Solfège

For similar terms, see Solfeggietto and Solfege (manga).

In music, solfège (US /sɒlˈfɛʒ/, UK /ˈsɒlfɛʒ/,^[1] French: [sɔl.fɛʒ]) or solfeggio (/sɒlˈfɛdʒɪoʊ/, Italian: [solˈfeddʒo]), also called sol-fa, solfa, solfeo, solfeggio, among many names, is a music education method used to teach pitch and sight singing Western music. Solfège is a form of solmization, and though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, the systems used in other music cultures such as swara, durar mufaṣṣalāt and Jianpu are discussed in that article.

Syllables are assigned to the notes of the scale and enables the musician to audiate, or mentally hear, the pitches of a piece of music which he or she is seeing for the first time and then to sing them aloud. Through the Renaissance (and much later in some shapenote publications) various interlocking 4, 5 and 6-note systems were employed to cover the octave. The tonic sol-fa method popularized the seven syllables commonly used in English-speaking countries: do (or doh in tonic sol-fa),^[2] re, mi, fa, so(l), la, and ti (or si, see below).

There are two current schools of applying solfège: 1) fixed do, where the syllables are always tied to specific pitches (e.g. "do" is always "C-natural") and 2) movable do, where the syllables are assigned to scale degrees ("do" is always the first degree of the major scale).

Etymology

Italian "solfeggio" and French "solfège" ultimately derive from the names of two of the syllables used: sol and fa.^[3]^[4] The English equivalent of this expression, "sol-fa", is sometimes used, especially as a verb (to "sol-fa" a passage is to sing it in solfège).^[5]

The word "solmization" derives from the Medieval Latin "solmisatio", ultimately from the names of the syllables sol and mi. "Solmization" is often used synonymously with "solfège", but is technically a more generic term,^[6] taking in alternative series of syllables used in other cultures such as India and Japan.

Origin

The use of a seven-note diatonic musical scale is ancient, though originally it was played in descending order.

In the eleventh century, the music theorist Guido of Arezzo developed a six-note ascending scale that went as follows: ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and named the Aretinian syllables after him. A seventh note, "si" was added shortly after.^[7] The names were taken from the first verse of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis, where the syllables fall on their corresponding scale degree.

Sheet Music for Ut Queant Laxis

Ut queant laxīs    resonāre fībrīs
Mīra gestõrum    famulī tuõrum,
Solve pollūtī    labiī reātum,
Sancte Iõhannēs.

The words of the hymn (The Hymn of St. John) were written by Paulus Diaconus in the 8th century. It translates^[8] as:

So that these your servants can, with all their voice, sing your wonderful feats, clean the blemish of our spotted lips, O Saint John!

"Ut" was changed in the 1600s in Italy to the open syllable Do,^[9] at the suggestion of the musicologue Giovanni Battista Doni, and Si (from the initials for "Sancte Iohannes") was added to complete the diatonic scale. In Anglophone countries, "si" was changed to "ti" by Sarah Glover in the nineteenth century so that every syllable might begin with a different letter.^[10] "Ti" is used in tonic sol-fa and in the song "Do-Re-Mi".

In Elizabethan England

In the Elizabethan era, England and its related territories used only four of the syllables: mi, fa, sol, and la. "Mi" stood for modern si, "fa" for modern do or ut, "sol" for modern re, and "la" for modern mi. Then, fa, sol and la would be repeated to also stand for their modern counterparts, resulting in the scale being "fa, sol, la, fa, sol, la, mi, fa". The use of "fa", "sol" and "la" for two positions in the scale is a leftover from the Guidonian system of so-called "mutations" (i.e. changes of hexachord on a note, see Guidonian hand). This system was eventually eliminated by the 19th century, but it was (and usually still is) used in some shape note systems, which gives each of the four syllables "fa", "sol", "la", and "mi" a different shape.

An example of the use of this type of solmization occurs in Shakespeare's, "King Lear", I, 2 (see below Literature).

Modern use

There are two main types of solfège Movable do and Fixed Do.

Movable do solfège

In Movable do, or tonic sol-fa, each syllable corresponds to a scale degree. This is analogous to the Guidonian practice of giving each degree of the hexachord a solfège name, and is mostly used in Germanic countries, Commonwealth Countries, and the United States.

One particularly important variant of movable do, but differing in some respects from the system described below, was invented in the nineteenth century by Sarah Ann Glover, and is known as tonic sol-fa.

In Italy, in 1972, Roberto Goitre wrote the famous method "Cantar leggendo", which has come to be used for choruses and for music for young children.

The pedagogical advantage of the movable-Do system is its ability to assist in the theoretical understanding of music; because a tonic is established and then sung in comparison to, the student infers melodic and chordal implications through his or her singing. Thus, while fixed-do is more applicable to instrumentalists, movable-do is more applicable to theorists and, arguably, composers.

Major

Movable do is frequently employed in Australia, China, Japan (with 7th being si), Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, Hong Kong, and English-speaking Canada. The movable do system is a fundamental element of the Kodaly method used primarily in Hungary, but with a dedicated following worldwide. In the movable do system, each solfège syllable corresponds not to a pitch, but to a scale degree: The first degree of a major scale is always sung as "do", the second as "re", etc. (For minor keys, see below.) In movable do, a given tune is therefore always sol-faed on the same syllables, no matter what key it is in.

The solfège syllables used for movable do differ slightly from those used for fixed do, because the English variant of the basic syllables ("ti" instead of "si") is usually used, and chromatically altered syllables are usually included as well.

Major scale degree	Mova. do solfège syllable	# of half steps from Do	Trad. Pron.
1	Do	0	/doʊ/
Raised 1	Di	1	/diː/
Lowered 2	Ra	1	/ɹɑː/
2	Re	2	/ɹeɪ/
Raised 2	Ri	3	/ɹiː/
Lowered 3	Me (or Ma)	3	/meɪ/ (/mɑː/)
3	Mi	4	/miː/
4	Fa	5	/fɑː/
Raised 4	Fi	6	/fiː/
Lowered 5	Se	6	/seɪ/
5	Sol	7	/soʊ/
Raised 5	Si	8	/siː/
Lowered 6	Le (or Lo)	8	/leɪ/ (/loʊ/)
6	La	9	/lɑː/
Raised 6	Li	10	/liː/
Lowered 7	Te (or Ta)	10	/teɪ/ (/tɑː/)
7	Ti	11	/tiː/

If, at a certain point, the key of a piece modulates, then it is necessary to change the solfège syllables at that point. For example, if a piece begins in C major, then C is initially sung on "do", D on "re", etc. If, however, the piece then modulates to G major, then G is sung on "do", A on "re", etc., and C is then sung on "fa".

Minor

Passages in a minor key may be sol-faed in one of two ways in movable do: either starting on do (using "me", "le", and "te" for the lowered third, sixth, and seventh degrees, and "la" and "ti" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees), which is referred to as "do-based minor", or starting on la (using "fi" and "si" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees). The latter (referred to as "la-based minor") is sometimes preferred in choral singing, especially with children.

The choice of which system is used for minor makes a difference as to how you handle modulations: in the first case ("do-based minor") when you move for example from C major to C minor the syllable do keeps pointing to the same note namely C (in other words you go from do = C to do = C; there's no "mutation"), but when you move from C major to A minor (or A major) then you go from do = C to do = A; in the second case ("la-based minor") when you move from C major to A minor the syllable do keeps point to the same note, again C, but when you move from C major to C minor you go from do = C to do = E-flat (and when you move from C major to A major you go from do = C to do = A, etc.).

Natural minor scale degree	Movable do solfège syllable (La-based minor)	Movable do solfège syllable (Do-based minor)
Lowered 1	Le (or Lo)	Ti
1	La	Do
Raised 1	Li	Di
Lowered 2	Te (or Ta)	Ra
2	Ti	Re
3	Do	Me (or Ma)
Raised 3	Di	Mi
Lowered 4	Ra	Mi
4	Re	Fa
Raised 4	Ri	Fi
Lowered 5	Me (or Ma)	Se
5	Mi	Sol
6	Fa	Le (or Lo)
Raised 6	Fi	La
Lowered 7	Se	Ba
7	Sol	Te (or Ta)
Raised 7	Si	Ti

Fixed do solfège

The names of the notes in Romance languages.

In Fixed do, each syllable corresponds to the name of a note. This is analogous to the Romance system naming pitches after the solfège syllables, and is used in Romance and Slavic countries, among others, including Spanish speaking countries.

In the major Romance and Slavic languages, the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si are used to name notes the same way that the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, and B are used to name notes in English. For native speakers of these languages, solfège is simply singing the names of the notes, omitting any modifiers such as "sharp" or "flat" in order to preserve the rhythm. This system is called fixed do and is used in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Romania, Latin American countries and in French-speaking Canada as well as countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine, Georgia, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Macedonia, Mongolia, Iran, Taiwan, Lebanon, Turkey, and Israel where non-Romance languages are spoken.

Traditional fixed do^[11]
Note name		Syllable	Pronunciation		Pitch class
English	Romance	Syllable	Italian	Anglicized	Pitch class
C♭	Do♭	do	/dɔ/	/doʊ/	11
C	Do				0
C♯	Do♯				1
D♭	Re♭	re	/rɛ/	/ɹeɪ/	1
D	Re				2
D♯	Re♯				3
E♭	Mi♭	mi	/mi/	/miː/	3
E	Mi				4
E♯	Mi♯				5
F♭	Fa♭	fa	/fa/	/fɑː/	4
F	Fa				5
F♯	Fa♯				6
G♭	Sol♭	sol	/sɔl/	/soʊl/	6
G	Sol				7
G♯	Sol♯				8
A♭	La♭	la	/la/	/lɑː/	8
A	La				9
A♯	La♯				10
B♭	Si♭	si	/si/	/siː/	10
B	Si				11
B♯	Si♯				0

In the fixed do system, shown above, accidentals do not affect the syllables used. For example, C, C♯, and C♭ (as well as C and C, not shown above) are all sung with the syllable "do".

Chromatic variants

Several chromatic fixed-do Systems that have also been devised to account for chromatic notes (and even for double-sharp and double-flat variants) are as follows:

Chromatic variants of fixed do
Note name		Syllable						Pitch class
English	Romance	Traditional ^[11]	5 sharps / 5 flats ^[11]^[12]^[13]	Hullah ^[14]	Shearer ^[15]	Siler ^[16]	Sotorrio ^[17]	Pitch class
C	Do	do	–	duf	daw	du	(Pe)	10
C♭	Do♭		–	du	de	do	(Tsi)	11
C	Do		do	do	do	da	Do	0
C♯	Do♯		di	da	di	de	Ga	1
C	Do		–	das	dai	di	(Ray)	2
D	Re	re	–	raf	raw	ru	(Do)	0
D♭	Re♭		ra	ra	ra	ro	Ga	1
D	Re		re	re	re	ra	Ray	2
D♯	Re♯		ri	ri	ri	re	Nu	3
D	Re		–	ris	rai	ri	(Mi)	4
E	Mi	mi	–	mef	maw	mu	(Ray)	2
E♭	Mi♭		me	me	me	mo	Nu	3
E	Mi		mi	mi	mi	ma	Mi	4
E♯	Mi♯		–	mis	mai	me	(Fa)	5
E	Mi		–	mish	–	mi	(Jur)	6
F	Fa	fa	–	fof	faw	fu	(Nu)	3
F♭	Fa♭		–	fo	fe	fo	(Mi)	4
F	Fa		fa	fa	fa	fa	Fa	5
F♯	Fa♯		fi	fe	fi	fe	Jur	6
F	Fa		–	fes	fai	fi	(Sol)	7
G	Sol	sol	–	sulf	saw	su	(Fa)	5
G♭	Sol♭		se	sul	se	so	Jur	6
G	Sol		sol	sol	so	sa	Sol	7
G♯	Sol♯		si	sal	si	se	Ki	8
G	Sol		–	sals	sai	si	(La)	9
A	La	la	–	lof	law	lu	(Sol)	7
A♭	La♭		le	lo	le	lo	Ki	8
A	La		la	la	la	la	La	9
A♯	La♯		li	le	li	le	Pe	10
A	La		–	les	lai	li	(Tsi)	11
B	Si	si	–	sef	taw	tu	(La)	9
B♭	Si♭		te	se	te	to	Pe	10
B	Si		ti	si	ti	ta	Tsi	11
B♯	Si♯		–	sis	tai	te	(Do)	0
B	Si		–	sish	–	ti	(Ga)	1
A dash ("–") means that the source(s) did not specify a syllable.

Comparison of the two systems

Movable Do corresponds to our psychological experience of normal tunes. If the song is sung a tone higher it is still perceived to be the same song, and the notes have the same relationship to each other, but in a fixed Do all the note names would be different. A movable Do emphasizes the musicality of the tune as the psychological perception of the notes is always relative to a key for the vast majority of people that do not have absolute pitch.

Sotorrio^[18] argues that fixed-do is preferable for serious musicians, as music involving complex modulations and vague tonality is often too ambiguous with regard to key for any movable system. That is, without a prior analysis of the music, any movable-do system would inevitably need to be used like a fixed-do system anyway, thus causing confusion. With fixed-do, the musician learns to regard any syllable as the tonic, which does not force them to make an analysis as to which note is the tonic when ambiguity occurs. Instead, with fixed-do the musician will already be practiced in thinking in multiple/undetermined tonalities using the corresponding syllables.

In comparison to the movable do system, which draws on short-term relative pitch skills involving comparison to a pitch identified as the tonic of the particular piece being performed, fixed do develops long-term relative pitch skills involving comparison to a pitch defined independently of its role in the piece, a practice closer to the definition of each note in absolute terms as found in absolute pitch. The question of which system to use is a controversial subject among music educators in schools in the United States. While movable do is easier to teach and learn, some feel that fixed do leads to stronger sight-reading and better ear training because students learn the relationships between specific pitches as defined independently, rather than only the function of intervals within melodic lines, chords, and chord progressions.^[19] Of course, this argument is only valid if the fixed do is used with chromatic solfège syllables.

If a performer has been trained using fixed do, particularly in those rare cases in which the performer has absolute pitch or well-developed long-term relative pitch, the performer may have difficulty playing music scored for transposing instruments: Because the "concert pitch" note to be performed differs from the note written in the sheet music, the performer may experience cognitive dissonance when having to read one note and play another. Especially in the early stages of learning a piece, when the performer has yet to gain familiarity with the melodic line of the piece as expressed in relative terms, he or she may have to mentally re-transpose the sheet music in order to restore the notes to concert pitch.

Instrumentalists who begin sight-singing for the first time in college as music majors find movable do to be the system more consistent with the way they learned to read music.

For choirs, sight-singing fixed do using chromatic movable do syllables (see below) is more suitable than sight-singing movable do for reading atonal music, polytonal music, pandiatonic music, music that modulates or changes key often, or music in which the composer simply did not bother to write a key signature. It is not uncommon for this to be the case in modern or contemporary choral works.

Note names

In the countries with fixed-do, these seven syllables (with Si instead of Ti) are used to name the notes of the C-Major scale, instead of the letters C, D, E, F, G, A and B. (For example, they would say, "Beethoven's Ninth Symphony is in Re minor, but its third movement is in Si-bemol major.") In Germanic countries, the letters are used for this purpose, and the solfège syllables are encountered only for their use in sight-singing and ear training. (They would say, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony is in "d-Moll" (D minor).)

Cultural references

Songs

The names of the notes may be heard in "Do-Re-Mi" from Rodgers and Hammerstein's score for The Sound of Music, as well as the Robert Maxwell song "Solfeggio". Maxwell's song inspired Ernie Kovacs to use it to create his unique sketch, The Nairobi Trio.
Kurt Cobain, singer for the band Nirvana wrote a song called "Do Re Mi" which was never finished but was released on the album With the Lights Out in 2004.
The names of the notes may be heard in "Scales and Arpeggios" from Disney's "The Aristocats". 'Do, Me, So, Do, Do, So, Me, Do, if at first it seems as though it doesn't show~'
Woody Guthrie wrote a song titled "Do Re Mi." The syllable Do was a stand-in for "dough" (slang for "money"): "But believe it or not, you won't find it so hot/If you ain't got the do re mi."
Philip Glass uses solfege for his vocal parts in his chamber ensemble, recognizably for Music in 12 Parts and Einstein on the Beach.

Literature

In King Lear (Act 1, Scene 2) Edmund exclaims to himself right after Edgar's entrance so that Edgar can hear him: "O, these eclipses do portend these divisions". Then in the 1623 First Folio (but not in the 1608 Quarto) he adds "Fa, so, la, mi". This Edmund probably sang (see Elizabethan solmisation) to the tune of Fa, So, La, Ti (e.g. F, G, A, B in C major), i.e. an ascending sequence of three whole tones with an ominous feel to it: see tritone (historical uses).

Colours assigned by Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton had associated the seven solfège syllables with the seven colours of the rainbow and surmised that each colour vibrated accordingly (a concept possibly related to the modern view of chromesthesia). Thus, red has the least amount of vibration while violet vibrates the most.

Pitch	Solfège	Colour
C	do (or doh in tonic sol-fa)	Red
D	re	Orange
E	mi	Yellow
F	fa	Green
G	sol (or so in tonic sol-fa)	Blue
A	la	Indigo
A	la	Blue Violet
B	ti/si	Purple
B	ti/si	Red Violet

References

↑ "solfège (BrE)". Oxford Dictionaries.
↑ Oxford English Dictionary 2nd Ed.(1998)
↑ "Solfeggio". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27.
↑ "Solfège". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27.
↑ "Sol-fa". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27.
↑ "Solmization". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2010-02-27.
↑ Davies, Norman (1997), Europe, pp.271-2
↑ Cgregorian chant - Translation & scores for diverse festivities
↑ McNaught, W. G. (1893). "The History and Uses of the Sol-fa Syllables". Proceedings of the Musical Association (London: Novello, Ewer and Co.) 19: 35–51. ISSN 0958-8442. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
↑ This also freed up Si for later use as Sol-sharp
1 2 3 Demorest, Steven M. (2001). Building Choral Excellence: Teaching Sight-Singing in the Choral Rehearsal. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-512462-0.
↑ Benjamin, Thomas; Horvit, Michael; Nelson, Robert (2005). Music for Sight Singing (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thompson Schirmer. pp. x–xi. ISBN 978-0-534-62802-4.
↑ White, John D. (2002). Guidelines for College Teaching of Music Theory (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8108-4129-1.
↑ Hullah, John (1880). Hullah's Method of Teaching Singing (2nd ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. xi–xv. ISBN 0-86314-042-4.
↑ Shearer, Aaron (1990). Learning the Classical Guitar, Part 2: Reading and Memorizing Music. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-87166-855-4.
↑ Siler, H. (1956). "Toward an International Solfeggio". Journal of Research in Music Education 4 (1): 40–43. doi:10.2307/3343838. JSTOR 3343838.
↑ Sotorrio, José A (2002). Tone Spectra -and the Natural Elements of Music. (1st Ed) Spectral Music, 2002. (Presents a simple 12-tone Solfège: Do (Ga) Re (Nu) Mi Fa (Jer) Sol (Ki) La (Pe) and Tsi, a written compromise between "Ti" and "si".]
↑ Sotorrio, José A (2002). Tone Spectra -and the Natural Elements of Music. (1st Ed) Spectral Music, 2002.
↑ Humphries, Lee. Learning to Sight-Sing: The Mental Mechanics of Aural Imagery. Minneapolis: Thinking Applied, 2008, No. 1.

External links

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Ear training & Sight-reading

Counting Learning music by ear Music psychology Relative pitch Solmization Solfège Tempo Tonal memory

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