Evaporative cooler

An evaporative cooler, photographed in Rocky Ford, Colorado, used in the drier parts of the American West to provide economical cooling
A "Kool Air" window-mounted unit on a 1949 Hudson sedan

An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems which use vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling works by employing water's large enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor (evaporation), which can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration. In extremely dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants.

The cooling potential for evaporative cooling is dependent on the wet bulb depression, the difference between dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature. In arid climates, evaporative cooling can reduce energy consumption and total equipment for conditioning as an alternative to compressor-based cooling. In climates not considered arid, indirect evaporative cooling can still take advantage of the evaporative cooling process without increasing humidity. Passive evaporative cooling strategies offer the same benefits of mechanical evaporative cooling systems without the complexity of equipment and ductwork.

Overview

Schematic diagram of an ancient Iranian windcatcher and qanat, used for evaporative cooling of buildings (click image to enlarge)

Civilizations throughout the ages have found ingenious ways to combat the heat in their region. An earlier form of air cooling, the windcatcher was used in ancient Egypt and Persia thousands of years ago in the form of wind shafts on the roof, which caught the wind, passed it over subterranean water in a qanat and discharged the cooled air into the building. Nowadays Iranians have changed the windcatcher into an evaporative cooler (Coolere Âbi) and use it widely.[1]

A traditional air cooler in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, India

The evaporative cooler was the subject of numerous US patents in the 20th century; many of these, starting in 1906,[2] suggested or assumed the use of excelsior (wood wool) pads as the elements to bring a large volume of water in contact with moving air to allow evaporation to occur. A typical design, as shown in a 1945 patent, includes a water reservoir (usually with level controlled by a float valve), a pump to circulate water over the excelsior pads and a centrifugal fan to draw air through the pads and into the house.[3] This design and this material remain dominant in evaporative coolers in the American Southwest, where they are also used to increase humidity.[4] In the United States, the use of the term swamp cooler may be due to the odor of algae produced by early units.[5]

Externally mounted evaporative cooling devices (car coolers) were used in some automobiles to cool interior air—often as aftermarket accessories[6]—until modern vapor-compression air conditioning became widely available.

Passive evaporative cooling techniques in buildings, such as evaporative cooling towers, have only been developed and studied in the last 30 years. In 1986, two researchers at the University of Arizona, Tucson, W. Cunningham and T. Thompson, constructed the first passive evaporative cooling tower in Tucson, AZ. This performance data from this experimental facility became the foundation of today’s evaporative cooling tower design guidelines, developed by Baruch Givoni.[7]

Physical principles

Evaporative coolers lower the temperature of air using the principle of evaporative cooling, unlike typical air conditioning systems which use vapor-compression refrigeration or absorption refrigerator. Evaporative cooling is the addition of water vapor into air, which causes a lowering of the temperature of the air. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible heat, which affects the temperature of the air, and converted into latent heat, the energy present in the water vapor component of the air, whilst the air remains at a constant enthalpy value. This conversion of sensible heat to latent heat is known as an adiabatic process because it occurs at a constant enthalpy value. Evaporative cooling therefore causes a drop in the temperature of air proportional to the sensible heat drop and an increase in humidity proportional to the latent heat gain. Evaporative cooling can be visualized using a psychrometric chart by finding the initial air condition and moving along a line of constant enthalpy toward a state of higher humidity.[8]

A simple example of natural evaporative cooling is perspiration, or sweat, secreted by the body, evaporation of which cools the body. The amount of heat transfer depends on the evaporation rate, however for each kilogram of water vaporized 2,257 kJ of energy (about 890 BTU per pound of pure water, at 95 °F (35 °C)) are transferred. The evaporation rate depends on the temperature and humidity of the air, which is why sweat accumulates more on humid days, as it does not evaporate fast enough.

Vapor-compression refrigeration uses evaporative cooling, but the evaporated vapor is within a sealed system, and is then compressed ready to evaporate again, using energy to do so. A simple evaporative cooler's water is evaporated into the environment, and not recovered. In an interior space cooling unit, the evaporated water is introduced into the space along with the now-cooled air; in an evaporative tower the evaporated water is carried off in the airflow exhaust.

Other types of phase-change cooling

A closely related process, sublimation cooling differs from evaporative cooling in that a phase transition from solid to vapor, rather than liquid to vapor occurs.

Sublimation cooling has been observed to operate on a planetary scale on the planetoid Pluto, where it has been called an anti-greenhouse effect.

Another application of a phase change to cooling is the "self-refrigerating" beverage can. A separate compartment inside the can contains a desiccant and a liquid. Just before drinking, a tab is pulled so that the desiccant comes into contact with the liquid and dissolves. As it does so it absorbs an amount of heat energy called the latent heat of fusion. Evaporative cooling works with the phase change of liquid into vapor and the latent heat of vaporization, but the self-cooling can uses a change from solid to liquid, and the latent heat of fusion to achieve the same result.

Applications

Before the advent of refrigeration, evaporative cooling was used for millennia. A porous earthenware vessel would cool water by evaporation through its walls; frescoes from about 2500 BC show slaves fanning jars of water to cool rooms.[9] A vessel could also be placed in a bowl of water, covered with a wet cloth dipping into the water, to keep milk or butter as fresh as possible.[10]

California ranch house with evaporative cooler box on roof ridgeline

Evaporative cooling is a common form of cooling buildings for thermal comfort since it is relatively cheap and requires less energy than other forms of cooling.

Psychrometric chart example of Salt Lake City

The figure showing the Salt Lake City weather data represents the typical summer climate (June to September). The colored lines illustrate the potential of direct and indirect evaporative cooling strategies to expand the comfort range in summer time. It is mainly explained by the combination of a higher air speed on one hand and elevated indoor humidity when the region permits the direct evaporative cooling strategy on the other hand. Evaporative cooling strategies that involve the humidification of the air should be implemented in dry condition where the increase in moisture content stays below recommendations for occupant’s comfort and indoor air quality. Passive cooling towers lack the control that traditional HVAC systems offer to occupants. However, the additional air movement provided into the space can improve occupant comfort.

Evaporative cooling is most effective when the relative humidity is on the low side, limiting its popularity to dry climates. Evaporative cooling raises the internal humidity level significantly, which desert inhabitants may appreciate as the moist air re-hydrates dry skin and sinuses. Therefore, assessing typical climate data is an essential procedure to determine the potential of evaporative cooling strategies for a building. The three most important climate considerations are dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, and wet-bulb depression during the summer design day. It is important to determine if the wet-bulb depression can provide sufficient cooling during the summer design day. By subtracting the wet-bulb depression from the outside dry-bulb temperature, one can estimate the approximate air temperature leaving the evaporative cooler. It is important to consider that the ability for the exterior dry-bulb temperature to reach the wet-bulb temperature depends on the saturation efficiency. A general recommendation for applying direct evaporative cooling is to implement it in places where the wet-bulb temperature of the outdoor air does not exceed 22 °C (71.6 °F).[7] However, in the example of Salt Lake City, the upper limit for the direct evaporative cooling on psychrometric chart is 20 °C (68 °F). Despite this lower value, this climate is still suitable for this technique.

Evaporative cooling is especially well suited for climates where the air is hot and humidity is low. In the United States, the western/mountain states are good locations, with evaporative coolers prevalent in cities like Denver, Salt Lake City, Albuquerque, El Paso, Tucson, and Fresno. Evaporative air conditioning is also popular and well-suited to the southern (temperate) part of Australia. In dry, arid climates, the installation and operating cost of an evaporative cooler can be much lower than that of refrigerative air conditioning, often by 80% or so. However, evaporative cooling and vapor-compression air conditioning are sometimes used in combination to yield optimal cooling results. Some evaporative coolers may also serve as humidifiers in the heating season. Even in regions that are mostly arid, short periods of high humidity may prevent evaporative cooling from being an effective cooling strategy. An example of this event is the monsoon season in southern Arizona in July and August.

In locations with moderate humidity there are many cost-effective uses for evaporative cooling, in addition to their widespread use in dry climates. For example, industrial plants, commercial kitchens, laundries, dry cleaners, greenhouses, spot cooling (loading docks, warehouses, factories, construction sites, athletic events, workshops, garages, and kennels) and confinement farming (poultry ranches, hog, and dairy) often employ evaporative cooling. In highly humid climates, evaporative cooling may have little thermal comfort benefit beyond the increased ventilation and air movement it provides.

Other examples

Trees transpire large amounts of water through pores in their leaves called stomata, and through this process of evaporative cooling, forests interact with climate at local and global scales.[11]

Evaporative cooling is commonly used in cryogenic applications. The vapor above a reservoir of cryogenic liquid is pumped away, and the liquid continuously evaporates as long as the liquid's vapor pressure is significant. Evaporative cooling of ordinary helium forms a 1-K pot, which can cool to at least 1.2 K. Evaporative cooling of helium-3 can provide temperatures below 300 mK. These techniques can be used to make cryocoolers, or as components of lower-temperature cryostats such as dilution refrigerators. As the temperature decreases, the vapor pressure of the liquid also falls, and cooling becomes less effective. This sets a lower limit to the temperature attainable with a given liquid.

Evaporative cooling is also the last cooling step in order to reach the ultra-low temperatures required for Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC). Here, so-called forced evaporative cooling is used to selectively remove high-energetic ("hot") atoms from an atom cloud until the remaining cloud is cooled below the BEC transition temperature. For a cloud of 1 million alkali atoms, this temperature is about 1μK.

Although robotic spacecraft use thermal radiation almost exclusively, many manned spacecraft have short missions that permit open-cycle evaporative cooling. Examples include the Space Shuttle, the Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM), Lunar Module and Portable Life Support System. The Apollo CSM and the Space Shuttle also had radiators, and the Shuttle could evaporate ammonia as well as water. The Apollo spacecraft used sublimators, compact and largely passive devices that dump waste heat in water vapor (steam) that is vented to space. When liquid water is exposed to vacuum it boils vigorously, carrying away enough heat to freeze the remainder to ice that covers the sublimator and automatically regulates the feedwater flow depending on the heat load. The water expended is often available in surplus from the fuel cells used by many manned spacecraft to produce electricity.

However the ice crystals from dumped urine, water etc., which are flying through space at orbital velocities, have been found to "sand blast" space craft.

Evaporative cooler designs

Evaporative cooler illustration

Most designs take advantage of the fact that water has one of the highest known enthalpy of vaporization (latent heat of vaporization) values of any common substance. Because of this, evaporative coolers use only a fraction of the energy of vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning systems. Unfortunately, except in very dry climates, the single-stage (direct) cooler can increase relative humidity (RH) to a level that makes occupants uncomfortable. Indirect and Two-stage evaporative coolers keep the RH lower.

Direct evaporative cooling

Direct evaporative cooling

Direct evaporative cooling (open circuit) is used to lower the temperature and increase the humidity of air by using latent heat of evaporation, changing liquid water to water vapor. In this process, the energy in the air does not change. Warm dry air is changed to cool moist air. The heat of the outside air is used to evaporate water. The RH increases to 70 to 90% which reduces the cooling effect of human perspiration. The moist air has to be continually released to outside or else the air becomes saturated and evaporation stops.

A mechanical direct evaporative cooler unit uses a fan to draw air through a wetted membrane, or pad, which provides a large surface area for the evaporation of water into the air. Water is sprayed at the top of the pad so it can drip down into the membrane and continually keep the membrane saturated. Any excess water that drips out from the bottom of the membrane is collected in a pan and recirculated to the top. Single stage direct evaporative coolers are typically small in size as it only consists of the membrane, water pump, and centrifugal fan. The mineral content of the municipal water supply will cause scaling on the membrane, which will lead to clogging over the life of the membrane. Depending on this mineral content and the evaporation rate, regular cleaning and maintenance is required to ensure optimal performance. Generally, supply air from the single-stage evaporative cooler will need to be exhausted directly (one-through flow) because the high humidity of the supply air. Few design solutions have been conceived to utilize the energy in the air like directing the exhaust air through two sheets of double glazed windows, thus reducing the solar energy absorbed through the glazing.[12] Compared to energy required to achieve the equivalent cooling load with a compressor, single stage evaporative coolers consume less energy.[7]

Passive direct evaporative cooling can occur anywhere that the evaporatively cooled water can cool a space without the assist of a fan. This can be achieved through use of fountains or more architectural designs such as the evaporative downdraft cooling tower, also called a “passive cooling tower”. The passive cooling tower design allows outside air to flow in through the top of a tower that is constructed within or next to the building. The outside air comes in contact with water inside the tower either through a wetted membrane or a mister. As water evaporates in the outside air, the air becomes cooler and less buoyant and creates a downward flow in the tower. At the bottom of the tower, an outlet allows the cooler air into the interior. Similar to mechanical evaporative coolers, towers can be an attractive low-energy solution for hot and dry climate as they only require a water pump to raise water to the top of the tower.[13] Energy savings from using a passive direct evaporating cooling strategy depends on the climate and heat load. For arid climates with a great wet bulb depression, cooling towers can provide enough cooling during summer design conditions to be net zero. For example, a 371 m² (4,000 ft²) retail store in Tucson, Arizona with a sensible heat gain of 29.3 kJ/h (100,000 Btu/h) can be cooled entirely by two passive cooling towers providing 11890 m³/h (7,000 cfm) each.[14]

For the Zion National Park Visitor’s Center, which uses two passive cooling towers, the cooling energy intensity was 14.5 MJ/m² (1.28 kBtu/ft;), which was 77% less than a typical building in the western United States that uses 62.5 MJ/m² (5.5 kBtu/ft²).[15] A study of field performance results in Kuwait revealed that power requirements for an evaporative cooler are approximately 75% less than the power requirements for a conventional packaged unit air-conditioner.[16]

Indirect evaporative cooling

The process of indirect evaporative cooling

Indirect evaporative cooling (closed circuit) is a cooling process that uses direct evaporative cooling in addition to some type of heat exchanger to transfer the cool energy to the supply air. The cooled moist air from the direct evaporative cooling process never comes in direct contact with the conditioned supply air. The moist air stream is released outside or used to cool other external devices such as solar cells which are more efficient if kept cool. One indirect cooler manufacturer uses the so-called Maisotsenko cycle which employs an iterative (multi-step) heat exchanger that can reduce the temperature to below the wet-bulb temperature.[17] While no moisture is added to the incoming air the relative humidity (RH) does rise a little according to the Temperature-RH formula. Still, the relatively dry air resulting from indirect evaporative cooling allows inhabitants' perspiration to evaporate more easily, increasing the relative effectiveness of this technique. Indirect Cooling is an effective strategy for hot-humid climates that cannot afford to increase the moisture content of the supply air due to indoor air quality and human thermal comfort concerns. The following graphs describe the process of direct and indirect evaporative cooling with the changes in temperature, moisture content and relative humidity of the air.

Passive indirect evaporative cooling strategies are rare because this strategy involves an architectural element to act as a heat exchanger (for example a roof). This element can be sprayed with water and cooled through the evaporation of the water on this element. These strategies are rare due to the high use of water, which also introduces the risk of water intrusion and compromising building structure.

Two-stage evaporative cooling, or indirect-direct

In the first stage of a two-stage cooler, warm air is pre-cooled indirectly without adding humidity (by passing inside a heat exchanger that is cooled by evaporation on the outside). In the direct stage, the pre-cooled air passes through a water-soaked pad and picks up humidity as it cools. Since the air supply is pre-cooled in the first stage, less humidity is transferred in the direct stage, to reach the desired cooling temperatures. The result, according to manufacturers, is cooler air with a RH between 50-70%, depending on the climate, compared to a traditional system that produces about 70–80% relative humidity in the conditioned air.

Hybrid. Direct or Indirect cooling has been combined with vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning to increase the overall efficiency and /or to reduce the temperature below the wet-bulb limit.

Materials

Traditionally, evaporative cooler pads consist of excelsior (aspen wood fiber) inside a containment net, but more modern materials, such as some plastics and melamine paper, are entering use as cooler-pad media. Modern rigid media, commonly 8" or 12" thick, adds more moisture, and thus cools air more than typically much thinner Aspen media.[18] Another material which is sometimes used is corrugated cardboard.[19][20]

Design considerations

Water use

In arid and semi-arid climates, the scarcity of water makes water consumption a concern in cooling system design. From the installed water meters 420938 L (111,200 gal) of water were consumed during 2002 for the two passive cooling towers at Zion National Park Visitor Center. However, such concerns are addressed by experts who note that electricity generation usually requires a lot of water, and evaporative coolers use far less electricity, and thus comparable water overall, and cost less overall, compared to chillers.[21]

Shading

Allowing direct solar exposure to the media pads increases the evaporation rate, which reduce water consumption. However, the sun’s ultraviolet radiation may increase the degradation of the media as well as heating up other elements of the evaporative cooling design. Therefore, shading is often recommended.

Mechanical systems

Apart from fans used in mechanical evaporative cooling, pumps are the only other piece of mechanical equipment required for the evaporative cooling process in both mechanical and passive applications. Pumps can be used for either recirculating the water to the wet media pad or providing water at very high pressure to a mister system for a passive cooling tower. Pump specifications will vary depending on evaporation rates and media pad area. The Zion National Park Visitor’s center uses a 250 W (1/3 HP) pump.[22]

Exhaust

Exhaust ducts and/or open windows must be used at all times to allow air to continually escape the air conditioned area. Otherwise, pressure develops and the fan/blower in the system is unable to push much air through the media and into the air conditioned area. The evaporative system cannot function without exhausting the continuous supply of air from the air conditioned area to the outside. By optimizing the placement of the 'cooled air' inlet, along with the layout of the house passages, related doors and room windows, the system can be used most effectively to direct the cooled air to the required areas. A well designed layout can very effectively scavenge and expel the hot air from desired areas without the need for an above ceiling ducted venting system. Continuous airflow is essential, so the exhaust windows or vents must not restrict the volume and passage of air being introduced by the evaporative cooling machine. One must also be mindful of the outside wind direction, as for example a strong hot southerly wind will slow or restrict the exhausted air from a south facing window. It is always best to have the downwind windows open, while the upwind windows are closed.

Different types of installations

Typical installations

Typically, residential and industrial evaporative coolers use direct evaporation, and can be described as an enclosed metal or plastic box with vented sides. Air is moved by a centrifugal fan or blower, (usually driven by an electric motor with pulleys known as "sheaves" in HVAC terminology, or a direct-driven axial fan), and a water pump is used to wet the evaporative cooling pads. The cooling units can be mounted on the roof (down draft, or downflow), or exterior walls or windows (side draft, or horizontal flow) of buildings. To cool, the fan draws ambient air through vents on the unit's sides and through the damp pads. Heat in the air evaporates water from the pads which are constantly re-dampened to continue the cooling process. Then cooled, moist air is delivered into the building via a vent in the roof or wall.

Because the cooling air originates outside the building, one or more large vents must exist to allow air to move from inside to outside. Air should only be allowed to pass once through the system, or the cooling effect will decrease. This is due to the air reaching the saturation point. Often 15 or so air changes per hour (ACHs) occur in spaces served by evaporative coolers, a relatively high rate of air exchange.

Evaporative (wet) cooling towers

Main article: Cooling tower
Large hyperboloid cooling towers made of structural steel for a power plant in Kharkov (Ukraine)

Cooling towers are structures for cooling water or other heat transfer media to near-ambient wet-bulb temperature. Wet cooling towers operate on the evaporative cooling principle, but are optimized to cool the water rather than the air. Cooling towers can often be found on large buildings or on industrial sites. They transfer heat to the environment from chillers, industrial processes, or the Rankine power cycle, for example.

Misting systems

Mist spraying system with water pump beneath

Misting systems work by forcing water via a high pressure pump and tubing through a brass and stainless steel mist nozzle that has an orifice of about 5 micrometres, thereby producing a micro-fine mist. The water droplets that create the mist are so small that they instantly flash evaporate. Flash evaporation can reduce the surrounding air temperature by as much as 35 °F (20 °C) in just seconds.[23] For patio systems, it is ideal to mount the mist line approximately 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) above the ground for optimum cooling. Misting is used for applications such as flowerbeds, pets, livestock, kennels, insect control, odor control, zoos, veterinary clinics, cooling of produce, and greenhouses.

Misting fans

A misting fan is similar to a humidifier. A fan blows a fine mist of water into the air. If the air is not too humid, the water evaporates, absorbing heat from the air, allowing the misting fan to also work as an air cooler. A misting fan may be used outdoors, especially in a dry climate.It may also be used indoors with packed party goers.

Small portable battery-powered misting fans, consisting of an electric fan and a hand-operated water spray pump, are sold as novelty items. Their effectiveness in everyday use is unclear.

Performance

Understanding evaporative cooling performance requires an understanding of psychrometrics. Evaporative cooling performance is variable due to changes in external temperature and humidity level. A residential cooler should be able to decrease the temperature of air by 3 to 4 °C(or in Fahrenheit scale by 5 to 7 °F).

It is simple to predict cooler performance from standard weather report information. Because weather reports usually contain the dewpoint and relative humidity, but not the wet-bulb temperature, a psychrometric chart or a simple computer program must be used to compute the wet bulb temperature. Once the wet bulb temperature and the dry bulb temperature are identified, the cooling performance or leaving air temperature of the cooler may be determined.

For direct evaporative cooling, the direct saturation efficiency, \epsilon, measures in what extent the temperature of the air leaving the direct evaporative cooler is close to the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air. The direct saturation efficiency can be determined as follow

[24]
\epsilon=\frac{T_{e,db}-T_{l,db}}{T_{e,db}-T_{e,wb}}
Where:
\epsilon = direct evaporative cooling saturation efficiency (%)
T_{e,db} = entering air dry-bulb temperature (°C)
T_{l,db} = leaving air dry-bulb temperature (°C)
T_{e,wb} = entering air wet-bulb temperature (°C)

Evaporative media efficiency usually runs between 80% to 90%. Most efficient systems can lower the dry air temperature to 95% of the wet-bulb temperature, the least efficient systems only achieve 50%.[24] The evaporation efficiency drops very little over time.

Typical aspen pads used in residential evaporative coolers offer around 85% efficiency while CELdek type of evaporative media offer efficiencies of >90% depending on air velocity. The CELdek media is more often used in large commercial and industrial installations.

As an example, in Las Vegas, Nevada, with a typical summer design day of 42 °C (108 °F) DB/19 °C (66 °F) WB or about 8% relative humidity, with 85% efficiency, the leaving air temperature of a residential cooler would be:

T_{l,db} = 42° – ((42° – 19°) x 85%) = 22.45 °C (72.41 °F)

However, either of two methods can be used to estimate performance:

Some examples clarify this relationship:

(Cooling examples extracted from the June 25, 2000 University of Idaho publication, "Homewise").

Because evaporative coolers perform best in dry conditions, they are widely used and most effective in arid, desert regions such as the southwestern USA and northern Mexico.

The same equation indicates why evaporative coolers are of limited use in highly humid environments: for example, a hot August day in Tokyo may be 30 °C (86 °F), 85% relative humidity, 1,005 hPa pressure. This gives dew point 27.2 °C (81.0 °F) and wet-bulb temperature 27.88 °C (82.18 °F). According to the formula above, at 85% efficiency air may be cooled only down to 28.2 °C (82.8 °F) which makes it quite impractical.

Comparison to air conditioning

A misting fan

Comparison of evaporative cooling to phase-change air conditioning:

Advantages

Less expensive to install

Less expensive to operate

Ease of maintenance

Ventilation air

Disadvantages

Performance

Comfort

Water

Mosquitoes

Miscellaneous

See also

References

  1. ↑ Kheirabadi, Masoud (1991). Iranian cities: formation and development. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-292-72468-6.
  2. ↑ Zellweger, John (1906). "Air filter and cooler". U.S. patent 838602.
  3. ↑ Bryant Essick (1945). "Pad for evaporative coolers". U.S. patent 2391558.
  4. ↑ Scott Landis (1998). The Workshop Book. Taunton Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-56158-271-6.
  5. ↑ Gutenberg, Arthur William (1955). The Economics of the Evaporative Cooler Industry in the Southwestern United States. Stanford University Graduate School of Business. p. 167.
  6. ↑ Such units were mounted on the passenger-side window of the vehicle; the window was rolled nearly all the way up, leaving only enough space for the vent which carried the cool air into the vehicle.
  7. 1 2 3 Givoni, Baruch (1994). Passive and Low-Energy Cooling of Buildings. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
  8. ↑ McDowall, R. (2006). Fundamentals of HVAC Systems, Elsevier, San Diego, page 16.
  9. ↑ "History of Evaporative Cooling Technology". AZEVAP. 2005. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
  10. ↑ Cryer, Pat. "Food storage in a working class London household in the 1900s". 1900s.org.uk. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
  11. ↑ Bonan, Gordon B. (13 June 2008). "Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests". Science 320: 1444–9. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1444B. doi:10.1126/science.1155121. PMID 18556546.
  12. ↑ Peck, John F.; Kessler, Helen J.; Lewis, Thompson L. (1979). "Monitoring, Evaluating, & Optimizing Two Stage Evaporative Cooling Techniques". Environmental Research Laboratory, University of Arizona.
  13. ↑ Kwok, Alison G.; Grondzik, Walter T. (2007). The green studio handbook: environmental strategies for schematic design. Architectural Press. ISBN 978-0-08-089052-4.
  14. ↑ Grondzik, Walter T.; Kwok, Alison G.; Stein, Benjamin; Reynolds, John S. (2010). Mechanical and Electrical Equipment. John Wiley & Sons.
  15. ↑ Energy Information Administration. "Annual Energy Review 2004". EIA. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved November 2014.
  16. ↑ Maheshwari, G.P.; Al-Ragom, F.; Suri, R.K. (2001). "Energy-saving potential of an indirect evaporative cooler". Applied Energy (Elsevier) 69 (1): 69–76. doi:10.1016/S0306-2619(00)00066-0.
  17. ↑ see Independent Testing tab, Thermodynamic performance assessment of a novel air cooling cycle and other papers http://www.coolerado.com/products/material-resource-center/
  18. ↑
  19. ↑ Corrugated cardboard swamp cooler by Sundrop Farm
  20. ↑ Sundrop Farm's system
  21. ↑ "Evaporative Cooling Design Guidelines Manual for New Mexico Schools and Commercial Buildings" (PDF). December 2002. pp. 25–27. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
  22. ↑ Torcellini, P.; Pless, S.; Deru, M.; Long, N.; Judkoff, R. (2006). Lessons Learned from Case Studies of Six High-Performance Buildings - Technical Report NREL/TP-550-37542 (PDF).
  23. ↑ Archived May 18, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  24. 1 2 HVAC Systems and Equipment (SI ed.). Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 2012. p. 41.1.
  25. ↑ Krigger, John; Dorsi, Chris (2004). Residential Energy: Cost Savings and Comfort for Existing Buildings (4th ed.). Saturn Resource Management. p. 207. ISBN 978-1-880120-12-5.
  26. ↑ "Evaporative cooler/ Evaporative cooler". Waterlinecooling.com. Retrieved 2013-11-22.
  27. ↑ "A brief note on the NID Cooler" (PDF). Government of India - National Centre for Disease Control. Retrieved 22 November 2013.

External links

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