Germanic Wars

The Germanic Wars is a name given to a series of wars between the Romans and various Germanic tribes between 113 BC and 596 AD. The nature of these wars varied through time between Roman conquest, Germanic uprisings and later Germanic invasions in the Roman Empire that started in the late 2nd century. The series of conflicts, which began in the 5th century under the Western Roman Emperor Honorius, led (along with internal strife) to the ultimate downfall of the Western Roman Empire.

• Siege of Olbia, c. 220 BC
• Cimbrian War, 113–101 BC
  • Battle of Noreia 112 BC^[1]
  • Battle of Agen 107 BC^[2]
  • Battle of Arausio 105 BC
  • Battle of Aquae Sextiae 102 BC
  • Battle of Vercellae 101 BC^[3]
• Battle of Vosges 58 BC
• Battle of the Sabis 57 BC
• clades Lolliana 16 BC
• Battle of the Lupia River 11 BC
• Battle of the Teutoburg Forest 9 AD
• Battle at the Pontes longi 15
• Battle of the Weser River 16
• Battle of the Angivarian Wall 16
• Battle of Baduhenna Wood 28
• Revolt of the Batavi 69-70
• Domitian's Campaign against the Chatti 82
• Marcomannic Wars 166–180
• Crisis of the Third Century
  • Battle at the Harzhorn c. 235
  • Battle of Nicopolis ad Istrum 250
  • Battle of Philippopolis 250
  • Battle of Abrittus 251
  • Battle of Mediolanum 259
  • Battle of Augusta Vindelicorum 260
  • Battle of Thermopylae 267
  • Siege of Mainz 268
  • Battle of Lake Benacus 268
  • Siege of Augustodunum Haeduorum 269
  • Battle of Naissus 269
  • Battle of Placentia 271
  • Battle of Fano 271
  • Battle of Pavia 271
  • Battle of Châlons 274
• Battle of Lingones 298
• Battle of Vindonissa 298
• Siege of Senonae 356
• Siege of Autun 356
• Battle of Durocortorum 356
• Battle of Brumath 356
• Battle of Argentoratum 357
• Battle of Solicinium 367
• Great Conspiracy 367–368
• Gothic War (376–382)
  • Battle of the Willows 377
  • Battle of Adrianople 378
  • Battle of Thessalonica 380
• Battle of Argentovaria 378
• Massacre of Thessalonica 390
• Battle of the Frigidus 394
• Gothic War (402-403)
  • Battle of Pollentia 402
  • Battle of Verona 403
• Battle of Faesulae 406
• Battle of Moguntiacum 406
• Crossing of the Rhine 406
• Sack of Rome 410
• Siege of Hippo Regius 430
• Battle of Narbonne 436
• Battle of the Catalaunian Plains 451
• Sack of Aquileia 452
• Sack of Rome 455
• Battle of Aylesford 455
• Battle of Órbigo 456
• Battle of Arelate 458
• Battle of Cartagena 461
• Battle of Orleans 463
• Battle of Bassianae 468
• Battle of Cap Bon 468
• Battle of Bolia 469
• Battle of Déols c. 469
• Battle of Ravenna 476
• Battle of Soissons 486
• Battle of Isonzo 489
• Battle of Verona 489
• Vandalic War 533-534
  • Battle of Ad Decimum 533
  • Battle of Tricamarum 533
• Gothic War (535–554)
  • Siege of Rome 537-538
  • Battle of Faventia 542
  • Battle of Mucellium 542
  • Siege of Naples 543
  • Sack of Rome 546
  • Siege of Rome 549-550
  • Battle of Sena Gallica 551
  • Battle of Taginae 552
  • Battle of Mons Lactarius 553
  • Battle of the Volturnus 554
• Siege of Ticinum 569–572

Chronology

3rd century BC

• c. 220 BC, Siege of Olbia by Germanic Basternae and Scirii.

2nd century BC

The Defeat of the Cimbri by Alexandre Gabriel Décamps

• 113–101 BC, Germanic Collision with the Roman Republic, Cimbrian War, Begin of Germanic Wars.
  • 112 BC, Battle of Noreia,^[1] Suicide of Consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo.
  • 107 BC, Helvetii defeat the Romans in the Battle of Agen,^[2] Consul Lucius Cassius Longinus dies in battle,^[2] General Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus dies in battle.^[2] (Battle against Allies of the Cimbri)
  • 105 BC, Battle of Arausio, Execution of Roman General Marcus Aurelius Scaurus, Proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio and Consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus exiled.
  • 102 BC, Consul Gaius Marius defeats the Scirii and Teutons in the Battle of Aquae Sextiae, Capture of King Teutobod, Extermination of the Teutons, Cimbri defeat Consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus in the Adige Valley.^[4]
  • 101 BC, Roman consuls Gaius Marius and Manius Aquillius defeat the Cimbri in the Battle of Vercellae,^[3] King Boiorix dies in battle,^[3] Extermination of the Cimbri.^[3]

1st century BC

Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar by Lionel Noel Royer, 1899

• 58–51 BC, Conquest of Celtic Gaul to the Rhine by Julius Caesar, Gallic Wars.^[5]
  • 58 BC, Caesar decisively defeats the Helvetii in the Battle of the Arar and the Battle of Bibracte, Caesar decisively defeats the Suevi, led by Ariovistus, in the Battle of Vosges.^[6][7]
  • 57 BC, Battle of the Sabis.
  • 55 BC, Caesar's intervention against Usipetes and Tencteri, Caesar defeats a Germanic army then massacres the women and children, totalling 430,000 people, somewhere near the Meuse and Rhine rivers, Caesar's first crossing of the Rhine against the Suevi, Caesar's invasions of Britain.
  • 54 BCE, Destruction of the legion Legio XIV Gemina by the Eburones led by Cativolcus and Ambiorix,^[8][9] Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta dies in battle, Quintus Titurius Sabinus dies in battle.
  • 53 BC, Caesar's retaliation against the Eburones second crossing of the Rhine, Extermination of the Eburones.
  • 52 BC, Fall of Celtic Gaul, Gaul becomes a Roman province.
• 46 BC, Execution of Vercingetorix the Celt.^[10]
• 20 BC, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Governor of Transalpine Gaul, Construction of military roads and especially the military road Lugdunum--Divodurum--Treverorum--Agrippinensium (from Lyon to Cologne).
• 16 BC, clades Lolliana,^[11] Destruction of the legion Legio V Alaudae by Sicambri and their allies, Fall of the Kingdom of Noricum.
• 16–13 BC, Emperor Augustus on the Rhine, Reorganization of the Three Gauls (capital Trier), Decision to fortify the left bank of the Rhine and conquest of Germania to the Elbe, Rome pays tribute to the Frisii, Begin of invasions east of the Rhine by Rome, Construction of the modern city of Mainz begins.
• 12–9 BC, Invasions of Drusus I up the Elbe from the North Sea, the Lippe and Main, Battle of the Lupia River, Cherusci and Sicambri^[12] subdued, Chatti, Tencteri and Usipetes are overrun, Establishment of new forts by Rome, Arminius and Flavus sent to Rome.
• 9 BC, Creation of Magna Germania (capital Cologne), Pacification campaigns against the Germanic tribes by the Roman Empire, Deportation of 40,000 Sicambri west of the Rhine.
• 6–2 BC, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus' invasions to the Elbe.

1st century

• 1–4 AD, Rise of the Chatti^[13][14] and Bructeri (immensum bellum)^[15] suppressed by Tiberius, who reached the Elbe.
• 6–9, Uprising in Illyricum, which cancels the major Roman project of war against Suevic Marcomanni.
• 6, Varus succeeds Saturninus as governor of Germania with the mission of peacekeeping and the implementation of tax and judicial administration.

The Varus battle by Otto Albert Koch, 1909

• 9, clades Variana, Destruction of the legions XVII, XVIII and XIX by Arminius in the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, Suicide of Administrator Varus, Loss of military camps east of the Rhine.,^[16][17][18] Roman Empire is forced to strategically withdraw from Germania.
• 10–13, Military command of Tiberius in Germania and interventions in the valley of the Lippe, replaced by Germanicus, Construction of Limes Germanicus begins.
• 14, Mutiny of the legions of Germania.
• 14–16, Roman retaliation against Cherusci, Chatti, Bructeri and Marsi, Capture of Arminius' wife.
  • Battle of the Weser River.
• 17, Cessation of military offensives east of the Rhine by Tiberius, Civil war between Germanic tribes.^[19]
• 19, Death of Germanicus.
• 21, Assassination of Arminius.
• 28, Revolt of the Frisii, Tax collectors hanged, Romans defeated in the Battle of Baduhenna Wood.
• 41, Raid against the Chauci under Emperor Claudius, Recovery of third legionary standard lost in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
• 50, Raid against the Chatti under Emperor Claudius, Liberation of Roman prisoners.^[20]
• 69–70, Revolt of the Batavi, Destruction of 2 Roman legions by the Batavi.
• 82–83, Raids against the Chatti under Emperor Domitian.
• 89, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax revolt against Rome with aid of the Chatti.^[21]

2nd century

• c. 165, Invasion of Pannonia by Lombards and Ubii.
• 166–180, Germanic tribes invade the frontiers of the Roman Empire, specifically the provinces of Raetia and Moesia, Marcomannic Wars.
• 180, Goths reach the banks of the Black Sea.

3rd century

• 235–284, Crisis of the Third Century.
  • 235, Battle at the Harzhorn.
  • 238, Gothic raid on Istria,^[22]
  • 248–249, Raid in Marcianopolis by Goths.^[22]
  • 250, Siege of Philippopolis by Goths led by Cniva.^[23]
  • 251, Battle of Abritus, Emperor Decius dies in battle, Co-Emperor Herennius Etruscus dies in battle.
  • 259, 300,000 Alemanni die in the Battle of Mediolanum (Milan).

The area (Agri Decumates) between Main and Rhine was evacuated in 259 AD, dozens of Roman camps were abandoned.

• • 259–260, Evacuation of the agrarian area Agri Decumates by the Roman Empire, Roman Empire retreats behind the Rhine.
  • 260–274, Germanic usurper Postumus declares himself Emperor of the Gallic Empire including Roman Gaul, Roman Britain, Roman Spain and Germania.
  • c. 267–269, Invasion of the Goths, Battle of Thermopylae, Gothic attacks on Marcianopolis and Chrysopolis, Sack of Byzantium.
  • 268, Siege of Mainz, Battle of Lake Benacus, assassination of Gallic Emperor Postumus.
  • 269, Siege of Augustodunum Haeduorum, Battle of Naissus,^[24] end of Gothic Invasion, assassination of Gallic Emperor Marcus Aurelius Marius.
  • 271, Battle of Placentia, Battle of Fano, Battle of Pavia, Destruction of Alemannic army, Assassination of Gallic Emperor Victorinus, Emperor Aurelian repelled another Gothic invasion but abandoned the province of Dacia north of Danube forever,^[25] Construction of the Aurelian Wall begins.
  • 274, Battle of Châlons, Surrender of the Gallic Empire.
• 298, Battle of Lingones.
• 298, Battle of Vindonissa.

4th century

• 332, Roman invasion north of the Danube under Emperor Constantine II, Capture of Gothic Prince Ariaricus.^{[26][27][28][29][30]}
• c. 350, Infiltration of Germania Inferior by Franks.
• 353–354, Raids against Alamanni under Emperor Constantius II.
• 356, Recapture of Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) by Julian the Apostate, Siege of Senonae by Alamanni, Siege of Autun by Alemanni, Battle of Reims, Battle of Brumath.
• 357, Invasion of Alemannic territory by Roman General Barbatio and Julian the Apostate, Attack of Lugdunum (Lyon) by Laeti, End of coordinated operation against the Alemanni, Battle of Argentoratum, Capture of Alemannic King Chnodomarius.
• 358, Raid in the province of Raetia by Alemannic Juthungi, Destruction of Castra Regina (Regensburg) by Alemanni.
• 359, Execution of Roman General Barbatio, Recapture of Moguntiacum by Julian the Apostate.
• 365–366, Invasion of Roman Gaul by Alemanni, Alemanni pushed out of Roman Gaul.
• 367, Sack of Moguntiacum by Alemanni, Battle of Solicinium.
• 367–368, Great Barbarian Conspiracy against Roman Britain and Roman Gaul by Saxons and Franks, Death of Nectaridus.
• 367–369, Attack on Gothic Thervingi under Eastern Emperor Valens.^[31][32]
• 368, Invasion of Alemannic territory under Emperor Valentinian the Great, Crossing of the Rhine by the Roman Empire.
• 369, Destruction of a fortress near Heidelberg by Alemanni.
• 370, Invasion of Roman Gaul by Saxons, Death of all invading Saxons, Invasion of Alemannic territory by Valentinian the Great, Rome captures thousands of Alemannic Bucinobantes, Deposition of Alemannic King Macrian, Hunnic raids on Gothic Greuthungi.^{[33][34][35][36][37][38]}
• 374, Assassination of Quadic King Gabinius, Invasion of former Illyricum by Quadi and Sarmatians.
• 375, Pillaging of Quadi lands by the Roman Empire, Western Emperor Valentinian the Great dies during peace negotiations.

Empire of the Huns, pushing the Germanic tribes over the Limes into the Roman Empire.

• 376, Invasion of the Huns, Hunnic war against Visigoths and Ostrogoths, Suicide of Gothic King Ermanaric, Gothic King Vithimer dies in battle.^[39][40]
• 376–382, Hunnic raids on Gothic Thervingi (Visigoths),^{[33][34][35][36][37][38]} Gothic War,^{[33][35][36][41][42][43][44]} Plundering and destruction throughout the Balkans by Goths.
  • 377, Battle of the Willows,^[45] Gothic chieftain Farnobius dies in battle.
  • 378, Battle of Adrianople,^[46][47] Eastern Emperor Valens dies in battle, Begin of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire.^[48]
• 377–378, Invasion of Thrace and Moesia by Gothic Greuthungi led by chieftain Alatheus.
• 378, Invasion of Alsace by Alemanni, Battle of Argentovaria, Extermination of Alemannic Lentienses, Alemannic King Priarius dies in battle.
• 380, Battle of Thessalonica, Death of Gothic chieftain Fritigern, Begin of naval raids by Saxons, Begin of the Migration of the Saxons.
• 382, Peace between Rome and the Goths, Large Gothic contingents of Thervingi, Taifali and Victohali settle along the southern Danube frontier in the province of Thrace.
• 383, Failed raid in the province of Raetia by Alemannic Juthungi.
• 387, Failed Invasion of Thrace and Moesia by Gothic Greuthungi led by chieftain Alatheus, Greuthungi chieftain Alatheus dies in battle.
• 390, Massacre of Thessalonica.
• 392, Emperor Valentinian II is hanged, Frankish General Arbogast names Eugenius to be Western Emperor.
• 394, 20,000 Gothic mercenaries support Eastern Emperor Theodosius the Great in the Battle of the Frigidus, Suicide of Frankish General Arbogast, Execution of puppet Western Emperor Eugenius.
• 395, Assassination of Consul Rufinus by Gothic mercenaries.

5th century

For the timeline of events in Britannia after its abandonment by Emperor Valentinian III, see Timeline of conflict in Anglo-Saxon Britain.

• 401–402, Raid in Raetia by Vandals.
• 401–403, Invasion of Italy by Visigoths under Alaric I, Gothic War.
  • 402, Battle of Pollentia.
  • 403, Battle of Verona, Visigoths pushed into former Illyricum by Stilicho.
• 405–406, Siege of Florentina,^[49] Battle of Faesulae,^[50] Execution of Gothic King Radagaisus,^[51] 12,000 Gothic higher-status fighters are drafted into the Roman army.^[49][51]
• 406, War between Franks and Vandals, Battle of Moguntiacum, Vandal King Godigisel dies in battle, Alans under King Respendial rescue the Vandals, Invasion of Gaul by Vandals, Suebi, Burgundians and Alans, Fall of Roman Gaul.
• 408, Failed invasion of Moesia by Huns and Germanic mercenaries led by Uldin the Hun, Capture of thousands of Germanic mercenaries, Execution of Roman General Stilicho, Slaughter of wives and children of barbarian foederati, Siege of Rome by Visigoths, Attacks on Roman Britain by Saxons.

Kingdom of the Vandals (yellow) and their allies the Sarmatian Alans before the Invasion of Roman Africa, c. 418

• 409, 2nd Siege of Rome by Visigoths, Invasion of Roman Spain by Vandals, Suebi (Marcomanni, Quadi, Buri) and Alans.
• 410, Sack of Rome by Visigoths, Begin of attacks on Vandals by Visigoths, Begin of Barbarian raids by Picts, Scoti and Irish Celts, End of Roman rule in Britain, Suevi establish a Kingdom in Galicia.
• 411, Jovinus declares himself Western Roman Emperor with aid of the Burgundians, Franks and Alans, Burgundians establish a Kingdom left of the Rhine under King Gundahar.
• 413, Capture of Narbonne and Toulouse by Visigoths led by King Ataulf, Usurper Jovinus is executed, Sack of Trier by Franks.
• 421, Sack of Trier by Franks.
• 422, Capture and Execution of Frankish King Theudemeres by Romans, Attack on Vandals by Romans.
• 426–436, Campaigns against the Visigoths in southern Gaul under Western Emperor Valentinian III, Battle of Narbonne, Capture of Visigothic chieftain Anaolsus.
• 428, Invasion of Northern Gaul by Salian Franks led by King Chlodio.
• 428–431, Failed Roman campaigns against Salian Franks, Alemannic Juthungi on the Rhine and Danube.

Kingdom of the Vandals in North Africa, c. 429.

• 429–439, Invasion of Africa by Vandals led by Vandal King Genseric, Siege of Hippo Regius, Capture of Carthage by Vandals, Capture of Roman navy by Vandals, Pillaging of Sicily, Begin of pirate raids by Vandals.
• 431, Invasion to the Somme River by Salian Franks.
• 436–437, Invasion of Burgundian Rhineland by Hun mercenaries controlled by Rome, Burgundian King Gundahar dies in battle.
• c. 443, Britain plunges into civil war, Groans of the Britons, Britain is abandoned by Western Emperor Valentinian III.
• 448, Defeat of the Salian Franks in the Battle of Vicus Helena by Roman General Aëtius, Frankish King Chlodio dies in battle.
• 451, Invasion of Gaul by the Huns with Frankish, Gothic and Burgundian mercenaries led by Attila the Hun, Sack of Trier, Attack on Metz, Siege of Orléans, Coalition of Romans, Franks and Visigoths led by General Aëtius stop the Huns in the Battle of Châlons, Visigothic King Theodoric I dies in battle.
• 452, Invasion of northern Italy under Attila the Hun: Sack of Aquileia, Vicetia, Verona, Brixia, Bergamum and Milan.
• 453, Hunnic and Germanic attacks on Constantinople, Attila the Hun dies during heavy drinking.
• 454, Assassination of Roman General Aëtius, Gepids establish a kingdom in Pannonia.
• 455, Sack of Rome by Vandals, Capture of Empress Licinia Eudoxia by Vandals.
• 456, Visigoths defeat the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia in the Battle of Órbigo.
• 458, Defeat of the Visigoths in southern Gaul in the Battle of Arelate.

Europe in the late 5th century (476-486).

• 459, Seizure of Trier by Franks.
• 461, Seventeen Vandal ships destroy forty Roman ships in a surprise attack.
• 463, Battle of Orleans.
• 465, Ostrogothic King Valamir dies in battle.
• 468, Invasion of the Vandal Kingdom by the Byzantine Empire, Defeat of the Byzantine Empire by the Vandals in the Battle of Cape Bon.
• 469, Ostrogoths decisively defeat an alliance of Germanic and Roman forces in the Battle of Bolia,^[52] Fall of the Hunnic Empire, Visigoths thwarted an attack by an alliance of Bretons and Romans in the Battle of Déols.
• 472, Revolt in Thrace by Ostrogoths led by chieftain Theodoric Strabo.
• 476, Revolt of Heruli, Scirii and Turcilingi mercenaries, Battle of Ravenna, Germanic Heruli chieftain Odoacer becomes King of Italy, Fall of the Western Roman Empire.
• 486, Franks under Merovingian King Clovis I defeat the Kingdom of Soissons in the Battle of Soissons, Fall of the Kingdom of Soissons.
• 489, Theodoric the Great defeats Odoacer in the Battle of Isonzo, Battle of Verona.

6th century

Kingdom of the Visigoths (orange), Kingdom of the Suebi (green), Kingdom of the Burgundians, Kingdom of the Franks (purple), Kingdom of the Vandals (yellow), c. 490.

• 526, Raid against Gothic Gepidae by Byzantine General Belisarius.
• 533–534, Invasion of North Africa by the Byzantine Empire, Vandalic War.
  • 533, Battle of Ad Decimum, Capture of Carthage by the Byzantine Empire.
  • 533, Battle of Tricamarum, Destruction of the Vandal Kingdom by the Byzantine Empire, Fall of the Kingdom of the Vandals.
• 535–554, Invasion of Italy by the Byzantine Empire,^[53] Ostrogothic War.
  • 535, Capture of Sicily by Byzantine General Belisarius.
  • 536, Capture of Naples and Rome by Byzantine General Belisarius.
  • 537–538, Siege of Rome by Ostrogoths.
  • 540, Capture of Mediolanum and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna by Byzantine General Belisarius, Capture of Ostrogothic King Witiges.
  • 541–542, Bubonic plague wipes out most of the farming community of the former Roman Empire and leaving dead an estimated 25 million people across the world, Begin of territorial decline until the 9th century.
  • 541–544, Recapture of Northern Italy by Ostrogoths.
    • 542, Battle of Faventia, Battle of Mucellium.
    • 543, Siege of Naples.
  • 546, Sack of Rome by Ostrogoths.
  • c. 548, Recapture of Rome by the Byzantine Empire.
  • 549–550, Siege and Capture of Rome by Ostrogoths.
  • 551, Battle of Sena Gallica, Capture of Ostrogothic chieftain Gibal, Demoralization of Gothic army.
  • 552, Byzantine Empire with aid of the Heruli and Lombards defeat the Ostrogoths in the Battle of Taginae, Ostrogothic King Totila dies on the run, Defeat of Gothic Gepids in the Battle of Asfeld against Lombards (Longbeards), Gepid King Thurisind dies in battle.
  • 552–553, Capture of Rome and Siege of Cumae by Byzantine General Narses, Battle of Mons Lactarius, Ostrogothic king Teia dies in battle, Fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom.

The Byzantine Empire at the End of the Antiquity in 565.

• 554, Byzantine General Narses defeats the Franks and Alemanni in the Battle of the Volturnus.^[54]
• c. 558–561, Failed Uprising of the Ostrogoth Widin.^[55]
• 567, Lombards decisively defeat the Gepids, Gepid King Cunimund dies in battle, Fall of the Kingdom of the Gepidae.
• 568–c. 572, Invasion of Northern Italy by Lombards, Bavarians, Gepids and Saxons, Longbeards (Lombards) establish a Kingdom in Northern Italy (capital Pavia), Begin of End of Byzantine rule.
  • 569, Seizure of Cividale del Friuli, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia and Mediolanum by Lombards.
  • 570–572, Siege of Ticinum, Seizure of Tuscany by Lombards.

See also

• Contact between Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire
• Gothic and Vandal warfare
• Anglo-Saxon warfare
• Furor Teutonicus
• Germanic Iron Age
• Germanic Heroic Age
• Timeline of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain
• Timeline of Germanic kingdoms in the Iberian peninsula

References

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5. Caesar. In: Hans Herzfeld (1960): Geschichte in Gestalten (History in figures), vol. 1: A-E. Das Fischer Lexikon 37, Frankfurt 1963, p. 214. "Hauptquellen [betreffend Caesar]: Caesars eigene, wenn auch leicht tendenziöse Darstellungen des Gallischen und des Bürgerkrieges, die Musterbeispiele sachgemäßer Berichterstattung und stilistischer Klarheit sind" ("Main sources [regarding Caesar]: Caesar's own, even though slightly tendentious depictions of the Gallic and the Civil Wars, which are paradigms of pertinent information and stylistic clarity")
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13. Several examples by Max Ihm, s. v. Cheruski, in: Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE) III.2, Stuttgart 1899, cols. 2270–2272. (German))
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26. Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, book 1, chapter 8 & book 2, chapter 34.
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28. Origo Constantini 6.32 mention the actions.
29. Eusebius, The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine, IV.6
30. Odahl, Charles M., Constantine and the Christian Empire, chapter X.
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34. Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapter 3.
35. Philostorgius, Ecclesiastical history, book 9, chapter 17.
36. Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, book 6, chapter 37.
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40. Heather, Peter, 1995, The English Historical Review, The Huns and the end of the Roman Empire in Western Europe
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55. Amory, Patrick, 2003, People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489-554.

Further reading

• Florus on the Germanic wars, translated by E.S. Forster, www.livius.org 2010-10.
• The Germanic Wars, 2nd century, www.unrv.com 2010-10.
• Roman Germanic Wars, 12 BC to 17 AD, www.heritage-history.com 2010-10.
• Timeline of Ancient Europe, www.earth-history.com 2010-10.
• Speidel, Michael, 2004, Ancient Germanic warriors: Warrior styles from Trajan's column to Icelandic sagas. (book)