Chandra Wickramasinghe

Chandra Wickramasinghe

Chandra Wickramasinghe at the University of Buckingham
Born Nalin Chandra Wickramasinghe
(1939-01-20) 20 January 1939
Colombo, British Ceylon
Citizenship British
Fields Astrobiology
Astronomy
Mathematics
Institutions Cambridge University
University College Cardiff
University of Cardiff
University of Buckingham
Alma mater Royal College, Colombo
University of Ceylon (BSc)
Cambridge University (PhD, ScD)
Doctoral advisor Fred Hoyle
Known for Organic composition of cosmic dust
Notable awards Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge University (1963–1973)
Vidya Jyothi (1992)

Nalin Chandra Wickramasinghe (born 20 January 1939) is a Sri Lankan-born British mathematician, astronomer[1] and astrobiologist. His research interests include the interstellar medium, infrared astronomy, light scattering theory, applications of solid-state physics to astronomy, the early Solar System, comets, astrochemistry, the origin of life and astrobiology. A student and collaborator of Fred Hoyle, the pair worked jointly for over 40 years[2] as influential proponents of panspermia.[3][4] In 1974 they proposed the hypothesis that some dust in interstellar space was largely organic.[5][6][7]

Hoyle and Wickramasinghe have advanced the argument that various outbreaks of illnesses on Earth are of extraterrestrial origins, including the 1918 flu pandemic and certain outbreaks of polio and mad cow disease. For the 1918 flu pandemic they hypothesized that cometary dust brought the virus to Earth simultaneously at multiple locations—a view almost universally dismissed by external experts on this pandemic.[8] Claims connecting terrestrial disease and extraterrestrial pathogens have been rejected by the scientific community.[8]

Wickramasinghe has written more than 30 books about astrophysics and related topics;[9] he has made appearances on radio, television and film, and he writes online blogs and articles. He has appeared on BBC Horizon, UK Channel 5 and the History Channel. He appeared on the 2013 Discovery Channel program "Red Rain".[10][11] He has an association with Daisaku Ikeda, president of the Buddhist sect Soka Gakkai International, that led to the publication of a dialogue with him, first in Japanese and later in English, on the topic of Space and Eternal Life.[12]

Education and career

Wickramasinghe studied at Royal College, Colombo, the University of Ceylon (where he graduated in 1960 with a BSc First Class Honours in mathematics), and at Trinity College and Jesus College, Cambridge, where he obtained his PhD and ScD degrees.[13] Following his education, Wickramasinghe was a Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge from 1963 to 1973, until he became professor of applied mathematics and astronomy at University College Cardiff. Wickramasinghe was a consultant and advisor to the President of Sri Lanka from 1982 to 1984, and played a key role in founding the Institute of Fundamental Studies in Sri Lanka.

After fifteen years at University College Cardiff, Wickramasinghe took an equivalent position in the University of Cardiff, a post he held from 1990 until 2006.[14] After retirement in 2006, he incubated the Cardiff Center for Astrobiology as a special project reporting to the President of the University. In 2011 the project closed down, losing its funding in a series of UK educational cut backs. After this event, Wickramasinghe was offered the opportunity to move to the University of Buckingham as Director of the Buckingham Centre for Astrobiology, University of Buckingham where he has been since 2011. He maintains his part-time position as a UK Professor at Cardiff University. In 2015 he was elected Visiting scholar, Churchill College, Cambridge, England 2015/16.[15]

He is a co-founder and Board member of the Institute for the Study of Panspermia and Astroeconomics, set up in Japan in 2014,[16] and the Editor-in-Chief of a publication they produce, the Journal of Astrobiology & Outreach.[17] He is currently Visiting By-Fellow, Churchill College, Cambridge, England 2015/16;[15] Professor and Director of the Buckingham Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Buckingham, a post he has held since 2011;[9] Affiliated Visiting Professor, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka;[18] and a Board Member and Research Director at the Institute for the Study of Panspermia and Astroeconomics, Ogaki-City, Gifu, Japan.[19]

Research

In 1960 he commenced work in Cambridge on his PhD degree under the supervision of the late Sir Fred Hoyle, and published his first scientific paper "On Graphite Particles as Interstellar Grains” in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1962.[20] He was awarded a PhD degree in Mathematics in 1963 and was elected a Fellow of Jesus College Cambridge in the same year. In the following year he was appointed a Staff Member of the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge. Here he continued to work on the nature of interstellar dust, publishing many papers in this field,[21] that led to a consideration of carbon-containing grains as well as the older silicate models.

Wickramasinghe published the first definitive book on Interstellar Grains in 1967.[22] He has made many contributions to this field, publishing over 350 papers in peer-reviewed journals, over 75 of which are in Nature. Hoyle and Wickramasinghe further proposed a radical kind of panspermia that included the claim that extraterrestrial life forms enter the Earth's atmosphere and were possibly responsible for epidemic outbreaks, new diseases, and genetic novelty that Hoyle and Wickramasinghe contended was necessary for macroevolution.[23]

Chandra Wickramasinghe had the longest-running collaboration with Fred Hoyle. Their publications on books and papers[21] arguing for panspermia and a cosmic hypothesis of life are controversial and, in particular detail, essentially contra the scientific consensus in both astrophysics and biology. Several claims made by Hoyle and Wickramasinghe between 1977 and 1981, such as a report of having detected interstellar cellulose, were criticized by one author as pseudoscience.[24] Summarizing his career, Wickramasinghe stated:

My most significant astronomical contribution was to develop the theory of organic grains in comets and in the interstellar medium. This was done during the 1970s and 1980s, and it is now accepted by everyone almost without remembering its origins! I feel I also played a part in the birth of the science of astrobiology.

Organic molecules in space

In 1974 Wickramasinghe first proposed the hypothesis that some dust in interstellar space was largely organic,[25] and followed this up with other Nature papers confirming the hypothesis.[26] Wickramasinghe also proposed and confirmed the existence of polymeric compounds based on the molecule formaldehyde (H2CO).[27] Fred Hoyle and Wickramasinghe later proposed the identification of bicyclic aromatic compounds from an analysis of the ultraviolet extinction absorption at 2175A.,[28] thus demonstrating the existence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon molecules in space.

Hoyle–Wickramasinghe model of panspermia

Throughout his career, Wickramasinghe, along with his collaborator Fred Hoyle, has advanced panspermia, the belief that life on Earth is, at least in part, of extraterrestrial origin.[29] The basic propositions[30][31][32] of the Hoyle–Wickramasinghe model of panspermia include the assumptions that dormant viruses and desiccated DNA and RNA can survive unprotected in space;[33] that small bodies such as asteroids and comets can protect the "seeds of life", including DNA and RNA,[34][35][36] living, fossilized, or dormant life, cellular[37][38] or non-cellular;[34][35][36][37][39][40][41][42] and that the collisions of asteroids, comets, and moons have the potential to spread these "seeds of life" throughout an individual star system and then onward to others.[39][42] The most contentious issue around the Hoyle–Wickramasinghe model of the panspermia hypothesis is the corollary of their first two propositions that viruses and bacteria continue to enter the Earth's atmosphere from space, and are hence responsible for many major epidemics throughout history.[43][44][45]

Towards the end of their collaboration, Wickramasinghe and Hoyle hypothesized that abiogenesis occurred close to the Galactic Center before panspermia carried life throughout that galaxy,[46] and stated a belief that such a process could occur in many galaxies throughout the Universe.[47]

Although scientists in North America, Europe and Russia are now testing many aspects of panspermia,[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58] Wickramasinghe stated that evidence on the existence of extraterrestrial life is overwhelming,[59] and that "The fact that this conclusion is not widely known or publicised is entirely a function of state control of scientific paradigms, of a kind reminiscent of the behaviour of totalitarian political regimes."[29]

Detection of living cells in the stratosphere

An image of a clump of microorganisms from 41 km fluorescing on application of a carbocyanine dye (indicating viability) is shown in the left panel, and scanning electron microscope image of a similar clump is shown on the right panel.

On 20 January 2001 the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) conducted a balloon flight from Hyderabad, India to collect stratospheric dust from a height of 41 km (135,000 ft) with a view to testing for the presence of living cells. The collaborators on this project included a team of UK scientists led by Wickramasinghe. In a paper presented at a SPIE conference in San Diego in 2002 the detection of evidence for viable microorganisms from 41 km above the Earth's surface was presented.[60] However, the experiment did not present evidence as to whether the findings are incoming microbes from space rather than microbes carried up to 41 km from the surface of the Earth.

In 2005 the ISRO group carried out a second stratospheric sampling experiment from 41 km altitude and reported the isolation of three new species of bacteria including one that they named Janibacter hoylei sp.nov. in honour of Fred Hoyle.[61] However, these facts do not prove that bacteria on Earth originated in the cosmic environment. Samplings of the stratosphere have also been carried out by Yang et al. (2005,[62] 2009[63]). During the experiment strains of highly radiation-resistant Deinococcus bacterium were detected at heights up to 35 km. Nevertheless, these authors have abstained from linking these discoveries to panspermia. Wickramasinghe was also involved in coordinating analyses of the red rain in Kerala in collaborations with Godfrey Louis.[64]

Extraterrestrial pathogens

Hoyle and Wickramasinghe have advanced the argument that various outbreaks of illnesses on Earth are of extraterrestrial origins, including the 1918 flu pandemic and certain outbreaks of polio and mad cow disease. For the 1918 flu pandemic they hypothesized that cometary dust brought the virus to Earth simultaneously at multiple locations—a view almost universally dismissed by external experts on this pandemic.[8]

On May 24, 2003 The Lancet published a letter from Wickramasinghe,[65] jointly signed by Milton Wainwright and Jayant Narlikar, in which they hypothesized that the virus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) could be extraterrestrial in origin instead of originating from chickens. The Lancet subsequently published three responses to this letter, showing that the hypothesis was not evidence-based, and casting doubts on the quality of the experiments referenced by Wickramasinghe in his letter.[66][67][68] Claims connecting terrestrial disease and extraterrestrial pathogens have been rejected by the scientific community.[8]

Polonnaruwa

On 29 December 2012 a green fireball was observed in Polonnaruwa Province, Sri Lanka.[69][70] It disintegrated into fragments that fell to the Earth near the villages of Aralaganwila and Dimbulagala and in a rice field near Dalukkane. Rock samples submitted to the Medical Research Institute of the Ministry of Health in Colombo.

The rocks were sent to the University of Cardiff in Wales for analysis, where Chandra Wickramasinghe's team analyzed them and claimed that they contained extraterrestrial diatoms. From January to March 2013, five papers were published in the fringe Journal of Cosmology outlining various results from teams in the United Kingdom, United States and Germany.[71][72] However, independent experts in meteoritics stated that the object analyzed by Wickramasinghe's team was of terrestrial origin,[73][74] a fulgurite created by lightning strikes on Earth.[75] Experts in diatoms complemented the statement, saying that the organisms found in the rock represented a wide range of extant terrestrial taxa, confirming their earthly origin.[73]

Wickramasinghe and collaborators responded, using X-ray diffraction, oxygen isotope analysis, and scanning electron microscope observations, in a March 2013 paper asserting that the rocks they found were indeed meteorites,[76] instead of being created by lightning strikes on Earth as stated by scientists from the University of Peradeniya.[75][77]

Participation in the creation-evolution debate

Wickramasinghe and his mentor Fred Hoyle have also used their data to argue in favor of cosmic ancestry,[78][79][80][81][82][83] and against the idea of life emerging from inanimate objects by abiogenesis.[84]

“ Once again the Universe gives the appearance of being biologically constructed, and on this occasion on a truly vast scale. Once again those who consider such thoughts to be too outlandish to be taken seriously will continue to do so. While we ourselves shall continue to take the view that those who believe they can match the complexities of the Universe by simple experiments in their laboratories will continue to be disappointed. ”

Wickramasinghe attempts to present scientific evidence to support the notion of cosmic ancestry and "the possibility of high intelligence in the Universe and of many increasing levels of intelligence converging toward a God as an ideal limit."[85]

During the 1981 scientific creationist trial in Arkansas, Wickramasinghe was the only scientist testifying for the defense, which in turn was supporting creationism.[84][86] In addition, he wrote that the Archaeopteryx fossil finding is a forgery, a charge that the expert scientific community considers an "absurd" and "ignorant" statement.[87][88]

Honours and awards

Books

Articles

See also

References

  1. ↑ Chown, Marcus (9 April 2005). "The Scientific Legacy of Fred Hoyle". NewScientist. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  2. ↑ Wickramasinghe, Chandra (2013). A Journey with Fred Hoyle. New York: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4436-12-0.
  3. ↑ Napier, W.M. (2007). "Pollination of exoplanets by nebulae". Int.J.Astrobiol 6 (3): 223–228. Bibcode:2007IJAsB...6..223N. doi:10.1017/S1473550407003710.
  4. ↑ Line, M.A. (2007). "Panspermia in the context of the timing of the origin of life and microbial phylogeny". Int. J. Astrobiol. 3 6: 249–254. Bibcode:2007IJAsB...6..249L. doi:10.1017/S1473550407003813.
  5. ↑ Wickramasinghe, D. T. & Allen, D. A. The 3.4-µm interstellar absorption feature. Nature 287, 518−519 (1980).
  6. ↑ Allen, D. A. & Wickramasinghe, D. T. Diffuse interstellar absorption bands between 2.9 and 4.0 µm. Nature 294, 239−240 (1981).
  7. ↑ Wickramasinghe, D. T. & Allen, D. A. Three components of 3–4 μm absorption bands. Astrophys. Space Sci. 97, 369−378 (1983).
  8. 1 2 3 4 Joseph Patrick Byrne (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues. ABC-CLIO. pp. 454–455. ISBN 978-0-313-34102-1.
  9. 1 2 University of Buckingham. "Professor Chandra Wickramasinghe". Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  10. ↑ "Altimatrix Consulting". Retrieved 16 July 2013.
  11. ↑ Connor, Steve (2011-03-01). "We're all aliens... how humans began life in outer space". The Independent. The Independent.
  12. ↑ Ikeda, Daisaku (1998). Space and Eternal Life: A Dialogue Between Chandra Wickramasinghe and Daisaku Ikeda. Journeyman Press. ISBN 9781851720613.
  13. ↑ "Professor Chandra Wickramasinghe — University of Buckingham". Buckingham.ac.uk. Retrieved 2013-01-18.
  14. ↑ "BBC News". UK National News Service. 7 September 2006. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
  15. 1 2 Caulfield, Noelle. "Fellowship Secretary". Churchill College, Cambridge. Churchill College, Cambridge. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  16. ↑ ISPA - About us.
  17. ↑ "Journal of Astrobiology & Outreach". Journal of Astrobiology & Outreach. OMICS Publishing Group. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  18. ↑ Senaratne, Atula. "Prof." (PDF). Abrecon 2015. University of Peradeniya. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
  19. ↑ Tokoro, Gensuke. "Professor". http://www.ispajapan.com/. Institute for the Study of Panspermia and Astroeconomics. Retrieved 12 May 2015. External link in |website= (help)
  20. 1 2 "This Week’s Citation Classic" (PDF). ISI Current Contents. 1986-06-02. Retrieved 2013-01-18.
  21. 1 2 "Archive of key historical publications — University of Buckingham". Buckingham.ac.uk. 1980-04-03. Retrieved 2013-01-18.
  22. 1 2 "Interstellar grains (Book, 1967)". [WorldCat.org] . Retrieved 2013-01-18.
  23. ↑ Fred Hoyle, Chandra Wickramasinghe and John Watson (1986). Viruses from Space and Related Matters. University College Cardiff Press.
  24. ↑ Brian L. Silver Professor of Physical Chemistry Technion Israel Institute of Technology (26 February 1998). The Ascent of Science. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 341–2. ISBN 978-0-19-802769-0.
  25. ↑ Nature, vol: 252, 462, 1974; and Nature,Vol 268, 610, 1977.
  26. ↑ Wickramasinghe, D. T. & Allen, D. A. The 3.4-µm interstellar absorption feature. Nature 287, 518−519 (1980). Allen, D. A. & Wickramasinghe, D. T. Diffuse interstellar absorption bands between 2.9 and 4.0 µm. Nature 294, 239−240 (1981). Wickramasinghe, D. T. & Allen, D. A. Three components of 3–4 μm absorption bands. Astrophys. Space Sci. 97, 369−378 (1983).
  27. ↑ N.C. Wickramasinghe, Formaldehyde Polymers in Interstellar Space, Nature, 252, 462, 1974
  28. ↑ F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, Identification of the lambda 2200A interstellar absorption feature, Nature, 270, 323, 1977
  29. 1 2 Wickramasinghe, Chandra; Tokoro, Gensuke (June 27, 2014). "Life as a Cosmic Phenomenon: The Socio-Economic Control of a Scientific Paradigm". Journal of Astrobiology & Outreach 2 (2). doi:10.4172/2332-2519.1000113. ISSN 2332-2519. Retrieved 2015-04-07.
  30. ↑ Rauf, K; Wickramasinghe, C (2010). "Evidence for biodegradation products in the interstellar medium". Int.J.Astrobiol 9 (1): 29–34. Bibcode:2010IJAsB...9...29R. doi:10.1017/s1473550409990334.
  31. ↑ Wickramasinghe, C. (2010). "The astrobiological case for our cosmic ancestry". International Journal of Astrobiology 9 (2): 119–129. Bibcode:2010IJAsB...9..119W. doi:10.1017/S1473550409990413.
  32. ↑ Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). "Bacterial morphologies supporting cometary panspermia: a reappraisal". International Journal of Astrobiology 10 (1): 25–30. Bibcode:2011IJAsB..10...25W. doi:10.1017/S1473550410000157.
  33. ↑ Secker, Jeff; Paul S. Wesson; James R. Lepock (26 Jul 1996). "Astrophysical and Biological Constraints on Radiopanspermia" (PDF) 90 (4): 184–92. PMID 11540166. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
  34. 1 2 Hoyle, Fred (1985). Living Comets. Cardiff: University College, Cardiff Press.
  35. 1 2 Wickramasinghe, Chandra (June 2011). "Viva Panspermia". The Observatory.
  36. 1 2 Wesson, P (2010). "Panspermia, Past and Present: Astrophysical and Biophysical Conditions for the Dissemination of Life in Space". Sp. Sci.Rev. 1-4 156: 239–252. arXiv:1011.0101. Bibcode:2010SSRv..156..239W. doi:10.1007/s11214-010-9671-x.
  37. 1 2 Hoyle, Fred; Wickramasinghe, N.C. (1982). "Proofs that Life is Cosmic" (PDF). Mem. Inst. Fund. Studies Sri Lanka. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
  38. ↑ Hoyle, Fred; Wickramasinghe, C. (1986). "The case for life as a cosmic phenomenon". Nature 322: 509–511. Bibcode:1986Natur.322..509H. doi:10.1038/322509a0.
  39. 1 2 Napier, W.M. (2004). "A mechanism for interstellar panspermia". Mon. Not.R. astr. Soc. 348: 46–51. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.348...46N. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07287.x.
  40. ↑ Hoyle, Fred (1981). Evolution from Space. London: J.M. Dent & Sons.
  41. ↑ Hoyle, Fred (1981). Comets - a vehicle for panspermia. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Co. p. 227.
  42. 1 2 Wallis, M.K.; Wickramasinghe N.C. (2004). "Interstellar transfer of planetary microbiota". Mon. Not.R. astr. Soc. 348: 52–57. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.348...52W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07355.x.
  43. ↑ Hoyle, Fred (1979). Diseases from Space. London: J.M. Dent & Sons.
  44. ↑ Hoyle, Fred; Wickramasinghe, N.C (1990). "Influenza – evidence against contagion". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 83: 258–261.
  45. ↑ Hoyle, Fred (2000). Astronomical Origins of Life: Steps towards Panspermia. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press.
  46. ↑ Wickramasinghe, Chandra; Hoyle, Fred (1998). "Miller-Urey Synthesis in the Nuclei of Galaxies". Astrophys. Space Sci. 259: 99–103.
  47. ↑ Hoyle, Fred (1999). Astronomical Origins of Life; Steps Towards Panspermia. Kluwer Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-7923-6081-0.
  48. ↑ Tepfer, David Tepfer (December 2008). "The origin of life, panspermia and a proposal to seed the Universe". Plant Science 175 (6): 756–760. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.08.007.
  49. ↑ "Exobiology and Radiation Assembly (ERA)". ESA. NASA. 1992. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
  50. ↑ "BIOPAN Pan for exposure to space environment". Kayser Italia. 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  51. ↑ De La Torre Noetzel, Rosa (2008). "Experiment lithopanspermia: Test of interplanetary transfer and re-entry process of epi- and endolithic microbial communities in the FOTON-M3 Mission". 37th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Held 13–20 July 2008 37: 660. Bibcode:2008cosp...37..660D.
  52. ↑ "Life in Space for Life ion Earth - Biosatelite Foton M3". June 26, 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2009.
  53. ↑ de Vera; J.P.P.; et al. (2010). "COSPAR 2010 Conference". Research Gate. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  54. ↑ "LIFE Experiment". Planetary.org. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
  55. ↑ "Living interplanetary flight experiment: an experiment on survivability of microorganisms during interplanetary transfer" (PDF). Retrieved 20 August 2009.
  56. ↑ "Projects: LIFE Experiment: Phobos". The Planetary Society. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
  57. ↑ Zak, Anatoly (1 September 2008). "Mission Possible". Air & Space Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 26 May 2009.
  58. ↑ Olsson-Francis, Karen; Cockell, Charles S. (2010). "Experimental methods for studying microbial survival in extraterrestrial environments". Journal of Microbiological Methods 80 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.mimet.2009.10.004. PMID 19854226.
  59. ↑ Wickramasinghe, Chandra; Tokoro, Gensuke; Wainwright, Milton (2015). "The Transition from Earth-centred Biology to Cosmic Life". Journal of Astrobiology & Outreach 3 (1). doi:10.41721/2332-2519.1000122. Retrieved 2015-04-07.
  60. ↑ Harris, Melanie J.; Wickramasinghe, N.C.; Lloyd, David; et al. Proc SPIE 4495: 192. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  61. ↑ Shivaji, S.; Chaturvedi, P.; Begum, Z.; et al. (2009). "Janibacter hoylei sp.nov., Bacillus isronensis sp.nov. and Bacillus aryabhattai sp.nov. isolated from cryotubes used for collecting air from the upper atmosphere". Int.J.Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 59: 2977–2986. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.002527-0.
  62. ↑ Yang, Y., Yokobori, S., Kawaguchi, J., et al., 2005. Investigation of cultivable microorganisms in the stratosphere collected by using a balloon in 2005, JAXA Research Development Report, JAXA-RR-08-001, 35-42
  63. ↑ Yang, Y.; Yokobori, S.; Yamagishi, A. (2009). "Assessing panspermia hypothesis by microorganisms collected in the high altitude atmosphere" (PDF). Biol. Sci. Space 23 (3): 151–163. doi:10.2187/bss.23.151.
  64. ↑ Red rain in Kerala
  65. ↑ Wickramasinghe, C; Wainwright, M; Narlikar, J (May 24, 2003). "SARS—a clue to its origins?". Lancet 361 (9371): 1832. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13440-X. PMID 12781581.
  66. ↑ Willerslev, E; Hansen, AJ; Rønn, R; Nielsen, OJ (Aug 2, 2003). "Panspermia--true or false?". Lancet 362 (9381): 406; author reply 407–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14039-1. PMID 12907025.
  67. ↑ Bhargava, PM (Aug 2, 2003). "Panspermia--true or false?". Lancet 362 (9381): 407; author reply 407–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14041-X. PMID 12907028.
  68. ↑ Ponce de Leon, S; Lazcano, A (Aug 2, 2003). "Panspermia--true or false?". Lancet 362 (9381): 406–7; author reply 407–8. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14040-8. PMID 12907026.
  69. ↑ Wickramasinghe, Chandra; Wallis, J.; Wallis, D.H.; Samaranayake, Anil (10 January 2013). "Fossil Diatoms in a New Carbonaceous Meteorite" (PDF). Journal of Cosmology 21 (37): 9560–71. arXiv:1303.2398. Bibcode:2013JCos...21.9560W. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  70. ↑ Wickramasinghe, Chandra; Wallis, J.; Wallis, D.H.; Wallis, M.K.; Al-Mufti, S.; Wickramasinghe, J.T.; Samaranayake, Anil; Wickramarathne, K. (13 January 2013). "On the cometary origin of the Polonnaruwa meteorite" (PDF). Journal of Cosmology 21 (38). Retrieved 2013-01-16.
  71. ↑ Walter Jayawardhana (13 January 2013). "Polonnaruwa meteorite with evidence of life from outer space described the most important find in 500 years". LankaWeb. Retrieved 2013-01-15.
  72. ↑ Wickramasinghe, N.C.; Wallis, J.; Miyake, N.; Oldroyd, Anthony; Wallis, D.H.; Samaranayake, Anil; Wickramarathne, K.; Hoover, Richard B.; Wallis, M.K. (4 February 2013). "Authenticity of the life-bearing Polonnaruwa meteorite" (PDF). Journal of Cosmology. Retrieved 2013-02-04.
  73. 1 2 Phil Plait (15 January 2013). "No, Diatoms Have Not Been Found in a Meteorite". Slate.com - Astronomy. Retrieved 2013-01-16.
  74. ↑ "Meteors from outer space made definitive land fall in Aralaganwila says Professor Chandra Wickramasinghe". Hiru News. 29 April 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-30. When our news team contacted Professor of Geology Athula Senarathna of University of Peradeniya who carried out a research on the meteorite fall in Aralaganvila, said that there could not be any truth in Prof.Chandra Wickramasinghe claim.
  75. 1 2 "Aralaganwila stones are not meteors; says Peradeniya University". Hiru News. 14 January 2013. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  76. ↑ Wallis, Jamie; Miyake, Nori; Hoover, Richard B.; Oldroyd, Andrew; Wallis, Darryl H.; Samaranayake, Anil; Wickramasinghe, K.; Wallis, M.K.; Gibson, Carl H.; Wickramasinghe, N.C. (5 March 2013). "The Polonnaruwa Meteorite - Oxygen Isotope, Crystalline and Biological Composition" (PDF). Journal of Cosmology 22 (2). Retrieved 6 August 2013.
  77. ↑ Wallis, Jamie; Miyake, Nori; Hoover, Richard B.; Oldroyd, Andrew; Wallis, Daryl H.; Samaranayake, Anil; Wickramarathne, K.; Wallis, M.K.; Gibson, Carl H.; Wickramasinghe, N. C. (5 March 2013). "The Polonnaruwa Meteorite : Oxygen Isotope, Crystalline and Biological Composition". Journal of Cosmology 22 (2).
  78. ↑ Creationism versus Darwinism. Published in Darwinism, Design, and Public Education, Michigan State University Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0870136757
  79. ↑ Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe. Evolution from Space: A Theory of Cosmic Creationism, Touchstone, 1984 ISBN 0-671-49263-2
  80. ↑ Wickramasinghe and Hoyle, Our Place in the Cosmos: The Unfinished Revolution, J.M. Dent & Sons, 1993 ISBN 978-0460860840
  81. ↑ Fred Hoyle, Evolution From Space (The Omni Lecture) and Other Papers on the Origin of Life, (Enslow; Hillside, NJ; 1982 ISBN 978-0894900839
  82. ↑ Figures don't Lie but Creationists Figure. By Alec Grynspan ( 9 November 1997)
  83. ↑ Gangappa, Rajkumar; Wickramasinghe, Chandra; Wainwright, Milton; Kumar, A. Santhosh; Louis, Godfrey (29 Aug 2010). Hoover, Richard B; Levin, Gilbert V; Rozanov, Alexei Y; Davies, Paul C. W., eds. "Growth and replication of red rain cells at 121°C and their red fluorescence". Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology XIII 7819: 18. arXiv:1008.4960. Bibcode:2010SPIE.7819E..18G. doi:10.1117/12.876393.
  84. 1 2 Fred Hoyle; Chandra Wickramasinghe (1986). Archaeopteryx, the Primordial Bird: A Case of Fossil Forgery. Christopher Davies. p. 135. ISBN 0715406655.
  85. ↑ Fry, Iris, Emergence of Life on Earth: A Historical and Scientific Overview, Rutgers University Press, 2000 ISBN 978-0813527406
  86. ↑ Phy-Olsen, Allene, Evolution, Creationism, and Intelligent Design, Greenwood, 2010, pp 74-75 ISBN 978-0313378416
  87. ↑ Charig, A. J.; Greenaway, F.; Milner, A. N.; Walker, C. A.; Whybrow, P. J. (1986). "Archaeopteryx is not a forgery". Science 232 (4750): 622–626. Bibcode:1986Sci...232..622C. doi:10.1126/science.232.4750.622. PMID 17781413.
  88. ↑ "A Case of Fossil Forgery?". AskWhy. 18 November 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
  89. ↑ "Light scattering functions for small particles, with applications in astronomy (Book, 1973)". [WorldCat.org] . Retrieved 2013-01-18.
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  93. ↑ "The origin of life (Book, 1980)". [WorldCat.org] . Retrieved 2013-01-18.
  94. ↑ "Proofs that life is Cosmic (Book, 1982)". [WorldCat.org] . Retrieved 2013-01-18.
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