Radical feminism

Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts.[1] Radical feminists seek to abolish patriarchy by challenging existing social norms and institutions, rather than through a purely political process. This includes challenging the notion of traditional gender roles, opposing the sexual objectification of women, and raising public awareness about such issues as rape and violence against women.

Early radical feminism, arising within second-wave feminism in the 1960s,[2] typically viewed patriarchy as a "transhistorical phenomenon"[3] prior to or deeper than other sources of oppression, "not only the oldest and most universal form of domination but the primary form"[4] and the model for all others.[4] Later politics derived from radical feminism ranged from cultural feminism[1] to more syncretic politics that placed issues of class, economics, etc. on a par with patriarchy as sources of oppression.[5] Radical feminists locate the root cause of women's oppression in patriarchal gender relations, as opposed to legal systems (as in liberal feminism) or class conflict (as in anarchist feminism, socialist feminism, and Marxist feminism).

Theory and ideology

Radical feminists assert that society is a patriarchy in which the class of men are the oppressors of the class of women.[6] They posit that because of patriarchy, women have come to be viewed as the "other" to the male norm and as such have been systematically oppressed and marginalized. They furthermore assert that men as a class, benefit from the oppression of women. Radical feminists seek to abolish patriarchy, and believe that the way to do this and to deal with oppression of any kind is to address the underlying causes of it through revolution.

While some radical feminists propose that the oppression of women is the most fundamental form of oppression, one that cuts across boundaries of all other forms of oppression, others acknowledge the simultaneous and intersecting effect of other independent categories of oppression. These other categories of oppression may include, but are not limited to, oppression based on race, social class, perceived attractiveness, sexual orientation, and ability.

Patriarchal theory is not generally defined as a belief that all men always benefit from the oppression of all women. Rather, patriarchal theory maintains that the primary element of patriarchy is a relationship of dominance, where one party is dominant and exploits the other party for the benefit of the former. Radical feminists believe that men (as a class) use social systems and other methods of control to keep women (and non-dominant men) suppressed. Radical feminists also believe that eliminating patriarchy, and other systems which perpetuate the domination of one group over another, will liberate everyone from an unjust society.

Some radical feminists called[7] for women to govern women and men, among them Phyllis Chesler,[8] Monique Wittig (in fiction),[9] Mary Daly,[10] Jill Johnston,[11] and Robin Morgan.[12]

Redstockings co-founder Ellen Willis wrote in 1984 that radical feminists "got sexual politics recognized as a public issue,"[2] "created the vocabulary... with which the second wave of feminism entered popular culture,"[2] "sparked the drive to legalize abortion",[2] "were the first to demand total equality in the so-called private sphere"[2] ("housework and child care ... emotional and sexual needs"),[2] and "created the atmosphere of urgency"[2] that almost led to the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment.[2] The influence of radical feminism can be seen in the adoption of these issues by the National Organization for Women (NOW), a feminist group that had previously been focused almost entirely on economic issues.[13]

Movement

Roots

The ideology of radical feminism in the United States developed as a component of the women's liberation movement. It grew largely due to the influence of the civil rights movement, that had gained momentum in the 1960s, and many of the women who took up the cause of radical feminism had previous experience with radical protest in the struggle against racism. Chronologically, it can be seen within the context of second wave feminism that started in the early 1960s.[14] The primary players and the pioneers of this second wave of feminism included Shulamith Firestone, Kathie Sarachild, Ti-Grace Atkinson, Carol Hanisch, and Judith Brown. Many local women's groups in the late sixties, such as the UCLA Women's Liberation Front (WLF), offered diplomatic statements of radical feminism's ideologies. UCLA's WLF co-founder Devra Weber recalls, "'... the radical feminists were opposed to patriarchy, but not necessarily capitalism. In our group at least, they opposed so-called male dominated national liberation struggles'".[15]

These women helped secure the bridge that translated radical protest for racial equality over to the struggle for women's rights; by witnessing the discrimination and oppression to which the black population was subjected, they were able to gain strength and motivation to do the same for their fellow women. They took up the cause and advocated for a variety of women's issues, including abortion, the Equal Rights Amendment, access to credit, and equal pay.[16] They failed to stir up enough interest among most of the women's fringe groups of society. Most women of color (who were predominantly working-class) did not participate in the formation of the radical feminist movement because it did not address many issues that were relevant to those from a working-class background.[17] But for those who felt compelled enough to stand up for the cause, radical action was needed, and so they took to the streets and formed consciousness raising groups to rally support for the cause and recruit people who would be willing to fight for it. Later on, Second Wave radical feminism saw greater numbers of black feminists and other women of color participating.

In the 1960s, radical feminism emerged simultaneously within liberal feminist and working class feminist discussions, first in the United States, then in the United Kingdom and Australia. Those involved had gradually come to believe that it was not only the middle-class nuclear family which oppressed women, but that it was also social movements and organizations that claimed to stand for human liberation, notably the counterculture, the New Left, and Marxist political parties, all of which they considered to be male-dominated and male-oriented. Women in countercultural groups related that the gender relations present in such groups were very much those of mainstream culture.

In the United States, radical feminism developed as a response to some of the perceived failings of both New Left organizations such as the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and feminist organizations such as NOW. Initially concentrated in big cities like New York, Chicago, Boston, Washington, DC, and on the West Coast,[18] radical feminist groups spread across the country rapidly from 1968 to 1972.

In the United Kingdom, feminism developed out of discussions within community based radical women's organizations and discussions by women within the Trotskyist left. Radical feminism was imported into the UK by American radical feminists and seized on by British radical women as offering an exciting new theory to replace Trotskyism. As the 1970s progressed, British feminists split into two major schools of thought: socialist and radical. In 1977, another split occurred, with a third grouping calling itself "revolutionary feminism" breaking away from the other two.

Australian radical feminism developed slightly later, during an extended period of social radicalization, largely as an expression of that radicalization.

Radical feminists introduced the use of consciousness raising (CR) groups. These groups brought together intellectuals, workers, and middle class women in developed Western countries to discuss their experiences. During these discussions, women noted a shared and repressive system regardless of their political affiliation or social class. Based on these discussions, the women drew the conclusion that ending of patriarchy was the most necessary step towards a truly free society. These consciousness-raising sessions allowed early radical feminists to develop a political ideology based on common experiences women faced with male supremacy. Consciousness raising was extensively used in chapter sub-units of the National Organization for Women (NOW) during the 1970s. The feminism that emerged from these discussions stood first and foremost for the liberation of women, as women, from the oppression of men in their own lives, as well as men in power. Radical feminism claimed that a totalizing ideology and social formation—patriarchy (government or rule by fathers)—dominated women in the interests of men.

Within groups such as New York Radical Women (1967–1969; no relation to the present-day socialist feminist organization Radical Women), which Ellen Willis characterized as "the first women's liberation group in New York City",[19] a radical feminist ideology began to emerge that declared that "the personal is political"[2] and "sisterhood is powerful",[2] formulations that arose from these consciousness-raising sessions. New York Radical Women fell apart in early 1969 in what came to be known as the "politico-feminist split"[19] with the "politicos"[19] seeing capitalism as the source of women's oppression, while the "feminists"[19] saw male supremacy as "a set of material, institutionalized relations, not just bad attitudes."[19] The feminist side of the split, which soon began referring to itself as "radical feminists",[19] soon constituted the basis of a new organization, Redstockings. At the same time, Ti-Grace Atkinson led "a radical split-off from NOW",[20] which became known as The Feminists.[20] A third major stance would be articulated by the New York Radical Feminists, founded later in 1969 by Shulamith Firestone (who broke from the Redstockings) and Anne Koedt.[21]

During this period, the movement produced "a prodigious output of leaflets, pamphlets, journals, magazine articles, newspaper and radio and TV interviews."[2] Many important feminist works, such as Koedt's essay The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm (1970) and Kate Millet's book Sexual Politics (1970), emerged during this time and in this milieu.

Ideology emerges and diverges

At the beginning of this period, "heterosexuality was more or less an unchallenged assumption."[22] Among radical feminists, the view became widely held that, thus far, the sexual freedoms gained in the sexual revolution of the 1960s, in particular, the decreasing emphasis on monogamy, had been largely gained by men at women's expense.[22] This assumption of heterosexuality would soon be challenged by the rise of political lesbianism, closely associated with Atkinson and The Feminists.[23] The belief that the sexual revolution was a victory of men over women would eventually lead to the women's anti-pornography movement of the late 1970s.

Redstockings and The Feminists were both radical feminist organizations, but held rather distinct views. Most members of Redstockings held to a materialist and anti-psychologistic view. They viewed men's oppression of women as ongoing and deliberate, holding individual men responsible for this oppression, viewing institutions and systems (including the family) as mere vehicles of conscious male intent, and rejecting psychologistic explanations of female submissiveness as blaming women for collaboration in their own oppression.[24] They held to a view—which Willis would later describe as "neo-Maoist"[20]—that it would be possible to unite all or virtually all women, as a class, to confront this oppression by personally confronting men.[25]

The Feminists held a more idealistic, psychologistic, and utopian philosophy, with a greater emphasis on "sex roles",[26] seeing sexism as rooted in "complementary patterns of male and female behavior".[26] They placed more emphasis on institutions, seeing marriage, family, prostitution, and heterosexuality as all existing to perpetuate the "sex-role system".[26] They saw all of these as institutions to be destroyed. Within the group, there were further disagreements, such as Koedt's viewing the institution of "normal"[26] sexual intercourse as being focused mainly on male sexual or erotic pleasure, while Atkinson viewed it mainly in terms of reproduction.[26] In contrast to the Redstockings, The Feminists generally considered genitally focused sexuality to be inherently male.[27] Ellen Willis would later write that insofar as the Redstockings considered abandoning heterosexual activity, they saw it as a "bitter price"[27] they "might have to pay for [their] militance",[27] whereas The Feminists embraced separatist feminism as a strategy.[27]

The New York Radical Feminists (NYRF) took a more psychologistic (and even biologically determinist) line. They argued that men dominated women not so much for material benefits as for the ego satisfaction intrinsic in domination. Similarly, they rejected the Redstockings view that women submitted only out of necessity or The Feminists' implicit view that they submitted out of cowardice, but instead argued that social conditioning simply led most women to accept a submissive role as "right and natural".[28]

Action

Radical feminism was not and is not only a movement of ideology and theory. Radical feminists also take direct action. In 1968, they protested against the Miss America pageant by throwing high heels and other feminine accoutrements into a garbage bin, to represent freedom.[29] In 1970, they also staged a sit-in at the Ladies' Home Journal.[30] In addition, they held speakouts[1] about topics such as rape.

Radical egalitarianism

Because of their commitment to radical egalitarianism, most early radical feminist groups operated initially without any formal internal structure. When informal leadership developed, it was often resented. Many groups ended up expending more effort debating their own internal operations than dealing with external matters, seeking to "perfect a perfect society in microcosm"[31] rather than focus on the larger world. Resentment of leadership was compounded by the view that all "class striving"[31] was "male-identified".[31] In the extreme, exemplified by The Feminists, the upshot, according to Ellen Willis, was "unworkable, mechanistic demands for an absolutely random division of labor, taking no account of differences in skill, experience, or even inclination".[31] "The result," writes Willis, "was not democracy but paralysis."[31] When The Feminists began to select randomly who could talk to the press, Ti-Grace Atkinson quit the organization she had founded.[31]

Social organization and aims in the U.S. and Australia

Radical feminists have generally formed small activist or community associations around either consciousness raising or concrete aims. Many radical feminists in Australia participated in a series of squats to establish various women's centers, and this form of action was common in the late 1970s and early 1980s. By the mid-1980s many of the original consciousness raising groups had dissolved, and radical feminism was more and more associated with loosely organized university collectives. Radical feminism can still be seen, particularly within student activism and among working class women.

In Australia, many feminist social organizations accepted government funding during the 1980s, and the election of a conservative government in 1996 crippled these organizations.

While radical feminists aim to dismantle patriarchal society in a historical sense, their immediate aims are generally concrete. Some common demands include:

Other nations

The movement also arose in Israel among Jews.[33]

Views on the sex industry

Radical feminists have written about a wide range of issues regarding the sex industry – which they tend to oppose – including but not limited to: harm to women during the production of pornography, the social harm from consumption of pornography, the coercion and poverty that leads women to become prostitutes, the long-term effects of prostitution, the raced and classed nature of prostitution, and male dominance over women in prostitution and pornography.

Views on prostitution

Radical feminists argue that, in most cases, prostitution is not a conscious and calculated choice. They say that most women who become prostitutes do so because they were forced or coerced by a pimp or by human trafficking, or, when it is an independent decision, it is generally the result of extreme poverty and lack of opportunity, or of serious underlying problems, such as drug addiction, past trauma (such as child sexual abuse) and other unfortunate circumstances.

Radical feminists point out that women from the lowest socioeconomic classes—impoverished women, women with a low level of education, women from the most disadvantaged racial and ethnic minorities—are overrepresented in prostitution all over the world. "If prostitution is a free choice, why are the women with the fewest choices the ones most often found doing it?" (MacKinnon, 1993).[34] A large percentage of prostitutes polled in one study of 475 people involved in prostitution reported that they were in a difficult period of their lives and most wanted to leave the occupation.[35] Catharine MacKinnon argues that "In prostitution, women have sex with men they would never otherwise have sex with. The money thus acts as a form of force, not as a measure of consent. It acts like physical force does in rape."[36]

They believe no person can be said to truly consent to their own oppression and no people should have the right to consent to the oppression of others. In the words of Kathleen Barry, consent is not a “good divining rod as to the existence of oppression, and consent to violation is a fact of oppression. Oppression cannot effectively be gauged according to the degree of “consent,” since even in slavery there was some consent, if consent is defined as inability to see, or feel any alternative.”[37]

Andrea Dworkin stated her opinions as: "Prostitution in and of itself is an abuse of a woman's body. Those of us who say this are accused of being simple-minded. But prostitution is very simple. (...) In prostitution, no woman stays whole. It is impossible to use a human body in the way women's bodies are used in prostitution and to have a whole human being at the end of it, or in the middle of it, or close to the beginning of it. It's impossible. And no woman gets whole again later, after.”[38]

Radical feminist thinking has analyzed prostitution as a cornerstone of patriarchal domination and sexual subjugation of women that impacts negatively not only on the women and girls in prostitution but on all women as a group because prostitution continually affirms and reinforces patriarchal definitions of women as having a primary function to serve men sexually. They claim it is crucial that society does not replace one patriarchal view on female sexuality - e.g., that women should not have sex outside marriage/a relationship and that casual sex is shameful for a woman, etc. - with another similarly oppressive and patriarchal view - acceptance of prostitution, a sexual practice which is based on a highly patriarchal construct of sexuality: that the sexual pleasure of a woman is irrelevant, that her only role during sex is to submit to the man’s sexual demands and to do what he tells her, that sex should be controlled by the man and that the woman’s response and satisfaction are irrelevant. These feminists argue that sexual liberation for women cannot be achieved as long as we normalize unequal sexual practices where a man dominates a woman.[39]

They see prostitution as a form of male dominance, as it puts the woman in a subordinate position, reducing her to a mere instrument of sexual pleasure for the client. These feminists believe that many clients use the services of prostitutes because they enjoy the "power trip" they derive from the act and the control they have over the woman during the sexual activity. Catharine MacKinnon argues that prostitution "isn't sex only, it’s you do what I say, sex."[40]

Radical feminists strongly object to the patriarchal ideology which has been one of the justifications for the existence of prostitution throughout history (and which they say continues to justify it in many cultures), that is, that prostitution is a "necessary evil", as men cannot control themselves, and thus it is "necessary" that a small number of women be "sacrificed" to be used and abused by men, in order to protect "chaste" women from rape and harassment. These feminists see prostitution as a form of slavery, and say that, far from decreasing rape rates, prostitution leads to a sharp increase in sexual violence against women, by sending the message that it is acceptable for a man to treat a woman as a sexual instrument over which he has total control. Melissa Farley argues that Nevada's high rape rate is connected to legal prostitution because Nevada is the only US state which allows legal brothels and is ranked 4th out of the 50 U.S. states for sexual assault crimes,[41] saying, "Nevada's rape rate is higher than the U.S. average and way higher than the rape rate in California, New York and New Jersey. Why is this? Legal prostitution creates an atmosphere in this state in which women are not humans equal to them, are disrespected by men, and which then sets the stage of increased violence against women."[42]

Indigenous women the world over are particularly targeted for prostitution. In Canada, New Zealand, Mexico, and Taiwan, studies have shown that indigenous women are at the bottom of the race and class hierarchy of prostitution, often subjected to the worst conditions, most violent demands and sold at the lowest price.[43] It is common for indigenous women to be over-represented in prostitution when compared with their total population. This is as a result of the combined forces of colonialism, physical displacement from ancestral lands, destruction of indigenous social and cultural order, misogyny, globalization/neoliberalism, race discrimination and extremely high levels of violence perpetrated against them.[43]

Views on pornography

Radical feminists, notably Catherine MacKinnon, charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and/or economic coercion of the women who perform and model in it. This is said to be true even when the women are being presented as enjoying themselves.[44][45][46] It is also argued that much of what is shown in pornography is abusive by its very nature. Gail Dines holds that pornography, exemplified by gonzo pornography, is becoming increasingly violent and that women who perform in pornography are brutalized in the process of its production.[47][48]

Radical feminists point to the testimony of well known participants in pornography, such as Traci Lords and Linda Boreman, and argue that most female performers are coerced into pornography, either by somebody else, or by an unfortunate set of circumstances. The feminist anti-pornography movement was galvanized by the publication of Ordeal, in which Linda Boreman (who under the name of "Linda Lovelace" had starred in Deep Throat) stated that she had been beaten, raped, and pimped by her husband Chuck Traynor, and that Traynor had forced her at gunpoint to make scenes in Deep Throat, as well as forcing her, by use of both physical violence against Boreman as well as emotional abuse and outright threats of violence, to make other pornographic films. Dworkin, MacKinnon, and Women Against Pornography issued public statements of support for Boreman, and worked with her in public appearances and speeches.[49]

Radical feminists hold the view that pornography contributes to sexism, arguing that in pornographic performances the actresses are reduced to mere receptacles—objects—for sexual use and abuse by men. They argue that the narrative is usually formed around men's pleasure as the only goal of sexual activity, and that the women are shown in a subordinate role. Some opponents believe pornographic films tend to show women as being extremely passive, or that the acts which are performed on the women are typically abusive and solely for the pleasure of their sex partner. On-face ejaculation and anal sex are increasingly popular among men, following trends in porn.[50] MacKinnon and Dworkin defined pornography as "the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures or words".[51]

Radical feminists say that consumption of pornography is a cause of rape and other forms of violence against women. Robin Morgan summarizes this idea with her often-quoted statement, "Pornography is the theory, and rape is the practice."[52]

Radical feminists charge that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. MacKinnon argued that pornography leads to an increase in sexual violence against women through fostering rape myths. Such rape myths include the belief that women really want to be raped and that they mean yes when they say no. Additionally, according to MacKinnon, pornography desensitizes viewers to violence against women, and this leads to a progressive need to see more violence in order to become sexually aroused, an effect she claims is well documented.[53]

German radical feminist Alice Schwarzer is one proponent of the point of view according to which pornography gives a distorted view of men and women's bodies, as well as the actual sexual act, often showing the performers with synthetic implants or exaggerated expressions of pleasure, as well as fetishes that are not the norm, such as watersports, being presented as popular and normal.

Radical lesbian feminism

Main article: Radical lesbians

Radical lesbians are distinguished from other radical feminists through their ideological roots in political lesbianism. Radical lesbians see lesbianism as an act of resistance against the political institution of heterosexuality, which they view as violent and oppressive towards women.

Views on transgender issues

Since the 1970s, there has been an ongoing debate among radical feminists about the role of transgender identities in society.[54] Many radical feminists, as well as groups such as Radical Women, have supported transgender rights and trans-inclusivity.[55][56][57][58][59] Others, such as Janice Raymond, Germaine Greer, Sheila Jeffreys, Julie Bindel, and Robert Jensen, have accused the transgender movement of perpetuating patriarchal gender norms and characterized it as incompatible with radical feminist ideology.[54][60]

Opposition

In 1978 the Lesbian Organization of Toronto voted to become womyn-born womyn only and wrote:

A woman's voice was almost never heard as a woman's voice – it was always filtered through men's voices. So here a guy comes along saying, "I'm going to be a girl now and speak for girls." And we thought, "No you're not." A person cannot just join the oppressed by fiat.[61]

In 1979 American lesbian radical feminist activist Janice Raymond released the book The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male, which looked at the role of transsexuality – particularly psychological and surgical approaches to it – in reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes, the ways in which the "medical-psychiatric complex" has medicalized "gender identity", and the social and political context that helped spawn transsexual treatment and surgery as normal and therapeutic medicine.[62] The Transsexual Empire maintains that transsexuality is based on the "patriarchal myths" of "male mothering", and "making of woman according to man's image". Raymond claimed this was done in order "to colonize feminist identification, culture, politics and sexuality", adding: "All transsexuals rape women's bodies by reducing the real female form to an artifact, appropriating this body for themselves .... Transsexuals merely cut off the most obvious means of invading women, so that they seem non-invasive."

In 1999, Germaine Greer published a sequel to The Female Eunuch, the book The Whole Woman. One chapter was titled "Pantomime Dames", wherein she states her opposition to accepting transsexuals as women:[63]

Governments that consist of very few women have hurried to recognise as women men who believe that they are women and have had themselves castrated to prove it, because they see women not as another sex but as a non-sex. No so-called sex-change has ever begged for a uterus-and-ovaries transplant; if uterus-and-ovaries transplants were made mandatory for wannabe women they would disappear overnight. The insistence that man-made women be accepted as women is the institutional expression of the mistaken conviction that women are defective males.[64]

Sheila Jeffreys argues that gender is not immutable and thus does not warrant radical medical intervention, considers detransitioners to be evidence of this, and describes sex reassignment surgery as "mutilation".[54] Jeffreys also argues that "the vast majority of transsexuals still subscribe to the traditional stereotype of women" and that by transitioning medically and socially, trans women are "constructing a conservative fantasy of what women should be. They are inventing an essence of womanhood which is deeply insulting and restrictive".[65] Throughout Gender Hurts: A Feminist Analysis of the Politics of Transgenderism, co-written with Lorene Gottschalk, Jeffreys insists on using male pronouns to refer to trans women arguing that "use by men of feminine pronouns conceals the masculine privilege bestowed upon them by virtue of having been placed in and brought up in the male sex caste".[54] Julie Bindel said "I don't have a problem with men disposing of their genitals, but it does not make them women, in the same way that shoving a bit of vacuum hose down your 501s [jeans] does not make you a man."[66] As of 2009 Bindel maintained that "people should question the basis of the diagnosis of male psychiatrists, at a time when gender polarisation and homophobia work hand-in-hand."[67] She argues that "Iran carries out the highest number of sex change surgeries in the world" because "surgery is an attempt to keep gender stereotypes intact"[67] and that "the idea that certain distinct behaviours are appropriate for males and females underlies feminist criticism of the phenomenon of 'transgenderism'."[67]

Robert Jensen has outlined feminist[68] and ecological concerns[69] about transgender ideology, and connected that ideology to a larger cultural fear of the feminist critique of patriarchy.[70]

Radical feminists have sometimes advocated for the exclusion of trans women from feminist events, a source of much controversy. Lisa Vogel, the Michfest event organizer claimed that protesters from Camp Trans responded to this controversy with vandalism.[54][71] They argue that trans women cannot be counted as women because they were not born biologically female.[54][71] Such radical feminists hold that trans women have enjoyed male privilege by virtue of being assigned male at birth and their insistence on acceptance is a type of male entitlement.[54] Radical feminists reject the notion of a female brain. They believe that the differences in behavior between men and women are a result of different socialization and believe that - in the words of Lierre Keith - femininity is "ritualized submission".[72] In this view, gender is less an identity than a caste position and transgender is an obstacle to gender abolition.[54][71] These views are not widely held by broader feminist movement,[54] are rejected by many trans women,[54] and are often labeled transphobic.[73]

The term TERF (trans-exclusionary radical feminist) has been used to refer to radical feminists who hold such views,[54] and radical feminists holding these views have been described as members of a hate group who are allegedly "masquerading as feminists".[74] The term is considered a slur by those at whom it is directed.[54][73][75]


Criticism

During the early years, some radical feminists were criticized for emphasizing sex-based discrimination at the expense of race- and class-based discrimination, for being unwilling to work with men to effect change through political channels, and for reinforcing gender essentialism (the idea that men and women are inherently different).[76]

According to Ellen Willis' 1984 essay Radical Feminism and Feminist Radicalism, within the New Left, radical feminists were accused of being "bourgeois", "antileft", or even "apolitical", whereas they saw themselves as further "radicalizing the left by expanding the definition of radical".[77] Early radical feminists tended to be white and middle class. Willis hypothesized that this was, at least in part, because "most black and working-class women could not accept the abstraction of feminist issues from race and class issues";[3] the resulting narrow demographic base, in turn, limited the validity of generalizations based on radical feminists' personal experiences of gender relations.[3] Many early radical feminists broke political ties with "male-dominated left groups",[77] or would work with them only in ad hoc coalitions.[77]

Also, Willis, although very much a part of early radical feminism and continuing to hold that it played a necessary role in placing feminism on the political agenda, later criticized its inability "to integrate a feminist perspective with an overall radical politics,"[77] while viewing this limitation as inevitable in the historical context of the times.[77] In part this limitation arose from the fact that consciousness raising, as "the primary method of understanding women's condition"[22] in the movement at this time and its "most successful organizing tool",[22] led to an emphasis on personal experience that concealed "prior political and philosophical assumptions".[22]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 Willis, p. 117.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Willis, p. 118.
  3. 1 2 3 Willis, p. 122.
  4. 1 2 Willis, p. 123.
  5. ↑ Willis, p. 141.
  6. ↑ Echols, p. 139.
  7. ↑ Zerilli, Linda M. G., Feminism and the Abyss of Freedom (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-226-98133-9)), p. 101.
     • Eller, Cynthia, The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory: Why an Invented Past Won't Give Women a Future (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-8070-6792-X)), p. 3.
  8. ↑ Chesler, Phyllis, Women and Madness (N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan, rev'd & updated ed., 1st ed. 2005 (ISBN 1-4039-6897-7)), pp. 335–336, 337–338, 340, 341, 345, 346, 347, & 348–349 (original ed. prob. published 1972, per id., p. [ix] ("1972 Acknowledgments") (sales 2.5 million copies, per id. (pbk.), cover I, & Douglas, Carol Anne, Women and Madness, in off our backs, op. cit.).
     • Douglas, Carol Anne, Women and Madness, in off our backs, vol. 36, no. 2, Jul. 1, 2006, p. 71, col. 1 (Review) (ISSN 0030-0071).
     • Spender, Dale, For the Record: The Making and Meaning of Feminist Knowledge (London: The Women's Press, 1985 (ISBN 0-7043-2862-3)), p. 151 and see reply from Phyllis Chesler to author at p. 214.
  9. ↑ Wittig, Monique, trans. David Le Vay, Les Guérillères (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, reprint 1985 (ISBN 0-8070-6301-0), 1969 Les Editions de Minuit), passim and see pp. 112, 114–115, 127, 131, & 134–135 (novel).
     • Moi, Toril, Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory (London: Routledge, 2d ed., 2002 (ISBN 0-415-28012-5)), p. 78.
     • Auerbach, Nina, Communities of Women: An Idea in Fiction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1978 (ISBN 0-674-15168-2)), p. 186.
     • Porter, Laurence M., Feminist Fantasy and Open Structure in Monique Wittig's Les Guérillères, in Morse, Donald E., Marshall B. Tymn, & Csilla Bertha, eds., The Celebration of the Fantastic: Selected Papers from the Tenth Anniversary International Conference on the Fantastic in the Arts (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992 (ISBN 0-313-27814-8)), p. 267.
     • Zerilli, Linda M. G., Feminism and the Abyss of Freedom, op. cit., p. 80 n. 51, quoting Porter, Laurence M., Feminist Fantasy and Open Structure in Monique Wittig's Les Guérillères, op. cit., p. [261].
  10. ↑ Daly, Mary, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, pbk. 1978 & 1990 (prob. all content except New Intergalactic Introduction 1978 & prob. New Intergalactic Introduction 1990) (ISBN 0-8070-1413-3)), p. 15 and see pp. xxvi & xxxiii (both in New Intergalactic Introduction) & pp. 29, 375 & fnn., & 384 (New Intergalactic Introduction separate from Introduction: The Metapatriarchal Journey of Exorcism and Ecstasy).
  11. ↑ Johnston, Jill, Lesbian Nation: The Feminist Solution (N.Y.: Simon & Schuster, 1973 (SBN (not ISBN) 671-21433-0)), p. 248 and see pp. 248–249.
     • Franklin, Kris, & Sara E. Chinn, Lesbians, Legal Theory and Other Superheroes, in Review of Law & Social Change, vol. XXV, 1999, pp. 310–311, as accessed Oct. 21, 2010 (citing in n. 45 Lesbian Nation, p. 15)).
     • Ross, Becki L., The House That Jill Built: A Lesbian Nation in Formation (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, pbk. 1995 (ISBN 0-8020-7479-0)), passim, esp. pp. 8 & 15–16 & also pp. 19, 71, 111, 204, 205, 212, 219, & 231.
     • Ross, Becki L., The House That Jill Built, op. cit., p. 204 & n. 18, citing McCoy, Sherry, & Maureen Hicks, A Psychological Retrospective on Power in the Contemporary Lesbian-Feminist Community, in Frontiers, vol. 4, no. 3 (1979), p. 67.
  12. ↑ Morgan, Robin, Going Too Far: The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist (N.Y.: Random House, 1st ed. 1977 (ISBN 0-394-48227-1)), p. 187.
  13. ↑ Willis, p. 138.
  14. ↑ Sarah Gamble, ed. The Routledge companion to feminism and postfeminism (2001) p. 25
  15. ↑ Linden-Ward & Green, p. 418.
  16. ↑ Evans, Sara M. (Summer 2002). "Re-Viewing the Second Wave". Feminist Studies 28 (2): 258–267. doi:10.2307/3178740. JSTOR 3178740.
  17. ↑ Linden-Ward & Green, p. 434.
  18. ↑ Willis, p. 118. Willis doesn't mention Chicago, but as early as 1967 Chicago was a major site for consciousness-raising and home of the Voice of Women's Liberation Movement; see Kate Bedford and Ara Wilson Lesbian Feminist Chronology: 1963-1970, accessed online 8 July 2007.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Willis, p. 119.
  20. 1 2 3 Willis, p. 124.
  21. ↑ Willis, p. 133.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Willis, p. 121.
  23. ↑ Willis, p. 131.
  24. ↑ Willis, pp. 124–126.
  25. ↑ Willis, p. 128.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 Willis, pp. 130–132.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Willis, p. 132.
  28. ↑ Willis, pp. 133–134.
  29. ↑ Echols, pp. 92–101.
  30. ↑ Echols, pp. 195–197.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Willis, pp. 138–140.
  32. ↑ From The Encyclopedia of Feminism (1986) Lisa Tuttle
  33. ↑ Misra, Kalpana, & Melanie S. Rich, Jewish Feminism in Israel: Some Contemporary Perspectives (Hanover, N.H.: Univ. Press of New England (Brandeis Univ. Press), 1st ed. 2003 (ISBN 1-58465-325-6)) (author sr. fellow, Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, Univ. of Minn., dir., Intntl. Women's Rights Action Watch, law degree, Univ. of Minn., & doctoral degree in Eng. & Am. lit., Univ. of Penna., editor Kalpana Misra assoc. prof. pol. sci., Univ. of Tulsa), & editor Melanie S. Rich psychologist & chair, Partnership 2000 Women's Forum).
  34. ↑ Melissa Farley, Isin Baral, Merab Kiremire and Ufuk Sezgin (1998). "Prostitution in Five Countries". Feminism & Psychology: 405–426. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
  35. ↑ Farley, Melissa. (April/2/2000) Prostitution: Factsheet on Human Rights Violations. Prostitution Research & Education. Retrieved on 2009-09-03.
  36. ↑ "It's Wrong to Pay for Sex". Connecticut Public Radio. 5 August 2009. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
  37. ↑ Barry, K "The Prostitution of Sexuality: The Global Exploitation of Women" New York: NYU Press 1995
  38. ↑ Andrea Dworkin (1992-10-31). "Prostitution and Male Supremacy (1 of 2)". Nostatusquo.com. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
  39. ↑ Cecilia Hofmann (August 1997). "SEX: From human intimacy to "sexual labor" or Is prostitution a human right?". CATW-Asia Pacific. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
  40. ↑ "It's wrong to pay for sex" (PDF). 22 April 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2011. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  41. ↑ "Sexual Assault Prevention Program at ISPAN". Inner-star.org. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
  42. ↑ MARK WAITE (2007-09-07). "Panel: Brothels aid sex trafficking". Pahrump Valley Times. Archived from the original on December 17, 2007. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
  43. 1 2 Farley, M.; Lynne, J.; Cotton, A. (2005). "Prostitution in Vancouver: Violence and the Colonization of First Nations Women". Transcultural Psychiatry 42 (2): 242–271. doi:10.1177/1363461505052667. PMID 16114585.
  44. ↑ Shrage, Laurie. (2007-07-13). "Feminist Perspectives on Sex Markets: Pornography". In: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  45. ↑ MacKinnon, Catherine A. (1984) "Not a moral issue." Yale Law and Policy Review 2:321-345. Reprinted in: MacKinnon (1989). Toward a Feminist Theory of the State Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-89645-9 (1st ed), ISBN 0-674-89646-7 (2nd ed). "Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography"
  46. ↑ "A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)". Think Tank. 1995. PBS. Retrieved 2009-09-01.
  47. ↑ Dines, Gail. (2007-03-24). "Pornography & Pop Culture: Putting the Text in Context" Presentation at: Pornography & Pop Culture - Rethinking Theory, Reframing Activism. Wheelock College, Boston, March 24, 2007. Archived at Google Video.
  48. ↑ Dines, Gail. (2008-06-23). "Penn, Porn and Me". CounterPunch. Retrieved 2009-09-06. "The porn that makes most of the money for the industry is actually the gonzo, body-punishing variety that shows women’s bodies being physically stretched to the limit, humiliated and degraded. Even porn industry people commented in a recent article in Adult Video News, that gonzo porn is taking its toll on the women, and the turnover is high because they can’t stand the brutal acts on the body for very long."
  49. ↑ Brownmiller, In Our Time, p. 337.
  50. ↑ Bindel, Julie, The Truth About the Porn Industry: Gail Dines, the Author of an Explosive New Book About the Sex Industry, on Why Pornography Has Never Been a Greater Threat to Our Relationships, in The (U.K.) Guardian, Jul. 2, 2010, section Life & Style, subsection Women, as accessed Jul. 17, 2010 (Wikipedia has an article about Julie Bindel).
  51. ↑ MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1984). "Francis Biddle's sister: pornography, civil rights, and speech". Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Harvard University Press. (1987). pp. 163–197. ISBN 0-674-29874-8. p 176.
  52. ↑ Morgan, Robin. (1974). "Theory and Practice: Pornography and Rape". In: Going Too Far: The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist. (1977). Random House. 333 p. ISBN 0-394-48227-1. (1978 ed, ISBN 0-394-72612-X.)
  53. ↑ Jeffries, Stuart. (2006-04-12). "Are women human? (interview with Catharine MacKinnon)". The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-09-01.
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  55. ↑ Dworkin, Andrea (1974). Woman Hating. New York: Penguin. p. 186. ISBN 0-525-47423-4.
  56. ↑ Editorial Staff (March 9, 2015). "Harm is Harm, Hello". On Century Avenue. Retrieved November 20, 2015.
  57. ↑ Stoltenberg, John (April 28, 2014). "Andrea was not transphobic". Feminist Times. Retrieved November 20, 2015.
  58. ↑ Allen, Emma. "Unpacking Transphobia". Radical Women. Retrieved November 20, 2015.
  59. ↑ "Sex, Gender, and Sexuality: The TransAdvocate interviews Catharine A. MacKinnon". The TransAdvocate. Retrieved 2016-01-14.
  60. ↑ Jensen, Robert (June 5, 2015). "A transgender problem for diversity politics". The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved November 20, 2015.
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  62. ↑ Raymond, Janice G. (1994). The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male (Reissued with a new introduction on transgender ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. ISBN 0807762725.
  63. ↑ Greer, Germaine, (1999), The Whole Woman, Transworld Publishers Ltd, 1999, ISBN 0-385-60016-X, p 64.
  64. ↑ "Germaine Greer 'glitter bombed' by Queer Avengers". The New Zealand Herald. March 14, 2012. Retrieved October 7, 2012.
  65. ↑ Jeffreys, Sheila (1997). "Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective" (PDF). The Journal of Lesbian Studies.
  66. ↑ Bindel, Julie (31 January 2004), Gender Benders, beware, The Guardian
  67. 1 2 3 Grew, Tony (7 November 2008), Celebs split over trans protest at Stonewall Awards Bindel attended.
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  73. 1 2 Vasquez, Tina (February 17, 2014). "It's Time to End the Long History of Feminism Failing Transgender Women". Bitch Media. Retrieved April 18, 2014.
  74. ↑ Allen, Samantha (July 11, 2013). "The hate group masquerading as feminists". Salon/Jacobin. Retrieved April 18, 2014. A small but vocal band of activists known as 'Radfems' see transgender women like myself as a blight on the feminist movement, but — because their views are not representative of the feminist movement as a whole — many trans*-inclusive feminists refer to them as TERFs, or Trans*-Exclusionary Radical Feminists.
  75. ↑ Hungerford, Elizabeth (2–4 August 2013). "Sex is Not Gender". CounterPunch. Retrieved 10 August 2014. Make no mistake, this is a slur. TERF is not meant to be explanatory, but insulting. These characterizations are hyperbolic, misleading, and ultimately defamatory. They do nothing but escalate the vitriol and fail to advance the conversation in any way.
  76. ↑ Hillyard Little, Margaret. "Women's Sexuality: On the Socialist Feminist Road to Discovery" (PDF).
  77. 1 2 3 4 5 Willis, p. 120.

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