Spanish pronouns

Spanish pronouns in some ways work quite differently from their English counterparts. The system is more complicated, but richer. Subject pronouns are often omitted, and object pronouns can appear as either proclitics before the verb or enclitics attached to it in different linguistic environments. There is also regional variation in the use of pronouns, particularly the use of the second-person singular informal vos and the second-person plural informal vosotros.

Table of pronouns

The table below shows a cumulative list of pronouns from Peninsular, Latin American and Ladino Spanish. Ladino or Judeo-Spanish, spoken by Sephardic Jews, is different from Latin American and Peninsular Spanish in that it retains rather archaic forms and usage of personal pronouns.

NumberPersonNominativeAccusativeDativeGenitivePrepositionalComitative
Singular1styomememío(s)/mía(s)míconmigo
2ndtútetetuyo(s)/tuya(s)ticontigo
vos*tetetuyo(s)/tuya(s)voscon vos
ustedlo, la, sele, sesuyo(s)/suya(s)ustedcon usted
3rdél, ella, ellolo, la, sele, sesuyo(s)/suya(s)él, ella, ello, sícon él/ella/ello, consigo
Plural1stnosotros, nosotrasnosnosnuestro(s)/nuestra(s)nosotros, nosotrascon nosotros/nosotras
2ndvosotros, vosotras**ososvuestro(s)/vuestra(s)vosotros, vosotrascon vosotros/vosotras
ustedeslos, las, seles, sesuyo(s)/suya(s)ustedescon ustedes
3rdellos, ellaslos, las, seles, sesuyo(s)/suya(s)ellos, ellas, sícon ellos/ellas, consigo

*Only in countries with voseo
**Only in Spain

Subject pronouns

Pronoun dropping

Spanish is a pro-drop language with respect to subject pronouns: information contained in verb endings renders the explicit use of subject pronouns often unnecessary, although they may still be used for clarity or emphasis:

The masculine and feminine third-person pronouns (él, ella, ellos, and ellas) can refer to grammatically masculine and feminine objects, respectively, as well as people, although their explicit use as impersonal subjects is rare. The third-person singular neuter pronoun ello (as well as its plural ellos) is likewise rarely used as an explicit subject in everyday Spanish, although such usage may be found in literary and archaic language.

Tú/vos and usted

Like French and other languages with the T-V distinction, modern Spanish has a distinction in its second person pronouns that has no equivalent in English. The most basic is the difference between tú (vos in voseo areas) and usted: tú or vos is the "familiar" form, and usted, derived from the third-person form "your grace" (vuestra merced), is the "polite" form. The appropriate usage of these forms is fundamental to interpersonal communication. Using the usted form when addressing someone implies that the person addressed is a social superior, someone to whom respect is owed, or someone with whom one does not have a close relationship; in conservative families a child will use usted when addressing a parent. In contrast, the use of tú or vos implies that the person addressed is an equal, a comrade, a friend, someone with whom one has a close relationship, or a child or other social inferior, including (traditionally) a maid or other household employee. One can give offense by addressing someone with tú instead of usted, similar to inappropriately calling someone by his/her first name in English. Spanish has a verb, tutear, used to mean that two people agree that their relationship is such that the tú form is appropriate (Nos tuteamos, ¿verdad?, we agree, don't we, that our relationship is now such that we will henceforth use the tú form).

In the plural, in Spain other than the Canary Islands, and partially in western Andalusia, the distinction between "familiar" vosotros/vosotras and "polite" ustedes is identical. In Latin America and the Canary Islands, where vosotros is not used, there is no such distinction in the plural.

The distinction extends to other types of pronouns and modifiers: when using usted one must also use the third-person object pronouns and possessive adjectives. "Tu casa" (tú with an (acute) accent is the subject pronoun, tu with no accent is a possessive adjective) means "your house" in the familiar singular: the owner of the house is one person, and it is a person with whom one has the closer relationship the tú form implies. In contrast, su casa can mean "his/her house", but it can also mean "your house" in the polite singular: the owner of the house is someone with whom one has the more distant or formal relationship implied by the use of usted.

Similarly, the use of usted requires third-person object pronouns. Te lavas means "you [familiar singular] wash yourself", but se lava can mean "you [polite singular] wash yourself", as well as "he/she/it washes himself/herself/itself"'.

Impersonal pronouns

The Spanish impersonal pronoun is uno ("one", as well as una for women), which declines as a normal third-person pronoun and is treated as such for purposes of conjugation and reflexivity. It is used in a variety of situations, although many ideas that would be expressed with an impersonal pronoun in English would more commonly be expressed with passive constructions in Spanish, e.g. "That would not be done" as opposed to "You (One) wouldn't do that".

Reflexive pronouns and intensifiers

The third person is the only person with a distinct reflexive pronoun: se. In the first and second persons, the normal object pronouns are used. Thus, the reflexive forms are:

Singular Plural
yo me nosotros/nosotras nos
tú/vos te vosotros/vosotras os
él/ella/ello/usted se ellos/ellas/ustedes se

The reflexive pronoun is used with pronominal verbs, also known as reflexive verbs. These verbs require the use of the reflexive pronoun, appropriate to the subject. Some transitive verbs can take on a reflexive meaning, such as lavar (to wash) and lavarse (to wash oneself). Other verbs have reflexive forms which do not take on a reflexive meaning, such as ir (to go) and irse (to go away). Some verbs only have reflexive forms, such as jactarse (to boast).

The nominal intensifier in Spanish (equivalent to English "myself", "yourself", "themselves", etc. when used after a noun) is mismo, which in this case is placed after the noun it modifies and behaves like a normal adjective. Thus:

Unlike English intensifiers, which are often placed several words after the noun they modify (e.g. "I did it myself"), Spanish intensifiers must come immediately after the noun they modify.

Object pronouns

Clitic pronouns and enclitization

Object pronouns are generally proclitic, i.e. they appear before the verb of which they are the object. Thus:

In certain environments, however, enclitic pronouns (i.e. pronouns attached to the verb itself) may appear. Enclitization is generally found in only three environments:

With positive imperatives, enclitization is always mandatory:

With infinitives, enclitization is often, but not always, mandatory. With all bare infinitives, enclitization is mandatory:

In all compound infinitives that make use of the past participle, enclitics attach to the uninflected auxiliary verb and not the past participle (or participles) itself:

In all compound infinitives that make use of the present participle, however, enclitics attach to the present participle itself and not the auxiliary verb:

In series of infinitives, enclitics attach to the final infinitive:

If, however, the infinitive to which enclitics may attach is ultimately the argument of a conjugated verb (except for positive imperatives), the clitics may also precede it as with most other conjugated verbs:

With all bare present participles, enclitization is once again mandatory. In all compound present participles, enclitics attach to the same verb as they would in the infinitive:

In all progressive constructions in which the present participle is the argument of a conjugated verb (except, once again, for positive imperatives), however, enclitization is once again optional:

Enclitics may be found in other environments in literary and archaic Spanish, but such constructions are virtually absent from everyday speech.

Enclitization is subject to the following rules:

Combinations of clitic pronouns

When dative and accusative pronouns, whether enclitic or proclitic, are used together, the dative pronoun generally precedes the accusative pronoun:[1][2]

When an accusative third-person non-reflexive pronoun (lo, la, los, or las) is used with a dative pronoun that is understood to also be third-person non-reflexive (le or les), the dative pronoun is replaced by se to avoid "le/lo"-like clusters:

If se as such is the indirect object, however, it is often, though not always, disambiguated with a sí or para sí:

If se is the direct object, however, it precedes the indirect object:

When more than one object pronoun of the same case is used with a verb, the verb must be repeated for each pronoun of that case:

Clitic doubling

Clitic doubling is mandatory with non-clitic indirect objects; because all non-pronominal personal direct objects are preceded by the preposition a, an appropriate clitic dative pronoun must be used with all non-clitic indirect objects to mark them as such:

Clitic dative pronouns may be used without non-clitic indirect objects, however:

Emphasizing clitic pronouns

If one wishes to place emphasis on a personal clitic pronoun, the clitic pronoun is left as is and the prepositional form (along with personal a) is placed wherever one wishes to place emphasis:

Impersonal accusative clitic pronouns, however cannot be emphasized as such; their antecedents must be used instead:

Impersonal dative clitic pronouns, however, may be stressed as such:

Prepositional and comitative cases

The prepositional case is used after most prepositions: a mí, contra ti, bajo él, etc. With the preposition con, however, the comitative case is used instead. Yo, Tú, and se have distinct forms in the comitative: conmigo, contigo, and consigo, respectively, in which the preposition becomes one word with its object and thus must not be repeated by itself: conmigo means "with me", and con conmigo is redundant. For all other pronouns, the comitative is identical to the prepositional case and is used as with all other prepositions: con él, con nosotros, con ellos, etc.

As with verbs used with multiple object pronouns of the same case, prepositions must be repeated for each pronoun they modify:

Genitive pronouns

Genitive pronouns describe to whom something belongs or of whom (or sometimes what) something is a characteristic or property. They are analogous to English "mine", "yours", "his", "hers", etc., and unlike their English counterparts, they inflect for gender and number according to the thing possessed (not the possessor itself) and are usually used with the definite article:

After ser, however, the definite article is usually omitted:

To avoid ambiguity in the meaning of suyo, it may be replaced by de + the appropriate pronoun:

Genitive pronouns are identical in form to long-form possessive adjectives, which can be placed after the noun to place emphasis on the fact of possession.

Old forms

Formal vos

In the past, the pronoun vos was used as a respectful form of address, semantically equivalent to modern usted. This pronoun used the same conjugations as modern vosotros (see below) and also the oblique form os and the possessive vuestro/-a/-os/-as. However, unlike vosotros, which always refers to more than one person, vos was usually singular in meaning. The modern voseo of several countries (see below) derives from this old form, but has become a generic form of address instead of a specifically respectful form. Vos and its related forms are still used in literature, cinema, etc. when trying to depict the language of past centuries.

Regional variations

Voseo

Main article: Voseo

The pronoun "vos" is used in some areas of Latin America, particularly in Central America, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile, the state of Zulia in Venezuela, and the Andean regions of Colombia, Bolivia, Perú, and Ecuador.

In some areas, like the River Plate region, vos has become the only generic form of address for the second-person singular, that is, it has the same meaning that tú has elsewhere (informal and intimate). In other areas, like Chile, it persists as a fairly stigmatized form alongside the more prestigious tú. In some other areas, it is employed among equals but not for very close people (couples or family) or to inferiors (children, animals etc.), where the pronoun tú would normally be used.

Ladino speakers use vos as well, except that they employ it as in Old Spanish (see above), that is, as a respectful form of address, equivalent to how usted is used elsewhere. In fact, Ladino speakers do not use usted at all because vos implies the same respect that it once had in Old Spanish. In Ladino, tú is used towards anyone in an informal manner.

The use of vusted and vuestra merced

The variant vusted/vustedes is mostly a regionalism of some South American countries. It is common to hear it in isolated areas of Colombia and Venezuela. Other speakers consider it archaic because it is an older form of a contraction of vuestra merced. In Colombia, it is not unusual to hear people use "su merced" interchangeably with usted. It can be used as a vocative as well, e.g. when speaking to an older person, as in "Su merced, ¿por qué no vienen vusted y sus nietos a mi casa esta tarde?"

Vuestra merced (literally 'your grace') is the origin of usted, usarcé and similar forms that govern third-person verb forms with a second-person function. They are mostly confined to period works now.

It is unlikely that similar-sounding Arabic ustādh ('professor') was involved in the formation of Spanish usted, given the weakness of the semantic link and the fact that usted is not documented before 1598 (see the online Corpus del Español) — over a century after the fall of Moorish Granada.

The use of vosotros

Today, the informal second-person plural pronoun vosotros is widely used by most residents in Spain, except in some southwestern regions and in most of the Canary Islands, where its use is rare. Among the former colonies of the Spanish Empire, the use of vosotros and its normal conjugations is also retained in the Philippines and Equatorial Guinea.[3] Vosotros is the only form used by the Sephardic Jews that speak Ladino.

Conversely, the use of vosotros is completely absent in Latin America, except sometimes in written legal or other highly formal language. Throughout Latin America, the second person plural pronoun ustedes is universally used when communicating in both formal and informal contexts.

Creoles

Forms based on vosotros and vos are used in many Spanish-based creole languages.

In Chavacano, spoken in the Philippines, vo is used alongside tu as a singular second-person pronoun in Zamboangueño, Caviteño, and Ternateño. In Zamboangueño, evos is also used. For the plural, Zamboangueño has vosotros while Caviteño has vusos. Papiamento, spoken in Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, maintains boso (singular) and bosonan (plural). Since it was used with slaves, the forms that seemed disrespectful in the rest of America were common.

Menda

Menda is the equivalent of I in Caló, where it is concords in first person singular. In Spanish slang, el menda / la menda can be used as an emphatic I, concording with a third person verb, but its use is receding.

The use of le/les

The pronouns le (singular) and les (plural)—which do not change form for gender—are used to replace the indirect object of a sentence. They also usually accompany an explicit indirect object, "redundantly". For example, in "Le di el libro a María" (I gave the book to María), both "Le" and "a María" refer to the same person (María) as the indirect object. In spoken language, les is frequently replaced by le, and this replacement—although not approved by normative grammar—can often be found in written, published texts as well. When the indirect object pronoun is followed in sequence by a direct object pronoun beginning with l- (lo, la, los, las), both le and les are replaced by se:

Direct-object le/les

Generally, the unstressed third-person object pronouns in Spanish are lo, la, los, and las. This is the current position of the Real Academia Española. This is a reasonable generalisation given that it is true in over ninety percent of cases in the Spanish-speaking world. However, it is helpful to take note of the various exceptions to this general rule whereby le/les rather than lo, la, los, las are used. Note however that this use is rather modern and often found only in part of Spain whereas the use of lo, la, los, las is considered more traditional.

Theoretical basis for the use of direct-object le/les

There are various diachronic and synchronic reasons for the use of le/les for direct objects. To understand why there is vacillation and hesitation in usage, it is helpful to understand these often-conflicting linguistic forces.

a) Masculine e

There is a strong tendency in Spanish, inherited from Latin, for pronouns and determiners to have a set of three different endings for the three genders. These are: -e or ∅ for masculine pronouns, -a for feminine pronouns and -o for neuter pronouns.

Thus, éste, ésta, esto; ése, ésa, eso; aquél, aquélla, aquello; el, la, lo; él, ella, ello.

In this context, it would make sense to say le vi "I saw him" for any masculine noun, la vi "I saw her/it" for any feminine noun, and lo vi "I saw it" when no noun is being referred to. This gives us a set like the above: le, la, lo.

b) Indirectness for humans — general

Spanish has a tendency, discussed at Spanish prepositions, to treat as indirect objects those direct objects which happen to refer to people. In this context, it would make sense to say le/les vi "I saw him/her/them" when referring to people and lo/la/los/las vi "I saw it/them" when referring to things.

b1) Indirectness for humans — respect for the interlocutor

The general tendency to use indirect objects for people is intensified when the speaker wishes to convey respect. The third person in Spanish can be used as the second person to mean "you". In this context, it would make sense to use lo/la/los/las vi "I saw him/her/it/them" when one is speaking about a third party or an object, but le/les vi "I saw you" when the pronoun is intended to represent usted/ustedes.

b2) Indirectness for humans — contrast with inanimate things

The general tendency to use indirect objects for people is intensified when the subject of the sentence is not human, thus creating a contrast in the mind of the speaker between the human and the thing. In this context, it would make sense to say la halagó "he flattered her" when the subject is "he" referring to a person, but le halagó "it flattered her" when the subject is "it", a thing.

b3) Indirectness for humans — humanity otherwise emphasised

The general tendency to use indirect objects for people is intensified when the humanity of the person who is the object of the sentence is emphasised by the way the verb is used. In this context, it would make sense for a subtle distinction to be made between lo llevamos al hospital "we took/carried him to the hospital" when the patient is unconscious and le llevamos al hospital "we took/led him to the hospital" when the patient is able to walk.

b4) Indirectness for humans — with impersonal se

The general tendency to use indirect objects for people is intensified when impersonal se is used instead of a real subject. This is to avoid the misinterpretation of the se as being an indirect object pronoun. In this context, it would make sense to say se le lee mucho "people read him/her a lot" if "se" means "people" and "le" means "him/her", and reserve se lo/la lee mucho "he/she reads it a lot for him/her" for sentences in which the "se" is not impersonal.

Direct-object le/les in practice

All of the theoretical reasons for using le/les detailed above actually influence the way Spanish speakers use these pronouns, and this has been demonstrated by various surveys and investigations.

Extreme preference for le/les is a dialectalism known as leísmo; however, not all use of direct-object le/les is dialectal. Some instances of it are universal across the educated Spanish-speaking world.

Let us first look at dialectal extremes. There is leísmo (covered under point a above) motivated by the tendency towards masculine e in uneducated Madrid speech. This actually used to be quite standard, and the Real Academia only stopped endorsing it in the 1850s. We therefore find in old texts:

Such speakers would say le afirman in reference to a word like el hecho, la afirman in reference to a word like la verdad, and lo afirman only in reference to a general neuter "it".

The second extreme leísmo is the one motivated by the second point mentioned: the tendency to use indirect objects for people. This is noticeable in Northwestern Spain, especially Navarre and the Basque Country, where regional speech uses le vi for "I saw him/her" and lo/la vi for "I saw it". The same phenomenon is sporadically heard elsewhere, e.g. in Valencia and Paraguay.

Now let us look at less extremely dialectal cases. For the majority of educated speakers in Spain and parts of Latin America, neither of the two tendencies (a or b) is enough on its own to justify the use of le/les; but together they are. Thus, speakers who would reject sentences like le vi for "I saw it" and le vi for "I saw her" would nevertheless accept and use le vi for "I saw him". Indeed, this use of le to mean "him" is so common in standard Castilian speech that some would call the use of lo vi to mean "I saw him" an example of loísmo/laísmo, i.e. the dialectalism whereby lo is overused. The Real Academia's current line is that le for "him" is officially "tolerated".

A case on which the Academy is silent is the tendency described in point b1. It is perfectly common in educated speech in many parts of the world to distinguish between no quería molestarlo "I did not mean to bother him" and no quería molestarle "I did not mean to bother you". Those Spaniards who would not just say le anyway for the reasons explained in the last paragraph are likely to use le in this case. Butt & Benjamin (1994) says that their Argentine informants made this distinction, whereas their loísta Colombian informants preferred molestarlo always.

The Academy is also silent on the tendency described in b2; however, it is universal across the Spanish-speaking world. In a questionnaire given to 28 Spaniards in the Madrid region, 90% preferred la halagó for "he flattered her" and 87% preferred le halagó for "it flattered her". García (1975) reports a similar but less extreme tendency in Buenos Aires: only 14% of García's sample said él le convenció for "he convinced him" (the rest said él lo convenció). With an inanimate subject, a slight majority (54%) said este color no le convence.

García reports Buenos Aires natives differentiating between lo llevaron al hospital and le llevaron al hospital depending on how active the patient is, although anecdotal evidence suggests that Argentines are more loísta than this, and would prefer lo in both cases.

Point b3 is also backed up by the fact that many Latin Americans distinguish between le quiero "I love him" and lo quiero "I want him" (or indeed "I want it").

Demonstrative pronouns

N.B.: According to a decision of the Real Academia from the 1960s, the accents on these forms are only to be used when necessary to avoid ambiguity with the demonstrative determiners. However, the normal educated standard is still as above. Foreign learners may safely adhere to either standard.

Note also that there is never an accent on the neuter forms esto, eso and aquello (which do not have determiner equivalents).

Relative pronouns

The main relative pronoun in Spanish is que, from Latin QVID. Others include el cual, quien, and donde.

Que

Que covers "that", "which", "who", "whom" and the null pronoun in their functions of subject and direct-object relative pronouns:

Note from the last example that unlike with other relative pronouns, personal a does not have to be used with que when it is used as a personal direct object.

El que

When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, the definite article is added to que, and this inflects for number and gender, giving us el que, la que, los que, las que and the neuter lo que. Note that in English there are two options: the preposition can go at the end of the sentence, or it can go right before the relative pronoun "which" or "whom":

In some people's style of speaking, this definite article may be omitted after a, con and de, particularly when the antecedent is abstract or neuter:

After en, the article tends to be omitted if precise spatial location is not intended:

Lo que

Lo que has a slightly different meaning from that of el que, and is usually used as the connotation of "that which" or "what":

Splitting "lo que" and adding an adjective in between changes the meaning slightly:

El cual

The pronoun el cual can replace [el] que. It is generally more emphatic and formal than [el] que. Note that it always includes the article. It derives from the Latin QVALIS.

It has the following forms: el cual, la cual, los cuales, las cuales, and the neuter lo cual.

For subjects and direct objects

El cual can be used as a formal, emphatic replacement for que in non-defining clauses, for either subjects or direct objects. The fact that it agrees for gender and number can make it clearer to what it refers. The fact that it cannot be used for defining clauses also makes it clear that a defining clause is not intended:

When used as a personal direct object, personal a must be used:

As the object of a preposition

El cual can be used as a formal, emphatic replacement for el que, usually in non-defining clauses, as the object of a preposition (including a representing the indirect object). This happens in three main situations.

First, it can be purely a matter of high style. This is used sparingly in Spanish, and so foreigners should avoid over-using it:

In more everyday style, this might be phrased as:

Second, el cual is often preferred after propositions of more than one syllable (para, contra, entre, mediante...) and after prepositional phrases (a pesar de, debajo de, a causa de, frente a, en virtud de, gracias a, por consecuencia de...):

Third, el cual is preferred when it is separated from its antecedent by intervening words. The more words that intervene, the more the use of el cual is practically obligatory:

Quien

"Quien" redirects here. For the song by Ricardo Arjona, see Quién.

The pronoun quien comes from the Latin QVEM, "whom", i.e. the accusative of QVIS, "who".

It too can replace [el] que in certain circumstances. Like the English pronouns "who" and "whom", it can only be used to refer to people.

It is invariable for gender, and was originally invariable for number. However, by analogy with other words, the form quienes was invented. Quien as a plural form survives as an archaism that is now considered non-standard.

For subjects

It can represent a subject. In this case, it is rather formal and is largely restricted to non-defining clauses.

Unlike el cual, it does not inflect for gender, but it does inflect for number, and it also specifies that it does refer to a person:

As the object of a preposition

Quien is particularly common as the object of a proposition when the clause is non-defining, but is also possible in defining clauses:

Donde, a donde, como and cuando

The etymology of these words is as follows. Latin VNDE, meaning "whence" or "where from" gave onde, which lost the "from" meaning over the centuries and came to mean just "where". This meant that, to say "whence" or "where from", the preposition de had to be added. This gave d'onde. Again, the meaning was eroded over time until it came to mean just "where". Prepositions were therefore added once again. Therefore, nowadays, we have donde for "where" and a donde for "where to", amongst others. Note that all this means that, etymologically speaking, de donde is the rather redundant "from from where", and a donde is the rather contradictory "to from where". The tendency goes forward with the vulgar form ande (from adonde) often used for "where". In the Ladino dialect of Spanish, the pronoun onde is still used, where donde still means "whence" or "where from". In Latin America, isolated communities and rural areas still retain this as well.

Como is from QVOMODO, "how", the ablative of QVI MODVS, "what way".

Cuando is from QVANDO, "when".

Location and movement

Donde can be used instead of other relative pronouns when location is referred to. Adonde is a variant that can be used when motion to the location is intended:

Manner

Como can be used instead of other relative pronouns when manner is referred to:

Note that mismo tends to require que:

Time

Cuando tends to replace the use of other relative pronouns when time is referred, usually in non-defining clauses.

Non-defining
Defining

Note that just que, or at the most en que, is normal with defining clauses referring to time. En el que and cuando are rarer.

Cuyo

"Cuyo" is the formal Spanish equivalent for the English pronoun "whose." However, "cuyo" inflects for gender and number (cuyos (m. pl.), cuya (f. sg.), or cuyas (f. pl.)) according to the word it precedes. For example:

"cuyo" in this example has changed to "cuyas" in order to match the condition of the following word, "calificaciones" (f. pl.)

In Old Spanish there were interrogative forms, cúyo, cúyas, and cúyos, no longer used.

In practice, cuyo is reserved to formal language. A periphrasis like Alejandro es un estudiante que tiene unas calificaciones siempre buenas is more common.

Cuyo is from CVIVS, the genitive (possessive) form of QVI.

Notes on relative and interrogative pronouns

Relative pronouns often have corresponding interrogative pronouns. For example:

Ese es el libro que me diste = "That is the book that you gave me"

In the second line, que helps to answer for what qué was asking, a definition of "this".

Below is a list of interrogative pronouns and phrases with the relative pronouns that go with them:

Notes

  1. ↑ Franco, Jon. Agreement as a Continuum. 2000. In Beukema, Frits H. and Marcel den Dikken. (eds.) Clitic phenomena in European languages. P.164
  2. ↑ Desouvrey, Louis-H. 2005. Romance clitic clusters. The case connection. Heggie, Lorie and Fernando Ordóñez. Clitic and affix combinations: theoretical perspectives. P.56
  3. ↑ In José Rizal's Noli me tangere, Salomé uses vosotros to refer to Elías and his passengers that day. In its sequel, El filibusterismo, in the chapter entitled Risas, llantos, Sandoval addresses his fellow students using vosotros.

References

External links

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