–177. Bibcode:2014Icar..236..169M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.03.018. Retrieved July 2, 2014.
67. Thomas, P. C.; Armstrong, J. W.; Asmar, S. W.; et al. (2007). "Hyperion's sponge-like appearance". Nature 448 (7149): 50–53. Bibcode:2007Natur.448...50T. doi:10.1038/nature05779. PMID 17611535.
68. Thomas, P.C; Black, G. J.; Nicholson, P. D. (1995). "Hyperion: Rotation, Shape, and Geology from Voyager Images". Icarus 117 (1): 128–148. Bibcode:1995Icar..117..128T. doi:10.1006/icar.1995.1147.
69. Porco, C.C.; Baker, E.; Barbarae, J.; et al. (2005). "Cassini Imaging Science: Initial Results on Phoebe and Iapetus". Science 307 (5713): 1237–42. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1237P. doi:10.1126/science.1107981. PMID 15731440.
70. Verbiscer, Anne J.; Skrutskie, Michael F.; Hamilton, Douglas P.; et al. (2009). "Saturn's largest ring". Nature 461 (7267): 1098–1100. Bibcode:2009Natur.461.1098V. doi:10.1038/nature08515. PMID 19812546.
71. Denk, T.; et al. (2009-12-10). "Iapetus: Unique Surface Properties and a Global Color Dichotomy from Cassini Imaging". Science (AAAS) 326 (5964): 435–9. Bibcode:2010Sci...327..435D. doi:10.1126/science.1177088. PMID 20007863. Retrieved 2009-12-19.
72. Spencer, J. R.; Denk, T. (2009-12-10). "Formation of Iapetus' Extreme Albedo Dichotomy by Exogenically Triggered Thermal Ice Migration". Science (AAAS) 326 (5964): 432–5. Bibcode:2010Sci...327..432S. doi:10.1126/science.1177132. PMID 20007862. Retrieved 2009-12-19.
73. Giese, Bernd; Neukum, Gerhard; Roatsch, Thomas; et al. (2006). "Topographic modeling of Phoebe using Cassini images" (PDF). Planetary and Space Science 54 (12): 1156–66. Bibcode:2006P&SS...54.1156G. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2006.05.027.
74. "Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service". IAU: Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
75. Schlyter, Paul (2009). "Saturn's Ninth and Tenth Moons". Views of the Solar System (Calvin J. Hamilton). Retrieved January 5, 2010.
76. Canup, R. (December 2010). "Origin of Saturn's rings and inner moons by mass removal from a lost Titan-sized satellite". Nature 468 (7326): 943–6. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..943C. doi:10.1038/nature09661. PMID 21151108.
77. E. Asphaug and A. Reufer. Middle sized moons as a consequence of Titan’s accretion. Icarus.
78. http://www.astronomy.com/news/2016/03/moons-of-saturn-may-be-younger-than-the-dinosaurs

External links

• "Simulation showing the position of Saturn's Moon". Retrieved 26 May 2010.
• "Saturn's Rings". NASA's Solar System Exploration. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
• "Saturn's Moons". Astronomy Cast episode No. 61, includes full transcript. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
• Carolyn Porco. Fly me to the moons of Saturn. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
• "The Top 10 Largest Planetary Moons".
• Rotate and Spin Maps of 7 Moons 18 December 2015 NY Times