Neume

"Daseia" redirects here. For the Greek diacritic, see rough breathing.

A neume (/ˈnjuːm/; sometimes spelled neum[1])[2][3] is the basic element of Western and Eastern systems of musical notation prior to the invention of five-line staff notation. The word entered the English language in the Middle English forms "newme", "nevme", "neme" in the 15th century, from the Middle French "neume", in turn from either medieval Latin "pneuma" or "neuma," the former either from ancient Greek πνεῦμα pneuma ("breath") or νεῦμα neuma ("sign"),[4][5] or else directly from Greek as a corruption or an adaptation of the former.[6]

The earliest neumes were inflective marks which indicated the general shape but not necessarily the exact notes or rhythms to be sung. Later developments included the use of heightened neumes which showed the relative pitches between neumes, and the creation of a four-line musical staff that identified particular pitches. Neumes do not generally indicate rhythm, but additional symbols were sometimes juxtaposed with neumes to indicate changes in articulation, duration, or tempo. Neumatic notation was later used in medieval music to indicate certain patterns of rhythm called rhythmic modes, and eventually evolved into modern musical notation. Neumatic notation remains standard in modern editions of plainchant.

Early history

Although chant was probably sung since the earliest days of the church, for centuries they were only transmitted orally.

The earliest known systems involving neumes are of Aramaic origin and were used to notate inflections in the quasi-emmelic (melodic) recitation of the Christian holy scriptures. As such they resemble functionally a similar system used for the notation of recitation of the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam. This early system was called ekphonetic notation, from the Greek ekphonesis - ἐκφώνησις meaning quasi-melodic recitation of text.

Around the 9th century neumes began to become shorthand mnemonic aids for the proper melodic recitation of chant.[7] A prevalent view is that neumatic notation was first developed in the Eastern Roman Empire. This seems plausible given the well-documented peak of musical composition and cultural activity in major cities of the empire (now regions of southern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel) at that time. The corpus of extant Byzantine music in manuscript and printed form is far larger than that of the Gregorian chant, due in part to the fact that neumes fell in disuse in the west after the rise of modern staff notation and with it the new techniques of polyphonic music, while the Eastern tradition of Greek orthodox church music and the reformed neume notation remains alive until today.

Slavic neume notations ("Znamenny Chant") are on the whole even more difficult to decipher and transcribe than Byzantine or Gregorian neume notations.

Use in Western plainchant

"Iubilate deo universa terra" shows psalm verses in unheightened cheironomic neumes.

The earliest Western notation for chant appears in the 9th century. These early staffless neumes, called cheironomic or in campo aperto, appeared as freeform wavy lines above the text. Various scholars see these as deriving from cheironomic hand-gestures, from the ekphonetic notation of Byzantine chant, or from punctuation or accent marks.[8] A single neume could represent a single pitch, or a series of pitches all sung on the same syllable. Cheironomic neumes indicated changes in pitch and duration within each syllable, but did not attempt to specify the pitches of individual notes, the intervals between pitches within a neume, nor the relative starting pitches of different syllables' neumes.

There is evidence that the earliest Western musical notation, in the form of neumes in campo aperto (without staff-lines), was created at Metz around 800, as a result of Charlemagne's desire for Frankish church musicians to retain the performance nuances used by the Roman singers.[9]

Presumably these were intended only as mnemonics for melodies learned by ear. The earliest extant manuscripts (9th-10th centuries) of such neumes include:

Digraphic neumes in an 11th-century manuscript from Dijon. Letter names for individual notes in the neume are provided

In the early 11th century, Beneventan neumes (from the churches of Benevento in southern Italy) were written at varying distances from the text to indicate the overall shape of the melody; such neumes are called "heightened" or "diastematic" neumes, which showed the relative pitches between neumes. A few manuscripts from the same period use "digraphic" notation in which note names are included below the neumes. Shortly after this, one to four staff lines — an innovation traditionally ascribed to Guido d'Arezzo — clarified the exact relationship between pitches. One line was marked as representing a particular pitch, usually C or F. These neumes resembled the same thin, scripty style of the chironomic notation. By the 11th century, chironomic neumes had evolved into square notation;[10] in Germany, a variant called Gothic neumes continued to be used until the 16th century. This variant is also known as Hufnagel notation, as the used neumes resemble the nails (hufnagels) one uses to attach horseshoes.[11]

"Gaudeamus omnes," from the Graduale Aboense, was scripted using square notation.

By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in square notation on a staff with four lines and three spaces and a clef marker, as in the 14th-15th century Graduale Aboense shown here. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. In melismatic chants, in which a syllable may be sung to a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. A special symbol called the custos, placed at the end of a system, showed which pitch came next at the start of the following system. Special neumes such as the oriscus, quilisma, and liquescent neumes, indicate particular vocal treatments for these notes. This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.

Solesmes notation

Various manuscripts and printed editions of Gregorian chant, using varying styles of square-note neumes, circulated throughout the Catholic Church for centuries. Some editions added rhythmic patterns, or meter, to the chants. In the 19th century the monks of the Benedictine abbey of Solesmes, particularly Dom Joseph Pothier (1835–1923) and Dom André Mocquereau (1849–1930) collected facsimiles of the earliest manuscripts and published them in a series of 12 publications called Paléographie musicale. They also assembled definitive versions of many of the chants, and developed a standardized form of the square-note notation which was adopted by the Catholic Church and is still in use in publications such as the Liber Usualis (although there are also published editions of this book in modern notation).

As a general rule, the notes of a single neume are never sung to more than one syllable; all three pitches of a three-note neume, for example, must all be sung on the same syllable. (This is not universally accepted; Richard Crocker has argued that in the special case of the early Aquitanian polyphony of the St. Martial school, neumes must have been "broken" between syllables to facilitate the coordination of parts.) However, a single syllable may be sung to so many notes that several neumes in succession are used to notate it. The single-note neumes indicate that only a single note corresponds to that syllable. Chants which primarily use single-note neumes are called syllabic; chants with typically one multi-note neume per syllable are called neumatic, and those with many neumes per syllable are called melismatic.

Rhythmic interpretation

The Solesmes monks also determined, based on their research, performance practice for Gregorian chant. Because of the ambiguity of medieval musical notation, the question of rhythm in Gregorian chant is contested by scholars. Some neumes, such as the pressus, do indicate the lengthening of notes. Common modern practice, following the Solesmes interpretation, is to perform Gregorian chant with no beat or regular metric accent, in which time is free, allowing the text to determine the accent and the melodic contour to determine phrasing. By the 13th century, with the widespread use of square notation, it is believed that most chant was sung with each note getting approximately an equal value, although Jerome of Moravia cites exceptions in which certain notes, such as the final notes of a chant, are lengthened.[12] The Solesmes school, represented by Dom Pothier and Dom Mocquereau, supports a rhythm of equal values per note, allowing for lengthening and shortening of note values for musical purposes. A second school of thought, including Wagner, Jammers, and Lipphardt, supports different rhythmic realizations of chant by imposing musical meter on the chant in various ways.[13] Musicologist Gustave Reese said that the second group, called mensuralists, "have an impressive amount of historical evidence on their side" (Music in the Middle Ages, p. 146), but the equal-note Solesmes interpretation has permeated the musical world, apparently due to its ease of learning and resonance with modern musical taste.[14]

Illustrations

Examples of neumes may be seen here: "Basic & Liquescent Aquitanian Neumes" (archive from 10 June 2006, accessed 12 September 2014), , .

Clefs

Neumes are written on a four-line staff on the lines and spaces, unlike modern music notation, which uses five lines. Chant does not rely on any absolute pitch or key; the clefs are only to establish the half and whole steps of the solfage or hexachord scale: "do", "re", "mi", "fa", "sol", "la", "ti", "do". The clef bracketing a line indicates the location "do" in the case of the C clef, or "fa" in the case of the F clef as shown:

C clef
F clef

Neumes representing single notes

Punctum ("point")
Virga
Bipunctum ("two points")

The virga and punctum are sung identically. Scholars disagree on whether the bipunctum indicates a note twice as long, or whether the same note should be re-articulated. When this latter interpretation is favoured, it may be called a repercussive neume.

Neumes representing two notes

Clivis ("by slope") Two notes descending
Podatus or Pes ("foot") Two notes ascending

When two notes are one above the other, as in the podatus, the lower note is always sung first.

Three-note neumes

Scandicus Three notes ascending
Climacus Three notes descending
Torculus down-up-down
Porrectus up-down-up

The fact that the first two notes of the porrectus are connected as a diagonal rather than as individual notes seems to be a scribe's shortcut.

Compound neumes

Several neumes in a row can be juxtaposed for a single syllable, but the following usages have specific names. These are only a few examples.

Praepunctis a note appended to the beginning is praepunctis; this example is a podatus pressus because it involves a repeated note
Subpunctis One or more notes appended at the end of a neume; this example is a scandicus subbipunctis

Other basic markings

Flat Same meaning as modern flat; only occurs on B, and is placed before the entire neume, or group of neumes, rather than immediately before the affected note.
Custos At the end of a staff, the custos indicates what the first note of the next staff will be
Mora Like a dot in modern notation, lengthens the preceding note, typically doubling it

Interpretive marks

These markings, although present in almost all early manuscripts, are subject to great dispute.

Vertical episema
(vertical stroke) 		Seems to indicate a subsidiary accent when there are five or more notes in a neume group
Horizontal episema
(horizontal stroke) 		Used over a single note or a group of notes (as shown), essentially ignored in the Solesmes interpretation; other scholars treat it as indicating a lengthening or stress on the note(s).
Liquescent neume
(small note) 		Can occur on almost any type of neume; usually associated with certain letter combinations such as double consonants, consonant pairs, or diphthongs in the text
Quilisma
(squiggly note) 		Always as part of a multi-note neume, usually a climacus, this sign is a matter of great dispute; the Solesmes interpretation is that the preceding note is to be lengthened slightly.

Other interpretations of the quilisma:

There are other uncommon neume shapes thought to indicate special types of vocal performance, though their precise meaning is a matter of debate:[15]

There are also litterae significativae in many manuscripts, usually interpreted to indicate variations in tempo, e.g. c = celeriter (fast), t = tenete (hold) (an early form of the tenuto), a = auge (lengthen, as in a tie). The Solesmes editions omit all such letters.

Other functions of Western neumes

Neumes were used for notating other kinds of melody than plainchant, including troubadour and trouvère melodies, monophonic versus and conductus, and the individual lines of polyphonic songs. In some traditions, such as the Notre Dame school of polyphony, certain patterns of neumes were used to represent particular rhythmic patterns called rhythmic modes.

Other types of neumes

Notes

  1. ↑ Dom Gregory Sunol, Textbook of Gregorian Chant According to the Solesmes Method 2003 ISBN 0-7661-7241-4, ISBN 978-0-7661-7241-8
  2. ↑ Chants of the Church
  3. ↑ Liber Usualis
  4. ↑ "neume". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  5. ↑ πνεῦμα, νεῦμα. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  6. ↑ "neume". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.
  7. ↑ One of the earliest examples is the Planctus de obitu Karoli (c.814), which was provided neumatic notation in the 10th century, cf. Rosamond McKitterick (2008), Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-88672-4), 225 n54. For the lyrics, see Peter Godman (1985), Latin Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press), 206–11.
  8. ↑ Kenneth levy, "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, edited by Laura Macy (Accessed January 20, 2006), (subscription access)
  9. ↑ James Grier Ademar de Chabannes, Carolingian Musical Practices, and "Nota Romana", Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Spring, 2003), pp. 43-98, retrieved July 2007
  10. ↑ Gregorian Chant
  11. ↑ David Hiley. "Hufnagel". Oxford Music Online. Oxford University. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
  12. ↑ Hiley, "Chant", p. 44. "The performance of chant in equal note lengths from the 13th century onwards is well supported by contemporary statements."
  13. ↑ Apel, Gregorian Chant, p. 127.
  14. ↑ Mahrt "Chant,", p. 18.
  15. ↑ Don Michael Randel (ed.). 2003. "Neume". Harvard Dictionary of Music, fourth edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01163-5.
  16. ↑ Willi Apel, ed. (1972). "Neume". Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 572.
  17. ↑ David Hughes, "The Musical Text of the Introit Ressurexi", in Music in Medieval Europe: Studies in Honour of Bryan Gillingham, edited by Terence Bailey and Alma Colk Santosuosso, 163–80 (Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2007), p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7546-5239-7.
  18. ↑ David Hughes, "An Enigmatic Neume", in Themes and Variations: Writings on Music in Honor of Rulan Chao Pian, edited by Bell Yung and Joseph S. C. Lam, 8–30 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press Press, 1994), pp. 13–14.
  19. ↑ David Hughes, "An Enigmatic Neume", in Themes and Variations: Writings on Music in Honor of Rulan Chao Pian, edited by Bell Yung and Joseph S. C. Lam, 8–30 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press Press, 1994), p. 26.
  20. ↑ David Hiley, "Distropha, tristropha [double apostrophe, bistropha; triple apostrophe]", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
  21. ↑ Anon., "Oriscus", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
  22. ↑ David Hiley, "Pressus", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
  23. ↑ Garrigosa i Massana, Joaquim (2003). Els manuscrits musicals a Catalunya fins al segle XIII. Lleida: Institut d'Estudis Ilerdencs. ISBN 9788489943742.

See also

References

  • Graduale triplex (1979). Tournai: Desclée & Socii. ISBN 2-85274-094-X, a special edition of the Graduale Romanum with chant notation in three forms, one above the other, for easy comparison: Laon, St. Gall, and square note
  • Liber usualis (1953). Tournai: Desclée & Socii.
  • Paléographie musicale. ISBN 2-85274-219-5. Facsimiles of early adiastamatic chant manuscripts.
  • Apel, Willi (1990). Gregorian Chant. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20601-4. 
  • Constantin, Floros. "Universale Neumenkunde" (Universal Theory of Neumes); three-volume covering all major styles and schools of neumatic musical notation in three major divisions: Byzantine, Gregorian and Slavic.
  • Hiley, David (1990). "Chant". In Performance Practice: Music before 1600, Howard Mayer Brown and Stanley Sadie, eds., pp. 37–54. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-02807-0.
  • Hiley, David (1995). Western Plainchant: A Handbook. Cambridge and New York: Clarendon Press and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-19-816572-2. 
  • Mahrt, William P. (2000). "Chant". In A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music, Ross Duffin, ed., pp. 1–22. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33752-6.
  • McKinnon, James, ed. (1990). Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-036153-4. 
  • Wagner, Peter. (1911) Einführung in die Gregorianischen Melodien. Ein Handbuch der Choralwissenschaft. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel.
  • Wilson, David (1990). Music of the Middle Ages. Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-872951-X. 

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