Quinoa

For other uses, see Quinoa (disambiguation).
Quinoa
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Core eudicots
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Amaranthaceae
Subfamily: Chenopodioideae
Genus: Chenopodium
Species: C. quinoa
Binomial name
Chenopodium quinoa
Willd.
Natural distribution in red, Cultivation in green
Synonyms[1]
Landscape with Chenopodium quinoa near Cachilaya, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia

Quinoa (/ˈkiːnoʊ.ə/, from Quechua kinwa or kinuwa)[2] is a species of the goosefoot genus (Chenopodium quinoa), a grain crop grown primarily for its edible seeds. It is a pseudocereal, similar in some respects to buckwheat, rather than a true cereal, as it is not a member of the true grass family. As a chenopod, quinoa is closely related to species such as beetroots, spinach and tumbleweeds. As a member of the Amaranthaceae family, it is related to and resembles amaranth, which is also a pseudocereal. After harvest, the seeds must be processed to remove the coating containing the bitter-tasting saponins. The seeds are in general cooked the same way as rice and can be used in a wide range of dishes. The leaves are eaten as a leaf vegetable, much like amaranth, but commercial availability of quinoa greens is limited.

The nutrient composition is favourable compared with common cereals. Quinoa seeds contain essential amino acids like lysine and acceptable quantities of calcium, phosphorus, and iron.[3] It is high in protein, and is tolerant of dry soil. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) declared 2013 to be the International Year of Quinoa.[4] Chenopodium formosanum is a Taiwanese variant of Red quinoa that is endemic to Taiwan, and is widely grown in Eastern and Southern Taiwanese Aboriginal cultures.

Quinoa originated in the Andean region of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and Chile,[5] and was domesticated 3,000 to 4,000 years ago for human consumption in the Lake Titicaca basin, though archaeological evidence shows a non-domesticated association with pastoral herding some 5,200 to 7,000 years ago.[6]

Similar Chenopodium species, such as pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri) and fat hen (Chenopodium album), were grown and domesticated in North America as part of the Eastern Agricultural Complex before maize agriculture became popular.[7] Fat hen, which has a widespread distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, produces edible seeds and greens much like quinoa, but in smaller quantities.

Biology

Quinoa seeds
Quinoa plant before flowering

Chenopodium quinoa is a dicotyledonous annual plant usually about 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) high. It has broad, generally pubescent, powdery, smooth (rarely) to lobed leaves normally arranged alternately. The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).[8] The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing.[8][9] The fruits are about 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter and of various colors—from white to red or black, depending on the cultivar.[3]

Natural distribution

Chenopodium quinoa is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.[10] There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var. melanospermum) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.[11]

Saponin content

Red quinoa, cooked

In their natural state, the seeds have a coating of bitter-tasting saponins, making them unpalatable. Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating.[12] This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it is unpopular with birds and therefore requires minimal protection.[13] The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative inheritance; lowering the saponin content through selective breeding to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by about 10% cross-pollination.[14]

The toxicity category rating of quinoa saponins treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.[15][16] The saponin is a toxic glycoside, a main contributor to its hemolytic effects when combined directly with blood cells. In South America, quinoa saponin has many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing and as an antiseptic for skin injuries.[15] High levels of oxalic acid are in the leaves and stems of all species of the Chenopodium genus, and are also in the related genera of the Amaranthaceae family.[17] The risks associated with quinoa are minimal, provided it is properly prepared and the leaves are not eaten to excess.

Nutritional value

Quinoa, cooked
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 503 kJ (120 kcal)
21.3 g
Sugars 0.87 g
Dietary fibre 2.8 g
1.92 g
Saturated 0.231 g
Monounsaturated 0.528 g
Polyunsaturated 1.078 g
4.4 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
53 μg
Thiamine (B1)
(9%)

0.107 mg

Riboflavin (B2)
(9%)

0.11 mg

Niacin (B3)
(3%)

0.412 mg

Vitamin B6
(9%)

0.123 mg

Folate (B9)
(11%)

42 μg

Choline
(5%)

23 mg

Vitamin C
(0%)

0 mg

Vitamin E
(4%)

0.63 mg

Minerals
Calcium
(2%)

17 mg

Iron
(11%)

1.49 mg

Magnesium
(18%)

64 mg

Manganese
(30%)

0.631 mg

Phosphorus
(22%)

152 mg

Potassium
(4%)

172 mg

Sodium
(0%)

7 mg

Zinc
(11%)

1.09 mg

Link to USDA Database entry
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Nutritional evaluations indicate that raw (uncooked) quinoa is a rich source of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and dietary minerals, nutrients whose contents are substantially reduced by cooking (table).[15][18] Analysis shows its protein is relatively high in essential amino acids.[19]

Table of amino acids [20]
Amino Acids and protein in Quinoa
Essential

Amino Acid

 Quinoa

mg/g protein

Methionine + Cystine 21
Lysine 51
Tryptophan 8
Valine 45
Threonine 30
Phenylalanine + tyrosine 74
Histadine 25
Isoleucine 37
Leucine 64

In a 100 g (3.5 oz) serving, cooked quinoa provides 120 calories and is a moderate source (10-19% of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, folate, and the dietary minerals, iron, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese (table).

It is gluten-free and considered easy to digest. Because of these characteristics, it is being considered as a possible crop in NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights.[21]

It has a notably short germination period: only 2–4 hours in water is enough to make it sprout, as opposed to 12 hours with wheat.[22] This process softens the seeds, making them suitable for salads and other foods.

Cultivation

Climate requirements

Harvested quinoa seeds

The plant's growth is highly variable due to a high complexity of different subspecies, varieties and landraces (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, in general it is undemanding and altitude-hardy. It is grown from coastal regions to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Depending on the variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between −4 °C (25 °F) during the night to near 35 °C (95 °F) during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Mid-summer frosts during flowering, often occurring in the Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall conditions are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from 300 to 1,000 mm (12 to 39 in) during growing season. Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and development and dry conditions during seed maturation and harvesting.[8]

Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley (SLV) of Colorado where it was introduced in 1982. In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F) and night temperatures are about 7 °C (45 °F). Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin.

Several countries within Europe, including France, England, Holland, Belgium, Germany and Spain now have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.[23] Within the UK, crops are grown as population and mechanically harvested in September.[24]

Sowing

Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a soil pH of 6 to 8.5.

The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging. In the Andes, the seeds are normally broadcast over the land and raked into the soil. Sometimes it is sown in containers of soil and transplanted later.

Cultivation management

Yields are maximised when 170 to 200 kg (370 to 440 lb) N/hectare is available. The addition of phosphorus does not improve yield. In eastern North America, it is susceptible to a leaf miner that may reduce crop success and which also affects the common weed and close relative Chenopodium album, but C. album is much more resistant.

Harvesting and handling

Threshing quinoa in Peru

Quinoa grain is usually harvested by hand and rarely by machine, because the extreme variability of the maturity period of most Quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times. The seed yield (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields in the Andean areas. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines. The plants are allowed to stand until they are dry and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%. Handling involves threshing the seedheads and winnowing the seed to remove the husk. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination.[8] Dry seeds can be stored raw until washed or mechanically processed to remove the pericarp to eliminate the bitter layer containing saponins.

History and culture

Early history

Quinoa was first domesticated by Andean peoples around 3,000 to 4,000 years ago.[25] It has been an important staple in the Andean cultures where the plant is indigenous but relatively obscure in the rest of the world.[26] The Incas, who held the crop to be sacred,[27] referred to it as chisaya mama or "mother of all grains", and it was the Inca emperor who would traditionally sow the first seeds of the season using "golden implements".[27] During the Spanish conquest of South America, the colonists scorned it as "food for Indians",[28] and suppressed its cultivation, due to its status within indigenous religious ceremonies.[29] The conquistadors forbade quinoa cultivation for a time[30] and the Incas were forced to grow wheat instead.[31]

Rising popularity and crop value

World Quinoa Production (thousand metric tons)
Country 1961197019801990200020102014
 Peru22.5 7.3 16.3 6.3 28.2 41.1 114.3
 Bolivia9.2 9.7 8.9 16.1 23.8 36.1 77.4
 Ecuador0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8
Total32.4 17.7 25.8 23.0 52.6 78.1 192.5
Export price[32] USD/kg $0.080 $0.492 $0.854 $1.254 $3.029
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [33]

The grain has become increasingly popular in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, China and Japan where it is not typically grown, increasing crop value.[34] Between 2006 and early 2013 quinoa crop prices tripled.[35] In 2011, the average price was US$3,115 per ton with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per ton.[36] This compares with wheat prices of $9 per bushel (about $340 per ton). Since the 1970s, producers’ associations and cooperatives have worked toward greater producer control of the market. The higher prices make it harder for people to purchase, but also brings a livable income for farmers and enables many urban refugees to return to working the land.[37]

The popularity of quinoa grain in non-indigenous regions has raised concerns over food security. Due to continued widespread poverty in regions where it is produced and because few other crops are compatible with the soil and climate in these regions, it has been suggested that the inflated price disrupts local access to food supplies.[35] In 2013, The Guardian compared it to asparagus cultivated in Peru, a cash crop criticized for excessive water use,[38] as "feeding our apparently insatiable 365-day-a-year hunger for this luxury vegetable[...]"[35] It has been suggested that, as people rise above subsistence-level income, they choose higher-status Western processed foods. However, anthropologist Pablo Laguna states that farmers are still saving a portion of the quinoa crop for their own use, and that the high prices affect nearby city dwellers more, but consumption in cities has traditionally been lower. According to Laguna, the net benefit of increased revenue for farmers outweighs the costs, saying that it is "very good news for small, indigenous farmers".[39] The transformation from a healthy staple food for farming families and communities into a product that is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family is an ongoing process. It is seen as a valuable resource that can bring in far greater amounts of cheap, low nutrient foods such as pasta and rice. It used to be seen as a peasant food that provided farming families with a very important source of nutrition, but now occupies a spectrum from an everyday food of urban Bolivia's middle class to a luxury food in the Peruvian capital of Lima where "it sells at a higher per pound price than chicken, and four times as much as rice".[40] Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute it more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance. These include incorporating it into free school breakfasts and in government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need.[40]

Kosher controversy

Quinoa has become popular in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday. Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.[41]

In December 2013, the Orthodox Union, the world's largest kosher certification agency, announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.[42]

International Year of Quinoa

Logo of International Year of Quinoa 2013
Logo of International Year of Quinoa 2013

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the "International Year of Quinoa" [43][44][45] in recognition of ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective is to draw the world’s attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security, nutrition and poverty eradication, in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals.

Gallery

References

  1. ↑ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved May 1, 2014.
  2. ↑ Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua-Spanish dictionary)
  3. 1 2 J. G. Vaughn & C. A. Geissler (2009). The new Oxford book of food plants. Oxford University Press.
  4. ↑ "International Year of Quinoa 2013". Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
  5. ↑ Fuentes, F. F.; Martínez, E. A.; Hinrischen, P. V.; Jellen, E. N.; Maughan, P. J. (10 May 2008). "Assessment of genetic diversity patterns in Chilean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) germplasm using multiplex fluorescent microsatellite" (PDF). Springer Science+Business Media. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
  6. ↑ Kolata, Alan L. (2009). "Quinoa" (PDF). Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context. Department of Anthropology, The University of Chicago.
  7. ↑ Smith, Bruce 1999 "The Emergence of Agriculture", W H Freeman & Co., New York. ISBN 0-7167-6030-4}
  8. 1 2 3 4 Research Coun National Research Council (2005). The Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation.
  9. ↑ Reinhard Lieberei, Christoph Reissdorff & Wolfgang Franke (2007). Nutzpflanzenkunde. Georg Thieme Verlag.
  10. ↑ Barbara Pickersgill (August 31, 2007). "Domestication of Plants in the Americas: Insights from Mendelian and Molecular Genetics". Annals of Botany 100 (5): 925–40. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm193. PMC 2759216. PMID 17766847.
  11. ↑ Charles B. Heiser Jr. and David C. Nelson (September 1974). "On the Origin of the Cultivated Chenopods (Chenopodium)". Genetics 78 (1): 503–5. PMC 1213209. PMID 4442716.
  12. ↑ "How To Cook Quinoa, Easy Quinoa Recipe". Savvy Vegetarian. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
  13. ↑ "Quinoa". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota. January 20, 2000.
  14. ↑ Masterbroek, H.D.; Limburg, H.; Gilles, T.; Marvin, H. J. (2000). Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and seeds of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). New York, NY.: Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. pp. 152–156. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000101)80:1<152::AID-JSFA503>3.0.CO;2-P.
  15. 1 2 3 Johnson DL, Ward SM (1993). "Quinoa". Department of Horticulture, Purdue University; obtained from Johnson, D.L. and S.M. Ward. 1993. Quinoa. p. 219-221. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
  16. ↑ "Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Saponins of Chenopodium quinoa" (PDF). EPA. 2009.
  17. ↑ Siener, Roswitha; Honow, Ruth; Seidler, Ana; Voss, Susanne; Hesse, Albrecht (2006). Oxalate contents of species of the Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae families. Food Chemistry, Volume 98 Issue 2. pp. 220–224. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.059. ISSN 0308-8146.
  18. ↑ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis of Quinoa, Cooked per 100 grams". Conde Nast for the US National Nutrient Database, Release 28.
  19. ↑ Ruales J, Nair BM (1992). "Nutritional quality of the protein in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd) seeds". Plant Foods Hum Nutr 42 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/bf02196067. PMID 1546052.
  20. ↑ Farnworth, Ted. "Quinoa - A Balanced Protein Source". www.medicinalfoodnews.com. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
  21. ↑ Greg Schlick and David L. Bubenheim (November 1993). "Quinoa: An Emerging "New" Crop with Potential for CELSS" (PDF). NASA Technical Paper 3422. NASA.
  22. ↑ "Anthocyanins Total Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity in Amaranth and Quinoa Seeds and Sprouts During Their Growth" (PDF). researchgate.net. 12 January 2009. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
  23. ↑ "European Quinoa Group". www.quinoaeurope.eu. Retrieved 2015-12-27.
  24. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x-1F7TrniyI, retrieved 2015-12-27 Missing or empty |title= (help)
  25. ↑ Keppel, Stephen (March 4, 2012). "The Quinoa Boom Is a Lesson in the Global Economy". ABC Univision. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
  26. ↑ Keen, Benjamin; Haynes, Keith (2008). A History of Latin America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. p. 32. ISBN 978-0618783182.
  27. 1 2 Popenoe, Hugh (1989). Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-309-04264-X.
  28. ↑ Gade, Daniel W. (1999). Nature and culture in the Andes. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 206. ISBN 0-299-16124-2.
  29. ↑ Bailey, Garrick Alan; Peoples, James (2009). Humanity: an introduction to cultural anthropology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 120. ISBN 0-495-50874-8.
  30. ↑ Bernice Kagan; Meredith McCarty (1995). Fresh from a vegetarian kitchen. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 56. ISBN 0-312-11795-7.
  31. ↑ Andy Turnbull (2005). We need to talk: about the future of Canada. Toronto: Red Ear Pub. p. 23. ISBN 0-9681258-5-9.
  32. ↑ calculated from Export volume and value of FAOSTAT
  33. ↑ "FAOSTAT". FAO Statistics. Retrieved 2016-01-09.
  34. ↑ Collyns, Dan (14 January 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan 2013.
  35. 1 2 3 Blythman, Joanna (16 January 2013). "Can vegans stomach the unpalatable truth about quinoa?". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan 2013.
  36. ↑ Collyns, Dan (14 January 2013). "IQuinoa brings riches to the Andes". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 17 Jan 2013.
  37. ↑ Dan Collyns (14 January 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
  38. ↑ "Despite Economic Gains, Peru's Asparagus Boom Threatening Water Table". PRI's The World. 2011-01-23. Retrieved 2013-01-17.
  39. ↑ Allison Aubrey (2013-06-07). "Your Love Of Quinoa Is Good News For Andean Farmers". NPR. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
  40. 1 2 Tom Philpott. "Quinoa: Good, Evil, or Just Really Complicated?". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
  41. ↑ "Jews divided by great Passover debate: Is quinoa kosher? | National Post". Life.nationalpost.com. 2013-03-25. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
  42. ↑ Nemes, Hody (December 23, 2013). "Quinoa Ruled Kosher for Passover". Forward. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
  43. ↑ United Nations (2012). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly (PDF).
  44. ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2013). International Year of Quinoa.
  45. ↑ "International Years". United Nations. Retrieved 9 June 2012.

Further reading

External links

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