Sydney

Sydney New South Wales
The Sydney Opera House and CBD at dusk from Jeffrey Street, Kirribilli in December 2008
Sydney
Coordinates	33°51′54″S 151°12′34″E / 33.86500°S 151.20944°ECoordinates: 33°51′54″S 151°12′34″E / 33.86500°S 151.20944°E
Population	4,921,000 (2015)[1] (1st)
• Density	400/km^2 (1,000/sq mi) (2015)[2]
Established	26 January 1788
Area	12,367.7 km^2 (4,775.2 sq mi)(GCCSA)[3]
Time zone	AEST (UTC+10)
• Summer (DST)	AEDT (UTC+11)
Location	877 km (545 mi) NE of Melbourne 923 km (574 mi) S of Brisbane 287 km (178 mi) NE of Canberra 3,936 km (2,446 mi) E of Perth 1,404 km (872 mi) E of Adelaide
LGA(s)	various (38)
County	Cumberland
State electorate(s)	various (49)
Federal Division(s)	various (24)
Mean max temp[4] Mean min temp[4] Annual rainfall[4] 21.7 °C ^71 °F 13.8 °C ^57 °F 1,213 mm ^47.8 in
Footnotes	Coordinates:[5]

Sydney /ˈsɪdni/^[6] is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania.^[7] Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds the world's largest natural harbour, and sprawls towards the Blue Mountains to the west.^[8] Residents of Sydney are known as "Sydneysiders". Sydney is the second official seat and second official residence of the Governor-General of Australia, the Prime Minister of Australia and the Cabinet of Australia.

The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians since the Upper Paleolithic period.^[9] The first British settlers arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the mid-19th century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural and economic centre. The population of Sydney at the time of the 2011 census was 4.39 million, 1.5 million of which were born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world.^[3][10] There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home.^[11][12]

Sydney has an advanced market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing and tourism. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia.^[13] There is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as Asia Pacific's leading financial hub.^{[14][15][16][17]} In addition to hosting events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics, millions of tourists come to Sydney each year to see the city's landmarks.^[18] Sydney is also a gateway to Australia for many international visitors.^[18] Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, Bondi Beach, and the Royal Botanic Gardens. Man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors.

History

First inhabitants

Petroglyph in Sydney's Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park

The first people to inhabit the area now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia and before that from southeast Asia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity occurred in and around Sydney for at least 30,000 years.^[9] However, numerous Aboriginal stone tools found in Western Sydney's gravel sediments were dated from 45,000 to 50,000 years BP,^[19] which would indicate that there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought.^[20]

The earliest British settlers called them Eora people. "Eora" is the term the indigenous population used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is "from this place". Prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans.^[21]

Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan.^[21] The principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the indigenous people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells, and cooking fish.^[22]

Development has destroyed much of the city's history including that of the first inhabitants. There continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park.^[23] The first meeting between the native people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula and encountered the Gweagal clan.^[22][24][25] He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors.^[22] Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement. He spent a short time collecting food and conducting scientific observations before continuing further north along the east coast of Australia and claiming the new land he had discovered for Britain.

Establishment of the Colony

A Direct North General View of Sydney Cove, by convict artist Thomas Watling in 1794

The United Kingdom had for a long time been sending its convicts across the Atlantic to the American colonies. That trade was ended with the Declaration of Independence by the United States in 1776. Overrun with prisoners, Britain decided in 1786 to found a new penal outpost in the territory discovered by Cook some 16 years earlier. Captain Arthur Phillip was charged with establishing the new colony. The colony was at first to be titled "New Albion", but Phillip decided on "Sydney" in recognition of Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney and his role in authorising the establishment of the settlement.^[26][27]

Captain Philip led a fleet (known as the First Fleet) of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Botany Bay on 18 January 1788, though deemed the location unsuitable due to poor soil and a lack of fresh water. He travelled a short way further north and arrived at Port Jackson on 26 January 1788.^[28][29] This was to be the location for the new colony. The official proclamation and naming of the colony happened on 7 February 1788.

Sydney Cove from Dawes Point, 1817

Between 1788 and 1792 about 4,300 convicts were landed at Sydney. The colony was not founded on the principles of freedom and prosperity. Maps from this time show no prison buildings; the punishment for convicts was transportation rather than incarceration, but serious offences were penalised by flogging and hanging.^[30][31]

Officers and convicts alike faced starvation as supplies ran low and little could be cultivated from the land.^[32] The region's indigenous population was also suffering. It is estimated that half of the native people in Sydney died during the smallpox epidemic of 1789.^[21][33] Some mounted violent resistance to the British settlers. Lachlan Macquarie became Governor in 1810.

Macquarie did make the most of less than ideal circumstances. His first task was to restore order after the Rum Rebellion of 1808 against the previous Governor. Conditions in the colony were not conducive to the development of a thriving new metropolis, but the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of maritime trade (such as wool) helped to lessen the burden of isolation.^[30][34]

Macquarie undertook an extensive building programme of some 265 separate works.^[35] Roads, bridges, wharves, and public buildings were constructed using convict labour and come 1822 the town had banks, markets, and well-established thoroughfares. Part of Macquarie's effort to transform the colony was his authorisation for convicts to re-enter society as free citizens.^[35]

Modern development

The year 1850 was the final year of convict transportation to Sydney, which by this time had a population of 35,000.^[28][30] The municipal council of Sydney was incorporated in 1842 and became Australia's first city.^[36] Gold was discovered in the colony in 1851 and with it came thousands of people seeking to make money.^[28][36] Sydney's population reached 200,000 by 1871.^[37]

Following the depression of the 1890s, the six colonies agreed to form a federated nation of The Commonwealth of Australia. Under the reign of Queen Victoria federation of the six colonies occurred on 1 January 1901. Sydney, with a population of 481,000, then became the state capital of New South Wales.^[31] The Great Depression of the 1930s had a severe effect on Sydney's economy, as it did with most cities throughout the industrial world. For much of the 1930s up to one in three breadwinners was unemployed.^[38] Construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge served to alleviate some of the effects of the economic downturn by employing 1,400 men between 1924 and 1932.^[39] The population continued to boom despite the Depression and reached 1 million in 1925.^[37]

Sydney Harbour in 1932

When Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, Australia too entered. During the war Sydney experienced a surge in industrial development to meet the needs of a wartime economy. Far from mass unemployment, there were now labour shortages and women becoming active in male roles. Sydney's harbour was attacked by the Japanese in May and June 1942 with a direct attack from Japanese submarines with some loss of life.^[40] Households throughout the city had built air raid shelters and performed drills.

Following the end of the war the city continued to expand. There were 1.7 million people living in Sydney at 1950 and almost 3 million by 1975. The people of Sydney warmly welcomed Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 when the a reigning monarch stepped onto Australian soil for the first time to commence her Australian Royal Tour.^[41] Having arrived on the Royal Yacht Britannia through Sydney Heads, Her Majesty came ashore at Farm Cove. Sydney's iconic Opera House was opened in 1973 by Her Majesty.

The Opera House became a World Heritage Site in 2007.^[42] The 2000 Summer Olympics were held in Sydney and became known as the "best Olympic Games ever" by the President of the International Olympic Committee.^[43] A strong rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne that began in the 1850s still exists to this day. Sydney exceeded Melbourne's population in the early twentieth century and remains Australia's largest city.^[7][44]

Geography

Topography

Aerial view of Sydney from May 2012 looking east

Satellite image looking west with Botany Bay on the left and Port Jackson on the right

Captain Arthur Phillip, in one of his first reports back to Britain, described Sydney Cove as being "without exception the finest harbour in the world".^[45] Sydney is a coastal basin with the Tasman Sea to the east, the Blue Mountains to the west, the Hawkesbury River to the north, and the Woronora Plateau to the south. The inner city measures 25 square kilometres (10 square miles), the Greater Sydney region covers 12,367 square kilometres (4,775 square miles), and the city's urban area is 1,687 square kilometres (651 square miles) in size.^[46][47][48]

Deep river valleys known as rias were carved during the Triassic period in the Hawkesbury sandstone of the coastal region where Sydney now lies. The rising sea level between 18,000 and 6,000 years ago flooded the rias to form estuaries and deep harbours.^[49] Port Jackson, better known as Sydney Harbour, is one such ria.^[50] 70 beaches can be found along its coastline with Bondi Beach being one of the most famous.

Sydney spans two geographic regions. The Cumberland Plain lies to the south and west of the Harbour and is relatively flat. The Hornsby Plateau is located to the north and is dissected by steep valleys. The flat areas of the south were the first to be developed as the city grew. It was not until the construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge that the northern reaches of the coast became more heavily populated.

The Nepean River wraps around the western edge of the city and becomes the Hawkesbury River before reaching Broken Bay. Most of Sydney's water storages can be found on tributaries of the Nepean River. The Parramatta River is mostly industrial and drains a large area of Sydney's western suburbs into Port Jackson. The southern parts of the city are drained by the Georges River and the Cooks River into Botany Bay.

Geology

Sydney is made up of mostly Triassic rock with some recent igneous dykes and volcanic necks. The Sydney Basin was formed when the Earth's crust expanded, subsided, and filled with sediment in the early Triassic period.^[49] Almost all of the exposed rocks around Sydney are sandstone that is some 200 metres (656 feet) thick and has shale lenses and fossil riverbeds dotted throughout. The sand that was to become this sandstone was washed from Broken Hill and laid down about 200 million years ago. The Basin's sedimentary rocks have been subject to uplift with gentle folding and minor faulting during the formation of the Great Dividing Range.^[49] Erosion by coastal streams has created a landscape of deep gorges and remnant plateaus. The Sydney Basin bioregion includes coastal features of cliffs, beaches, and estuaries.

Sydney harbour from the air during a rainstorm

Climate

The Sydney Harbour Bridge in the 2009 Australian dust storm

Under the Köppen–Geiger classification, Sydney has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa)^[51] with warm summers, cool winters and uniform rainfall throughout the year.^[52] The weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean, and more extreme temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs. The warmest months are January and February, with an average air temperature range at Observatory Hill of 18.7–25.9 °C (65.7–78.6 °F) for January and 18.8–25.8 °C (65.8–78.4 °F) for February.^[53] An average of 14.9 days a year have temperatures at or above 30 °C (86 °F).^[53]

In winter, temperatures rarely drop below 5 °C (41 °F) in coastal areas. The coldest month is July, with an average range of 8.1–16.3 °C (46.6–61.3 °F).^[53] Rainfall is fairly evenly spread through the year, but is slightly higher during the first half of the year. The average annual rainfall, with moderate to low variability, is 1,213 mm (47.76 in), with rain falling on an average of 143.8 days a year.^[53][54] Snowfall was last reported in the Sydney City area in 1836, while a fall of graupel, or soft hail, mistaken by many for snow, in July 2008, has raised the possibility that the 1836 event was not snow, either.^[55][56] Extreme temperatures have ranged from 45.8 °C (114.4 °F) on 18 January 2013 to 2.1 °C (35.8 °F) on 22 June 1932, the lowest recorded minimum at Observatory Hill.^[57][58] At the Sydney Airport station, extremes have ranged from 46.4 to −0.1 °C (115.5 to 31.8 °F).^[59]

The city is rarely affected by cyclones, although remnants of ex-cyclones do affect the city. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation plays an important role in determining Sydney's weather patterns: drought and bushfire on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other, associated with the opposite phases of the oscillation. Many areas of the city bordering bushland have experienced bushfires, these tend to occur during the spring and summer. The city is also prone to severe hail storms and wind storms. One such storm was the 1999 hailstorm, which severely damaged Sydney's eastern and city suburbs. The storm produced massive hailstones of at least 9 cm (3.5 in) in diameter and resulting in insurance losses of around A$1.7 billion in less than five hours.^[60] Sydney experiences an urban heat island effect,.^[61] This makes certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat, particularly the west.^[61]

The Bureau of Meteorology has reported that 2002 through 2005 were the warmest summers in Sydney since records began in 1859.^[62] The summer of 2007–08, however, proved to be the coolest since 1996–97 and is the only summer this millennium to be at or below average in temperatures.^[63] Warmer and drier conditions came back in 2009 and 2010, when above-average temperatures were recorded. In 2009, the dry conditions brought a severe dust storm towards eastern Australia.^[64][65] In 2011, above-average rainfall was recorded.^[66] On 18 January 2013, Sydney experienced record-breaking temperatures with 45.8 °C (114 °F) recorded at Observatory Hill, and a temperature of 46.4 °C (116 °F) recorded at the airport.^[67] The highest minimum temperature recorded at Observatory Hill is 27.6 °C (82 °F), in February 2011 while the lowest maximum temperature is 7.7 °C (46 °F), recorded in July 1868.^[53]

The average annual temperature of the sea is above 21 °C (70 °F), and the monthly average ranges from 18 °C (64 °F) in July to 24 °C (75 °F) in January.^[68][69]

Climate data for Sydney (Observatory Hill)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	45.8 (114.4)	42.1 (107.8)	39.8 (103.6)	34.2 (93.6)	30.0 (86)	26.9 (80.4)	25.9 (78.6)	31.3 (88.3)	34.6 (94.3)	38.2 (100.8)	41.8 (107.2)	42.2 (108)	45.8 (114.4)
Average high °C (°F)	25.9 (78.6)	25.8 (78.4)	24.8 (76.6)	22.4 (72.3)	19.5 (67.1)	17.0 (62.6)	16.3 (61.3)	17.8 (64)	20.0 (68)	22.1 (71.8)	23.6 (74.5)	25.2 (77.4)	21.7 (71.1)
Average low °C (°F)	18.7 (65.7)	18.8 (65.8)	17.6 (63.7)	14.7 (58.5)	11.6 (52.9)	9.3 (48.7)	8.1 (46.6)	9.0 (48.2)	11.1 (52)	13.6 (56.5)	15.7 (60.3)	17.5 (63.5)	13.8 (56.8)
Record low °C (°F)	10.6 (51.1)	9.6 (49.3)	9.3 (48.7)	7.0 (44.6)	4.4 (39.9)	2.1 (35.8)	2.2 (36)	2.7 (36.9)	4.9 (40.8)	5.7 (42.3)	7.7 (45.9)	9.1 (48.4)	2.1 (35.8)
Average rainfall mm (inches)	101.6 (4)	117.6 (4.63)	129.2 (5.087)	128.6 (5.063)	119.9 (4.72)	131.9 (5.193)	97.0 (3.819)	79.8 (3.142)	68.3 (2.689)	76.7 (3.02)	83.9 (3.303)	77.6 (3.055)	1,212.6 (47.74)
Average rainy days	12.2	12.5	13.6	12.8	13	12.5	11.1	10.4	10.5	11.6	11.7	11.5	143.8
Average relative humidity (%)	62	64	62	59	57	57	51	49	51	56	58	59	57
Mean monthly sunshine hours	235.6	202.4	213.9	207.0	195.3	177.0	204.6	244.9	237.0	244.9	228.0	244.9	2,635.5
Mean daily sunshine hours	7.6	7.1	6.9	6.9	6.3	5.9	6.6	7.9	7.9	7.9	7.6	7.9	7.21
Source #1: Bureau of Meteorology[70]
Source #2: Bureau of Meteorology, Sydney Airport (sunshine hours)[71]

Urban structure

View of Sydney from Sydney Tower

Sydney CBD panorama from Taronga Zoo, Mosman

Lieutenant William Dawes produced a town plan in 1790 but it was ignored by the colony's leaders. Sydney's layout today reflects this lack of planning.^[72] The geographical area covered by urban Sydney is divided into 658 suburbs for addressing and postal purposes and is administered as 40 local government areas.^[73] The City of Sydney is responsible for 33 of these suburbs, all of which are located close to the central business district.^[74]

There are 15 contiguous regions around Sydney: the CBD, Canterbury-Bankstown, the Eastern Suburbs, the Forest District, Greater Western Sydney, the Hills District, the Inner West, Macarthur, the Northern Beaches, the Northern Suburbs, the North Shore, Southern Sydney, St George, Sutherland Shire, and Western Sydney. The largest commercial centres outside of the CBD are North Sydney and Chatswood in the north, Parramatta to the west, Liverpool in the south-west, Hurstville in the south, and Bondi Junction to the east.^[75] There has been accelerating commercial development in Parramatta since the 1950s as firms serving Western Sydney have set up regional offices and recognised the region's significant residential population mass and cheaper rents.^[76]

Inner suburbs

The CBD itself extends about 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) south from Sydney Cove. It is bordered by Farm Cove within the Royal Botanic Gardens to the east and Darling Harbour to the west. Suburbs surrounding the CBD include Woolloomooloo and Potts Point to the east, Surry Hills and Darlinghurst to the south, Pyrmont and Ultimo to the west, and Millers Point and The Rocks to the north. Most of these suburbs measure less than 1 square kilometre (0.4 square miles) in area. Several localities, distinct from suburbs, exist throughout Sydney's inner reaches. Central and Circular Quay are transport hubs with ferry, rail, and bus interchanges. Chinatown, Darling Harbour, and Kings Cross are important locations for culture, tourism, and recreation.

The Anzac Bridge spans Johnstons Bay between Pyrmont and Glebe Island

There is a long trend of gentrification amongst Sydney's inner suburbs. Pyrmont located on the harbour was redeveloped from a centre of shipping and international trade to an area of high density housing, tourist accommodation, and gambling.^[77] Originally located well outside of the city, Darlinghurst is the location of a former gaol, manufacturing, and mixed housing. It had a period when it was known as area of prostitution. The terrace style housing has largely been retained and Darlinghurst has undergone significant gentrification since the 1980s.^[78][79][80]

Green Square is a former industrial area of Waterloo which is undergoing urban renewal worth $8 billion. On the city harbour edge the historic suburb and wharves of Millers Point are being built up as the new area of Barangaroo. The Millers Point / Barangaroo development has significant controversy regardless of the $6 billion worth of economic activity it is generating.^[81][82] The suburb of Paddington is a well known suburb for its streets of restored terrace houses, Victoria Barracks, and shopping including the weekly Oxford Street markets.^[83]

North Shore, northern beaches and eastern suburbs

The North Shore, an informal geographic term referring to the northern metropolitan area of Sydney, consists of Artarmon, Chatswood, Roseville, Lindfield, Killara, Gordon, Pymble and many others. The North Shore has one of the highest property prices in Sydney with the recent property price inflation sending the average property prices in suburbs such as Roseville,^[84] Lindfield, Killara^[85] and Gordon over 2 million dollars. The North Shore includes the commercial centres of North Sydney and Chatswood.

The Lower North Shore usually refers to the suburbs adjacent to the harbour such as Neutral Bay, Waverton, Mosman, Cremorne, Cremorne Point, Lavender Bay, Milsons Point, Cammeray and North Sydney. The Lower North Shore's eastern boundary is Middle Harbour, or at the Roseville Bridge at Castle Cove and Roseville Chase. The Lower North Shore encompasses suburbs belonging to the local government areas of Municipality of Mosman, City of Willoughby, Municipality of Lane Cove, Municipality of Hunter's Hill and North Sydney Council. Taronga Zoo is situated in Mosman. The adjacent suburbs of Kirribilli and Milsons Point are the locations of Kirribilli House and Luna Park. The Upper North Shore usually refers to the suburbs between Chatswood and Hornsby. It is made up of suburbs located within Ku-ring-gai and Hornsby Shire councils.

Vaucluse in the Eastern Suburbs is amongst Australia's most affluent addresses. Neighbouring suburb Point Piper contains Wolseley Road, the ninth dearest street in the world.^[86] Coogee and Bondi, both known for tourism and recreation, are also found in the Eastern Suburbs. The Northern Beaches area includes Manly one of Sydney's most popular holiday destinations for much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.^[87]

Outer suburbs

The skyline of the Parramatta CBD

The suburb of Cronulla in southern Sydney is close to Royal National Park, Australia's oldest national park. The western suburbs encompasses the areas of Parramatta, the sixth largest business district in Australia.^[88] Bankstown, Liverpool, Penrith, and Fairfield. Further to the south west is the region of Macarthur and the city of Campbelltown, a significant population centre until the 1990s considered a region separate to Sydney proper. The Inner Western suburbs include Balmain was once a working class industrial and mining town but has undergone extensive gentrification.^[89] The Inner West also includes Sydney Olympic Park, a suburb created to host the 2000 Summer Olympics.

Architecture

Sydney's oldest buildings were built with materials sourced from Hawkesbury sandstone.

The earliest structures in the colony were built to the bare minimum of standards. Upon his appointment, Governor Lachlan Macquarie set ambitious targets for the architectural design of new construction projects. The city now has a world heritage listed building, several national heritage listed buildings, and dozens of Commonwealth heritage listed buildings as evidence of the survival of Macquarie's ideals.^[90][91][92]

In 1814 the Governor called on a convict named Francis Greenway to design Macquarie Lighthouse.^[93] The lighthouse and its Classical design earned Greenway a pardon from Macquarie in 1818 and introduced a culture of refined architecture that remains to this day.^[94] Greenway went on to design the Hyde Park Barracks in 1819 and the Georgian style St James's Church in 1824.^[95][96] Gothic-inspired architecture became more popular from the 1830s. John Verge's Elizabeth Bay House and St Philip's Church of 1856 were built in Gothic Revival style along with Edward Blore's Government House of 1845.^[97][98] Kirribilli House, completed in 1858, and St Andrew's Cathedral are rare examples of Victorian Gothic construction.^[97][99]

From the late 1850s there was a shift towards Classical architecture. Mortimer Lewis designed the Australian Museum in 1857.^[100] The General Post Office, completed in 1891 in Victorian Free Classical style, was designed by James Barnet.^[101] Barnet also oversaw the 1883 reconstruction of Greenway's Macquarie Lighthouse.^[93][94] Customs House was built in 1844 to the specifications of Lewis, with additions from Barnet in 1887 and W L Vernon in 1899.^[102] The neo-Classical and French Second Empire style Town Hall was completed in 1889.^[103][104] Romanesque designs gained favour amongst Sydney's architects from the early 1890s. Sydney Technical College was completed in 1893 using both Romanesque Revival and Queen Anne approaches.^[105] The Queen Victoria Building was designed in Romanesque Revival fashion by George McRae and completed in 1898.^[106] It was built on the site of the Sydney Central Markets and accommodates 200 shops across its three storeys.^[107]

The Great Depression had a tangible influence on Sydney's architecture. New structures became more restrained with far less ornamentation than was common before the 1930s. The most notable architectural feat of this period is the Harbour Bridge. Its steel arch was designed by John Jacob Crew Bradfield and completed in 1932. A total of 39,000 tonnes of structural steel span the 503 metres (1,650 feet) between Milsons Point and Dawes Point.^[39][108]

The atrium of 1 Bligh Street, an example of Sydney's contemporary architecture

Modern and International architecture came to Sydney from the 1940s. Since its completion in 1973 the city's Opera House has become a World Heritage Site and one of the world's most renowned pieces of Modern design. It was conceived by Jørn Utzon with contributions from Peter Hall, Lionel Todd, and David Littlemore. Utzon was awarded the Pritzker Prize in 2003 for his work on the Opera House.^[109]

Sydney's first tower was Culwulla Chambers on the corner of King Street and Castlereagh Street which topped out at 50 metres (160 feet). With the lifting of height restrictions in the 1960s there came a surge of high-rise construction.^[72] Acclaimed architects such as Jean Nouvel, Harry Seidler, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Norman Foster, and Frank Gehry have each made their own contribution to the city's skyline.

Important buildings in the CBD include Citigroup Centre,^[110] Aurora Place,^[111] Chifley Tower,^[112][113] the Reserve Bank building,^[114] Deutsche Bank Place,^[115] MLC Centre,^[116] and Capita Centre.^[117] The tallest structure is Sydney Tower, designed by Donald Crone and completed in 1981.^[118] Regulations limit new buildings to a height of 235 metres (771 feet) due to the proximity of Sydney Airport.

Housing

Victorian terraces in Kings Cross exemplify the variation found in the inner suburbs.

There were 1.5 million dwellings in Sydney in 2006 including 940,000 detached houses and 180,000 semi-detached terrace houses.^[119] Units or apartments make up 25.8% of Sydney's dwellings, more than the 12.8% which are semi-detached but less than the 60.9% which are separate houses.^[10] Whilst terrace houses are common in the inner city areas, it is detached houses that dominate the landscape in the outer suburbs.

About 80% of all dwellings in Western Sydney are separate houses.^[119] Due to environmental and economic pressures there has been a noted trend towards denser housing. There was a 30% increase in the number of apartments in Sydney between 1996 and 2006.^[119] Public housing in Sydney is managed by the Government of New South Wales.^[120] Suburbs with large concentrations of public housing include Claymore, Macquarie Fields, Waterloo, and Mount Druitt. The Government has announced plans to sell nearly 300 historic public housing properties in the harbourside neighbourhoods of Millers Point, Gloucester Street, and The Rocks.^[121]

A range of heritage housing styles can be found throughout Sydney. Terrace houses are found in the inner suburbs such as Paddington, The Rocks, and Balmain. Federation homes, constructed around the time of Federation in 1901, are located in Penshurst, Turramurra, and in Haberfield. Haberfield is known as "The Federation Suburb" due to the extensive number of Federation homes. Workers cottages are found in Surry Hills, Redfern, and Balmain. California bungalows are common in Ashfield, Concord, and Beecroft.^[122]

Parks and open spaces

The Royal Botanic Gardens

The Royal Botanic Gardens are the most important green space in the Sydney region, hosting both academic and leisure activities. There are 15 separate parks under the administration of the City of Sydney.^[123] Parks within the city centre include Hyde Park, The Domain and Prince Alfred Park.

The outer suburbs include Centennial Park and Moore Park in the east, Sydney Park and Royal National Park in the south, Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in the north, and the Western Sydney Parklands in the west. The Royal National Park was proclaimed on 26 April 1879 and with 13,200 hectares (51 square miles) is the second oldest national park in the world.^[124] The largest park in the Sydney metropolitan region is Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, established in 1894 with an area of 15,400 hectares (59 square miles).^[125] It is regarded for its well-preserved records of indigenous habitation and more than 800 rock engravings, cave drawings, and middens have been located in the park.^[126]

Sandringham Memorial Gardens

The area now known as The Domain was set aside by Governor Arthur Phillip in 1788 as his private reserve.^[127] Under the orders of Macquarie the land to the immediate north of The Domain became the Royal Botanic Gardens in 1816. This makes them the oldest botanic garden in Australia.^[127] The Gardens are not just a place for exploration and relaxation, but also for scientific research with herbarium collections, a library, and laboratories.^[128] The two parks have a total area of 64 hectares (0.2 square miles) with 8,900 individual plant species and receive over 3.5 million annual visits.^[129]

To the south of The Domain is Hyde Park. It is the oldest public parkland in Australia and measures 16.2 hectares (0.1 square miles) in area.^[130] Its location was used for both relaxation and the grazing of animals from the earliest days of the colony.^[131] Macquarie dedicated it in 1810 for the "recreation and amusement of the inhabitants of the town" and named it in honour of the original Hyde Park in London.

Economy

The central business district of Sydney from above

Researchers from Loughborough University have ranked Sydney amongst the top ten world cities that are highly integrated into the global economy.^[132] The Global Economic Power Index ranks Sydney number eleven in the world.^[133] The Global Cities Index recognises it as number fourteen in the world based on global engagement.^[134] The city has been ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity.^[135]

The prevailing economic theory in effect during early colonial days was mercantilism, as it was throughout most of Western Europe.^[136] The economy struggled at first due to difficulties in cultivating the land and the lack of a stable monetary system. Governor Lachlan Macquarie solved the second problem by creating two coins from every Spanish silver dollar in circulation.^[136] The economy was clearly capitalist in nature by the 1840s as the proportion of free settlers increased, the maritime and wool industries flourished, and the powers of the East India Company were curtailed.^[136]

Wheat, gold, and other minerals became additional export industries towards the end of the 1800s.^[136] Significant capital began to flow into the city from the 1870s to finance roads, railways, bridges, docks, courthouses, schools, and hospitals. Protectionist policies after federation allowed for the creation of a manufacturing industry which became the city's largest employer by the 1920s.^[136] These same policies helped to relieve the effects of the Great Depression during which the unemployment rate in New South Wales reached as high as 32%.^[136] From the 1960s onwards Parramatta gained recognition as the city's second central business district and finance and tourism became major industries and sources of employment.^[136]

Sydney's gross regional product was $337.45 billion in 2013 with the City of Sydney responsible for $95.18 billion of this total.^[13][15] The Financial and Insurance Services industry accounts for 18.1% of gross product and is ahead of Professional Services with 9% and Manufacturing with 7.2%. In addition to Financial Services and Tourism, the Creative and Technology sectors are focus industries for the City of Sydney and represented 9% and 11% of its economic output in 2012.^[137][138]

Corporate citizens

There were 451,000 businesses based in Sydney in 2011, including 48% of the top 500 companies in Australia and two-thirds of the regional headquarters of multinational corporations.^[139] Global companies are attracted to the city in part because its time zone spans the closing of business in North America and the opening of business in Europe. Most foreign companies in Sydney maintain significant sales and service functions but comparably less production, research, and development capabilities.^[140] There are 283 multinational companies with regional offices in Sydney.^[141]

Domestic economics

Sydney has been ranked between the fifteenth and the fifth most expensive city in the world and is the most expensive city in Australia.^[142][143] To compensate, workers receive the seventh highest wage levels of any city in the world.^[142] Sydney ranks tenth in the world in terms of quality of living and its residents possess the highest purchasing power of any city after Zürich.^[142][144] Working residents of Sydney work an average of 1,846 hours per annum with 15 days of leave.^[142]

The labour force of Sydney in 2011 was 2,188,854 with a participation rate of 61.7%. It was made up of 62.1% full-time workers, 26.7% part-time workers, and 5.7% unemployed individuals.^[10][145] The largest reported occupations are professionals, clerical and administrative workers, managers, technicians, trades workers, and sales workers.^[10] The largest industries by employment across Sydney are Health Care and Social Assistance with 10.9%, Retail with 9.8%, Professional Services with 9.6%, Manufacturing with 8.5%, Education and Training with 7.6%, Construction with 7.1%, and Financial and Insurance Services with 6.6%.^[3] The Professional Services and Financial and Insurance Services industries account for 26.9% of employment within the City of Sydney.^[146] 62.8% of working age residents had a total weekly income of less than $1,000 and 29.1% had a total weekly income of $1,000 or more.^[3] The median weekly income for the same period was $619 for individuals, $2,302 for families without children, and $2,537 for families with children.^[10]

Unemployment in the City of Sydney averaged 4.6% for the decade to 2013, much lower than the current rate of unemployment in Western Sydney of 7.3%.^[15][147] Western Sydney continues to struggle to create jobs to meet its population growth despite the development of commercial centres like Parramatta. Each day about 200,000 commuters travel from Western Sydney to the central business district and suburbs in the east and north of the city.^[147]

Home ownership in Sydney was less common than renting prior to World War II but this trend has since reversed.^[119] Median house prices have increased by an average of 8.6% per annum since 1970.^[148][149] The median house price in Sydney in March 2014 was $630,000.^[150] The primary cause for rising prices is the increasing cost of land which made up 32% of house prices in 1977 compared to 60% in 2002.^[119] 31.6% of dwellings in Sydney are rented, 30.4% are owned outright, and 34.8% are owned with a mortgage.^[10] 11.8% of mortgagees in 2011 had monthly loan repayments of less than $1,000 and 82.9% had monthly repayments of $1,000 or more.^[3] 44.9% of renters for the same period had weekly rent of less than $350 whilst 51.7% had weekly rent of $350 or more. The median weekly rent in Sydney is $450.^[3]

Financial services

State Savings Bank building, Martin Place

Macquarie gave a charter in 1817 to form the first bank in Australia, the Bank of New South Wales.^[151] New private banks opened throughout the 1800s but the financial system was unstable. Bank collapses were a frequent occurrence and a crisis point was reached in 1893 when 12 banks failed.^[151]

The Bank of New South Wales exists to this day as Westpac.^[152] The Commonwealth Bank of Australia was formed in Sydney in 1911 and began to issue notes backed by the resources of the nation. It was replaced in this role in 1959 by the Reserve Bank of Australia which is also based in Sydney.^[151] The Australian Securities Exchange began operating in 1987 and with a market capitalisation of $1.6 trillion is now one of the ten largest exchanges in the world.^[153]

The Financial and Insurance Services industry now constitutes 43% of the economic product of the City of Sydney.^[14] Sydney makes up half of Australia's finance sector and has been promoted by consecutive Commonwealth Governments as Asia Pacific's leading financial centre.^[16][17] Structured finance was pioneered in Sydney and the city is a leading hub for asset management firms.^[154]

In 1985 the Federal Government granted 16 banking licences to foreign banks and now 40 of the 43 foreign banks operating in Australia are based in Sydney, including the People's Bank of China, Bank of America, Citigroup, UBS, Mizuho Bank, Bank of China, Banco Santander, Credit Suisse, State Street, HSBC, Deutsche Bank, Barclays, Royal Bank of Canada, Société Générale, Royal Bank of Scotland, Sumitomo Mitsui, ING Group, BNP Paribas, and Investec.^{[14][151][155][156]}

Manufacturing

Sydney has been a manufacturing city since the protectionist policies of the 1920s. By 1961 the industry accounted for 39% of all employment and by 1970 over 30% of all Australian manufacturing jobs were in Sydney.^[157] Its status has declined in more recent decades, making up 12.6% of employment in 2001 and 8.5% in 2011.^[3][157] Between 1970 and 1985 there was a loss of 180,000 manufacturing jobs.^[157] The city is still the largest manufacturing centre in Australia. Its manufacturing output of $21.7 billion in 2013 was greater than that of Melbourne with $18.9 billion.^[158] Observers have noted Sydney's focus on the domestic market and high-tech manufacturing as reasons for its resilience against the high Australian dollar of the early 2010s.^[158]

Tourism and international education

The Queen Victoria Building, a late nineteenth century shopping centre in the central business district

Sydney hosted over 2.8 million international visitors in 2013 or nearly half of all international visits to Australia.^[18] These visitors spent 59 million nights in the city and a total of $5.9 billion.^[18] The countries of origin in descending order were China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Germany, Hong Kong, and India.^[159] The city also received 8.3 million domestic overnight visitors in 2013 who spent a total of $6 billion.^[159]

Tourists visiting the Sydney Opera House

Sydney has been ranked amongst the top fifteen cities in the world for tourism every year since 2000.^[160][161] 26,700 workers in the City of Sydney were directly employed by tourism in 2011.^[162] There were 480,000 visitors and 27,500 people staying overnight each day in 2012.^[162]

On average, the tourism industry contributes $36 million to the city's economy per day.^[162] Popular destinations include the Sydney Opera House, the Sydney Harbour Bridge, Watsons Bay, The Rocks, Sydney Tower, Darling Harbour, the Royal Botanic Gardens, the Royal National Park, the Australian Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the Queen Victoria Building, Taronga Zoo, Bondi Beach, the Blue Mountains, and Sydney Olympic Park.^[163]

Sydney is the highest ranking city in the world for international students. More than 50,000 international students study at the city's universities and a further 50,000 study at its vocational and English language schools.^[134][164] International education contributes $1.6 billion to the local economy and creates demand for 4,000 local jobs each year.^[165]

Demographics

Largest overseas born populations[166]
Country of birth	Population (2011)
United Kingdom	155,065
China	146,853
India	86,767
New Zealand	77,297
Vietnam	69,405
Philippines	61,122
Lebanon	54,215
South Korea	39,694
Italy	39,155
Hong Kong	36,804

The population of Sydney in 1788 was less than 1,000.^[167] With convict transportation it tripled in ten years to 2,953.^[168] For each decade since 1961 the population has increased by more than 250,000.^[169] Sydney's population at the time of the 2011 census was 4,391,674.^[10] It has been forecasted that the population will grow to between 8 and 8.5 million by 2061.^[170] Despite this increase, the Australian Bureau of Statistics predicts that Melbourne will replace Sydney as Australia's most populous city by 2053.^[171] The four most densely populated suburbs in Australia are located in Sydney with each having more than 13,000 residents per square kilometre (33,700 residents per square mile).^[172]

Chinese New Year celebrations in Chinatown. Sydney is home to the largest Chinese population in Oceania.^[173]

The median age of Sydney residents is 36 and 12.9% of people are 65 or older.^[10] The married population accounts for 49.7% of Sydney whilst 34.7% of people have never been married.^[10] 48.9% of couples have children and 33.5% of couples do not.^[10] 32.5% of people in Sydney speak a language other than English at home with Arabic, Mandarin, Cantonese, Vietnamese, and Greek the most widely spoken.^[10][12]

There were 54,746 people of indigenous heritage living in Sydney in 2011.^[10] Most immigrants to Sydney between 1840 and 1930 were British, Irish, or Chinese. There were significant clusters of people based on nationality or religion throughout the history of Sydney development. In the early 20th century Irish people were centred in Surry Hills, the Scottish in Paddington.

Since the mass migration following World War II has seen further ethnic groups establish. Including but not limited to Greek, Lebanese, Italian, Czech, Lithuanian, Polish, German, Ashkenazi Jews, Serbian, Macedonian, Russian, Sri Lankan, Filipino, Korean, and Fijian communities.^[167] As of the 2011 census night there were 1,503,620 people living in Sydney that were born overseas, accounting for 42.5% of the population of the City of Sydney and 34.2% of the population of Sydney, the seventh greatest proportion of any city in the world.^{[3][174][175]}

Sydney's largest ancestry groups are English, Australian, Irish, Chinese, and Scottish.^[10] Foreign countries of birth with the greatest representation are England, China, India, New Zealand, and Vietnam.^[10] The concentration of immigrants in Sydney, relative to the rest of Australia (excluding Melbourne), make it the exception rather than the norm on having such a high foreign born population.

Culture

The Art Gallery of New South Wales, located in The Domain, is the fourth largest public gallery in Australia

Science, art, and history

The Australian Museum opened in Sydney in 1857 with the purpose of collecting and displaying the natural wealth of the colony.^[176] It remains Australia's oldest natural history museum. In 1995 the Museum of Sydney opened on the site of the first Government House. It recounts the story of the city's development.^[177] Other museums based in Sydney include the Powerhouse Museum and the Australian National Maritime Museum.^[178][179]

In 1866 then Queen Victoria gave her assent to the formation of the Royal Society of New South Wales. The Society exists "for the encouragement of studies and investigations in science, art, literature, and philosophy". It is based in a terrace house in Darlington owned by the University of Sydney.^[180] The Sydney Observatory building was constructed in 1859 and used for astronomy and meteorology research until 1982 before being converted into a museum.^[181]

The Anzac War Memorial in Hyde Park is a public memorial dedicated to the achievement of the Australian Imperial Force of World War I.^[182]

The Museum of Contemporary Art was opened in 1991 and occupies an Art Deco building in Circular Quay. Its collection was founded in the 1940s by artist and art collector John Power and has been maintained by the University of Sydney.^[183] Sydney's other significant art institution is the Art Gallery of New South Wales which coordinates the coveted Archibald Prize for portraiture.^[184] Contemporary art galleries are found in Waterloo, Surry Hills, Darlinghurst, Paddington, Chippendale, Newtown, and Woollahra.

Entertainment

The State Theatre on Market Street was opened in 1929.

Sydney's first commercial theatre opened in 1832 and nine more had commenced performances by the late 1920s. The live medium lost much of its popularity to cinema during the Great Depression before experiencing a revival after World War II.^[185] Prominent theatres in the city today include State Theatre, Theatre Royal, Sydney Theatre, The Wharf Theatre, and Capitol Theatre. Sydney Theatre Company maintains a roster of local, classical, and international plays. It occasionally features Australian theatre icons such as David Williamson, Hugo Weaving, and Geoffrey Rush. The city's other prominent theatre companies are New Theatre, Belvoir, and Griffin Theatre Company.

The Sydney Opera House is the home of Opera Australia and Sydney Symphony. It has staged over 100,000 performances and received 100 million visitors since opening in 1973.^[109] Two other important performance venues in Sydney are Town Hall and the City Recital Hall. The Sydney Conservatorium of Music is located adjacent to the Royal Botanic Gardens and serves the Australian music community through education and its biannual Australian Music Examinations Board exams.^[186]

Filmmaking in Sydney was quite prolific until the 1920s when spoken films were introduced and American productions gained dominance in Australian cinema.^[187] Fox Studios Australia commenced production in Sydney in 1998. Successful films shot in Sydney since then include The Matrix, Mission: Impossible II, Moulin Rouge!, Australia, and The Great Gatsby. The National Institute of Dramatic Art is based in Sydney and has several famous alumni such as Mel Gibson, Judy Davis, Baz Luhrmann, and Cate Blanchett.^[188]

The Sydney Harbour Bridge and Sydney Opera House illuminated during the 2015 Vivid Sydney festival of light

Sydney is the host of several festivals throughout the year. The city's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in Australia.^[189] The Royal Easter Show is held every year at Sydney Olympic Park. Sydney Festival is Australia's largest arts festival.^[190] Big Day Out is a travelling rock music festival that originated in Sydney. The city's two largest film festivals are Sydney Film Festival and Tropfest. Vivid Sydney is an annual outdoor exhibition of art installations, light projections, and music. Sydney hosts the Australian Fashion Week in autumn. The Sydney Mardi Gras has commenced each February since 1979. Sydney's Chinatown has had numerous locations since the 1850s. It moved from George Street to Campbell Street to its current setting in Dixon Street in 1980.^[191] The Spanish Quarter is based in Liverpool Street whilst Little Italy is located in Stanley Street.^[136] Popular nightspots are found at Kings Cross, Oxford Street, Circular Quay, and The Rocks. The Star is the city's only casino and is situated around Darling Harbour.

Religion

The indigenous people of Sydney held totemic beliefs known as "dreamings". Governor Lachlan Macquarie made an effort to found a culture of formal religion throughout the early settlement and ordered the construction of churches such as St Matthew's, St Luke's, St James's, and St Andrew's.^[192] These and other religious institutions have contributed to the education and health of Sydney's residents over time. 28.3% identify themselves as Catholic, whilst 17.6% practice no religion, 16.1% are Anglican, 4.7% are Islamic, 4.2% are Eastern Orthodox, 4.1% are Buddhist, 2.6% are Hindu, and 0.9% are Jewish.^[3][10]

Sport and outdoor activities

Sydney's earliest migrants brought with them a passion for sport but were restricted by the lack of facilities and equipment. The first organised sports were boxing, wrestling, and horse racing from 1810 in Hyde Park.^[193] Horse racing remains popular to this day and events such as the Golden Slipper Stakes attract widespread attention. The first cricket club was formed in 1826 and matches were played within Hyde Park throughout the 1830s and 1840s.^[193] Cricket is a favoured sport in summer and big matches have been held at the Sydney Cricket Ground since 1878. The New South Wales Blues compete in the Sheffield Shield league and the Sydney Sixers and Sydney Thunder contest the national Big Bash Twenty20 competition.

The 2006 NRL Grand Final in Sydney at Stadium Australia

Rugby was played from 1865 as sport in general gained more popularity and better organisation. One-tenth of the colony attended a New South Wales versus New Zealand rugby match in 1907.^[193] Rugby league separated from rugby union in 1908. The New South Wales Waratahs contest the Super Rugby competition. The national Wallabies rugby union team competes in Sydney in international matches such as the Bledisloe Cup, Rugby Championship, and World Cup. Sydney is home to nine of the sixteen teams in the National Rugby League competition: Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks, Manly Sea Eagles, Penrith Panthers, Parramatta Eels, South Sydney Rabbitohs, St George Illawarra Dragons, Sydney Roosters, and Wests Tigers. New South Wales contests the annual State of Origin series against Queensland.

Sydney FC and the Western Sydney Wanderers compete in the A-League soccer tournament and Sydney frequently hosts matches for the Australian national team, the Socceroos. The Sydney Swans and the Greater Western Sydney Giants are local Australian rules football clubs that play in the Australian Football League. The Sydney Kings compete in the National Basketball League. The Sydney Uni Flames play in the Women's National Basketball League. The Sydney Blue Sox contest the Australian Baseball League. The Waratahs are a member of the Australian Hockey League. The Sydney Bears and Sydney Ice Dogs play in the Australian Ice Hockey League. The Swifts are competitors in the national women's netball league.

Sailing on Sydney Harbour

Women were first allowed to participate in recreational swimming when separate baths were opened at Woolloomooloo Bay in the 1830s. From being illegal at the beginning of the century, sea bathing gained immense popularity during the early 1900s and the first surf lifesaving club was established at Bondi Beach.^[193][194] Disputes about appropriate clothing for surf bathing surfaced from time to time and concerned men as well as women. The City2Surf is an annual 14-kilometre (8.7-mile) running race from the central business district to Bondi Beach and has been held since 1971. In 2010, 80,000 runners participated which made it the largest run of its kind in the world.^[195]

Sailing races have been held on Sydney Harbour since 1827.^[196] Yachting has been popular amongst wealthier residents since the 1840s and the Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron was founded in 1862. The Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race is a 1,170-kilometre (727-mile) event that starts from Sydney Harbour on Boxing Day.^[197] Since its inception in 1945 it has been recognised as one of the most difficult yacht races in the world.^[198] Six sailors died and 71 vessels of the fleet of 115 failed to finish in the 1998 edition.^[199]

The Royal Sydney Golf Club is based in Rose Bay and since its opening in 1893 has hosted the Australian Open on 13 occasions.^[193] Royal Randwick Racecourse opened in 1833 and holds several major cups throughout the year.^[200] Sydney benefitted from the construction of significant sporting infrastructure in preparation for its hosting of the 2000 Summer Olympics. Sydney Olympic Park accommodates athletics, aquatics, tennis, hockey, archery, baseball, cycling, equestrian, and rowing facilities. It also includes the high capacity Stadium Australia used for rugby, soccer, and Australian rules football. Sydney Football Stadium was completed in 1988 and is used for rugby and soccer matches. Sydney Cricket Ground was opened in 1878 and is used for both cricket and Australian rules football fixtures.^[193]

Media

The Sydney Morning Herald is Australia's oldest newspaper still in print. Now a compact form paper owned by Fairfax Media, it has been published continuously since 1831.^[201] Its competitor is the News Corporation tabloid The Daily Telegraph which has been in print since 1879.^[202] Both papers have Sunday tabloid editions called The Sun-Herald and The Sunday Telegraph respectively. The Bulletin was founded in Sydney in 1880 and became Australia's longest running magazine. It closed after 128 years of continuous publication.^[203]

Each of Australia's three commercial television networks and two public broadcasters is headquartered in Sydney. Nine's offices are based in Willoughby,^[204] Ten and Seven are based in Pyrmont,^[204][205] the Australian Broadcasting Corporation is located in Ultimo,^[206] and the Special Broadcasting Service is based in Artarmon.^[207] Multiple digital channels have been provided by all five networks since 2000. Foxtel is based in North Ryde and sells subscription cable television to most parts of the urban area.^[208] Sydney's first radio stations commenced broadcasting in the 1920s. Radio became a popular tool for politics, news, religion, and sport and has managed to survive despite the introduction of television and the Internet.^[209] 2UE was founded in 1925 and under the ownership of Fairfax Media is the oldest station still broadcasting.^[209] Competing stations include the more popular 2GB, 702 ABC Sydney, KIIS 106.5, Triple M, Nova 96.9, and 2Day FM.^[210]

Government

Historical governance

The Old Registry Office, now apart of the Supreme Court of New South Wales, was one of three of the earliest established courts in Sydney.

During early colonial times the presiding Governor and his military shared absolute control over the population.^[29] This lack of democracy eventually became unacceptable for the colony's growing number of free settlers. The first indications of a proper legal system emerged with the passing of a Charter of Justice in 1814. It established three new courts, including the Supreme Court, and dictated that English law was to be followed.^[211] In 1823 the British Parliament passed an act to create the Legislative Council in New South Wales and give the Supreme Court the right of review over new legislation.^[212] From 1828 all of the common laws in force in England were to be applied in New South Wales wherever it was appropriate.^[212] Another act from the British Parliament in 1842 provided for members of the Council to be elected for the first time.^[212]

The Constitution Act of 1855 gave New South Wales a bicameral government. The existing Legislative Council became the upper house and a new body called the Legislative Assembly was formed to be the lower house.^[213] An Executive Council was introduced and constituted five members of the Legislative Assembly and the Governor.^[214] It became responsible for advising the ruling Governor on matters related to the administration of the state. The colonial settlements elsewhere on the continent eventually seceded from New South Wales and formed their own governments. Tasmania separated in 1825, Victoria did so in 1850, and Queensland followed in 1859.^[213] With the proclamation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 the status of local governments across Sydney was formalised and they became separate institutions from the state of New South Wales.^[215]

Government in the present

Sydney is divided into local government areas (also known as councils or shires) which are comparable in nature to London's boroughs. These local government areas have elected councils which are responsible for functions delegated to them by the New South Wales Government. The 38 local government areas making up Sydney according to the New South Wales Division of Local Government are:

Ashfield Auburn Bankstown Blacktown Botany Bay Burwood Camden

Campbelltown Canada Bay Canterbury Fairfield The Hills Holroyd Hornsby

Hunter's Hill Hurstville Kogarah Ku-ring-gai Lane Cove Leichhardt Liverpool

Manly Marrickville Mosman North Sydney Parramatta Penrith Pittwater

Randwick Rockdale Ryde Strathfield Sutherland Sydney Warringah

Waverley Willoughby Woollahra

The Parliament of New South Wales sits in Parliament House on Macquarie Street. This building was completed in 1816 and first served as a hospital. The Legislative Council moved into its northern wing in 1829 and by 1852 had entirely supplanted the surgeons from their quarters.^[211] Several additions have been made to the building as the Parliament has expanded, but it retains its original Georgian façade.^[216] Government House was completed in 1845 and has served as the home of 25 Governors and 5 Governors-General.^[217]

Sydney's local government areas

The highest court in the state is the Supreme Court of New South Wales which is located in Queen's Square in Sydney.^[218] The city is also the home of numerous branches of the intermediate District Court of New South Wales and the lower Local Court of New South Wales.^[219]

Public activities such as main roads, traffic control, public transport, policing, education, and major infrastructure projects are controlled by the New South Wales Government.^[220] It has tended to resist attempts to amalgamate Sydney's more populated local government areas as merged councils could pose a threat to its governmental power.^[221] Established in 1842, the City of Sydney is one such local government area and includes the central business district and some adjoining inner suburbs.^[222] It is responsible for fostering development in the local area, providing local services (waste collection and recycling, libraries, parks, sporting facilities), representing and promoting the interests of residents, supporting organisations that target the local community, and attracting and providing infrastructure for commerce, tourism, and industry.^[223] The City of Sydney is led by an elected Council and Lord Mayor who has in the past been treated as a representative of the entire city.^[224]

Infrastructure

Education

Education became a proper focus for the colony from the 1870s when public schools began to form and schooling became compulsory.^[225] The population of Sydney is now highly educated. 90% of working age residents have completed some schooling and 57% have completed the highest level of school.^[3] 1,390,703 people were enrolled in an educational institution in 2011 with 45.1% of these attending school and 16.5% studying at a university.^[10] Undergraduate or postgraduate qualifications are held by 22.5% of working age Sydney residents and 40.2% of working age residents of the City of Sydney.^[3][226] The most common fields of tertiary qualification are commerce (22.8%), engineering (13.4%), society and culture (10.8%), health (7.8%), and education (6.6%).^[3]

The Madsen Building at the University of Sydney

There are six public universities based in Sydney: the University of Sydney, the University of Technology, the University of New South Wales, Macquarie University, the University of Western Sydney, and the Australian Catholic University. Four public universities maintain secondary campuses in the city: the University of Notre Dame Australia, the University of Wollongong, Curtin University of Technology, and the University of Newcastle. 5.2% of residents of Sydney are attending a university.^[227] The University of Sydney was established in 1850 and remains the oldest university in Australia.^[228] It has been ranked third in Australia and as high as 37 in the world, in the top 0.3%.^[229] The city's other universities were all founded after World War II. On the same scale the University of New South Wales ranked 48, Macquarie University ranked 254, and the University of Technology ranked 264.^[229]

Sydney has public, denominational, and independent schools. 7.8% of Sydney residents are attending primary school and 6.4% are enrolled in secondary school.^[227] There are 935 public preschool, primary, and secondary schools in Sydney that are administered by the New South Wales Department of Education.^[230] 14 of the 17 selective secondary schools in New South Wales are based in Sydney.^[231] Public vocational education and training in Sydney is run by TAFE New South Wales and began with the opening of the Sydney Technical College in 1878. It offered courses in areas such as mechanical drawing, applied mathematics, steam engines, simple surgery, and English grammar.^[105] The College became the Sydney Institute in 1992 and now operates alongside its sister TAFE facilities the Northern Sydney Institute, the Western Sydney Institute, and the South Western Sydney Institute. 2.4% of Sydney residents are enrolled in a TAFE course.^[227]

Health

The first hospital in the new colony was a collection of tents at The Rocks. Many of the convicts that survived the trip from England continued to suffer from dysentery, smallpox, scurvy, and typhoid. Healthcare facilities remained hopelessly inadequate despite the arrival of a prefabricated hospital with the Second Fleet and the construction of brand new hospitals at Parramatta, Windsor, and Liverpool in the 1790s.^[232] Governor Lachlan Macquarie arranged for the construction of Sydney Hospital and saw it completed in 1816.^[232] Parts of the facility have been repurposed for use as Parliament House but the hospital itself still operates to this day. The city's first emergency department was established at Sydney Hospital in 1870. Demand for emergency medical care increased from 1895 with the introduction of an ambulance service.^[232]

Healthcare gained recognition as a citizen's right in the early 1900s and Sydney's public hospitals came under the oversight of the Government of New South Wales.^[232] The administration of healthcare across Sydney is handled by eight local health districts: Central Coast, Illawarra Shoalhaven, Sydney, Nepean Blue Mountains, Northern Sydney, South Eastern Sydney, South Western Sydney, and Western Sydney.^[233] The Prince of Wales Hospital was established in 1852 and became the first of several major hospitals to be opened in the coming decades.^[234] St Vincent's Hospital was founded in 1857,^[80] followed by Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children in 1880,^[235] the Prince Henry Hospital in 1881,^[236] the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in 1882,^[237] the Royal North Shore Hospital in 1885,^[238] the St George Hospital in 1894,^[239] and the Nepean Hospital in 1895.^[240] Westmead Hospital in 1978 was the last major facility to open.^[241]

Transport

Sydney Harbour Bridge (southern approach shown) carries trains, motorised vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians

The motor vehicle, more than any other factor, has determined the pattern of Sydney's urban development since World War II.^[242] The growth of low density housing in the city's outer suburbs has made car ownership necessary for hundreds of thousands of households. The percentage of trips taken by car has increased from 13% in 1947 to 50% in 1960 and to 70% in 1971.^[242] The most important roads in Sydney were the nine Metroads, including the 110-kilometre (68-mile) Sydney Orbital Network.

There can be up to 350,000 cars using Sydney's roads simultaneously during peak hour, leading to significant traffic congestion.^[242] 84.9% of Sydney households own a motor vehicle and 46.5% own two or more.^[10] Of people in Sydney that travel to work, 58.4% use a car, 9.1% catch a train, 5.2% take a bus, and 4.1% walk.^[10] In contrast, only 25.2% of working residents in the City of Sydney use a car, whilst 15.8% take a train, 13.3% use a bus, and 25.3% walk.^[243] With a rate of 26.3%, Sydney has the highest utilisation of public transport for travel to work of any Australian capital city.^[244]

Sydney once had one of the largest tram networks in the world. It was the second largest in the British Empire, after London, with routes covering 291 kilometres (181 miles). The internal combustion engine made buses more flexible than trams and consequently more popular, leading to the progressive closure of the tram network with the final tram operating in 1961.^[242] From 1930 there were 612 buses across Sydney carrying 90 million passengers per annum.^[245] A 12.8-kilometre (8.0-mile) light rail network opened in 1997. It links the Inner West and Darling Harbour with Central Station and carries 4.5 million passengers per annum.^[246] A second 12 km (7.5 mi) line serving the CBD and south-eastern suburbs is planned to open in early 2019^[247]

Bus services today are conducted by a mixture of Government and private operators. In areas previously serviced by trams the government State Transit Authority of New South Wales operates, in other areas, there are private (albeit part funded by the state government) operators. Integrated tickets called Opals operate on both Government and private bus routes. State Transit alone operated a fleet of 2,169 buses and serviced over 160 million passengers during 2014. In total, nearly 225 million boardings were recorded across the bus network ^[248] NightRide is a nightly bus service that operate between midnight and 5am, also replacing trains for most of this period.

Central Station's main concourse

Train services are today operated by Transport for New South Wales. It maintains 176 stations and 937 kilometres (582 miles) of railway and provides 281 million journeys each year.^[249] Sydney's railway was first constructed in 1854 with progressive extension to the network to serve both freight and passengers across the city, suburbs, and beyond to country NSW. In the 1850s and 1860s the railway reached Parramatta, Campbelltown, Liverpool, Blacktown, Penrith, and Richmond.^[242] Central Station opened for service in 1906 and is the main hub of the city's rail network.^[250]

Prior to 1906, Central Railway was located further west of the current Central Railway Station in the vicinity of Redfern. A large infrastructure project worth $1 billion and known as Clearways was completed in 2014 with the purpose of easing railway congestion.^[251] In 2014 94.2% of trains arrived on time and 99.5% of services ran as scheduled.^[252][253] The Sydney Metro Northwest, part of Sydney's first rapid transit system, is currently under construction and expected to open in 2019.^{[254][255][256][257]} The wider part of the project, which involves a second underground harbour crossing, will be commercially known as the Sydney Metro.^[258][259]

At the time the Sydney Harbour Bridge opened in 1932, the city's ferry service was the largest in the world.^[260] Patronage declined from 37 million passengers in 1945 to 11 million in 1963 but has recovered somewhat in recent years.^[242] From its hub at Circular Quay the ferry network serves Balmain, Double Bay, Manly, Parramatta, Taronga Zoo, Darling Harbour, and Cockatoo Island.^[260] Sydney Airport, officially "Sydney Kingsford-Smith Airport", is located in the inner southern suburb of Mascot with two of the runways going into Botany Bay. Kingsford-Smith Airport is one of the world's oldest continually operating airports.^[261] It services 46 international and 23 domestic destinations.^[261] As the busiest airport in Australia it handled 37.9 million passengers in 2013 and 530,000 tonnes of freight in 2011.^[261] It has been announced that a new facility named Western Sydney Airport will be constructed at Badgerys Creek from 2016 at a cost of $2.5 billion.^[262] Port Botany has surpassed Port Jackson as the city's major shipping port. Cruse ship terminals are located at Sydney Cove and White Bay.

Environmental issues and pollution reduction

A cyclist in the city centre

As climate change, greenhouse gas emissions and pollution have become a major issue for Australia, Sydney has in the past been criticised for its lack of focus on reducing pollution, cutting back on emissions and maintaining water quality.^[263] Since 1995, there have been significant developments in the analysis of air pollution in the Sydney metropolitan region. The development led to the release of the Metropolitan Air Quality Scheme (MAQS), which led to a broader understanding of the causation of pollution in Sydney, allowing the government to form appropriate responses to the pollution.^[264]

Australian cities are some of the most car dependent cities in the world.^[265] Sydney in particular has a very high level of car dependency,^[266] especially by world city standards. It also has a low level of mass-transit services and significant urban sprawl thus increasing the likelihood of car dependency.^[267][268] Strategies have been implemented to reduce car pollution by encouraging mass and public transit^[269] and introducing a fleet of 10 new Nissan LEAF electric cars, the largest order of the pollution-free vehicle in Australia.^[270] Electric cars do not produce carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide, gases which contribute to climate change.^[271][272] Cycling trips have increased by 113% across Sydney's inner-city since March 2010, with about 2,000 bikes passing through top peak-hour intersections on an average weekday.^[273]

The City of Sydney became the first council in Australia to achieve formal certification as carbon-neutral in 2008.^[274][275] The city has reduced its 2007 carbon emissions by 6% and since 2006 has reduced carbon emissions from city buildings by up to 20%.^[273][276] The City of Sydney introduced a Sustainable Sydney 2030 program, with various targets planned and a comprehensive guide on how to reduce energy in homes and offices within Sydney by 30%.^[273][277] Reductions in energy consumption have slashed energy bills by $30 million a year.^[278] Solar panels have been established on many CBD buildings in an effort to minimise carbon pollution by around 3,000 tonnes a year.^[279]

The city also has an "urban forest growth strategy", in which it aims to regular increase the tree coverage in the city by frequently planting trees and vegetation to provide cleaner air and create moisture during hot weather, thus lowering city temperatures.^[280] Sydney has also become a leader in the development of green office buildings and enforcing the requirement of all building proposals to be energy-efficient. The One Central Park development, completed in 2013, is an example of this implementation and design.^{[281][282][283][284]}

Utilities

Warragamba Dam is Sydney's largest water supply dam.

Obtaining sufficient fresh water was difficult during early colonial times. A catchment called the Tank Stream sourced water from what is now the central business district but was little more than an open sewer by the end of the 1700s.^[285] The Botany Swamps Scheme was one of several ventures during the mid 1800s that saw the construction of wells, tunnels, steam pumping stations, and small dams to service Sydney's growing population.^[285]

The first genuine solution to Sydney's water demands was the Upper Nepean Scheme which came into operation in 1886 and cost over £2 million. It transports water 100 kilometres (62 miles) from the Nepean, Cataract, and Cordeaux rivers and continues to service about 15% of Sydney's total water needs.^[285] Dams were built on these three rivers between 1907 and 1935.^[285] In 1977 the Shoalhaven Scheme brought several more dams into service.^[286]

The Sydney Catchment Authority now manages eleven major dams: Warragamba one of the largest domestic water supply dams in the world,^[287] Woronora, Cataract, Cordeaux, Nepean, Avon, Wingecarribee Reservoir, Fitzroy Falls Reservoir, Tallowa, the Blue Mountains Dams, and Prospect Reservoir.^[288] Water is collected from five catchment areas covering 16,000 square kilometres (6,178 square miles) and total storage amounts to 2.6 teralitres (0.6 cubic miles).^[288] The Sydney Desalination Plant came into operation in 2010.^[285]

The two distributors which maintain Sydney's electricity infrastructure are Ausgrid and Endeavour Energy.^[289][290] Their combined networks include over 815,000 power poles and 83,000 kilometres (52,000 miles) of electricity cables. Companies which generate and retail electricity to the city include EnergyAustralia, Origin Energy, and AGL Energy.^{[291][292][293]} These three companies also supply natural gas to homes and businesses in Sydney.

See also

• Crime in Sydney
• List of museums in Sydney
• List of songs about Sydney

References

1. "3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2014–15: ESTIMATED RESIDENT POPULATION, States and Territories – Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs)". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 30 March 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016. ERP at 30 June 2015.
2. "3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2014–15: New South Wales: Population Density". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 30 March 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
3. "Greater Sydney: Basic Community Profile" (xls). 2011 Census Community Profiles. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 28 March 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
4. "Sydney (Observatory Hill)". Climate statistics for Australian locations. Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
5. "Sydney". Geographical Names Register (GNR) of NSW. Geographical Names Board of New South Wales. Retrieved 28 February 2015.
6. Macquarie ABC Dictionary. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. 2003. p. 1,000. ISBN 1-876429-37-2.
7. "The most populous cities in Oceania". Blatant Independent Media. 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
8. Mason, Herbert (2012). Encyclopaedia of Ships and Shipping. p. 266.
9. Macey, Richard (2007). "Settlers' history rewritten: go back 30,000 years". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
10. "2011 Census QuickStats: Greater Sydney". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
11. "Sydney's melting pot of language". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
12. "Population, dwellings, and ethnicity". .id. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
13. "Australian cities accounts" (PDF). SGS Economics and Planning. 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
14. "Economic powerhouse". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
15. "Economic profile". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
16. Wade, Matt (18 February 2012). "Tough week for a Sydney success story". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
17. Irvine, Jessica (2008). "Another shot at making city a finance hub". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
18. "Our global city". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
19. Attenbrow, Val (2010). Sydney's Aboriginal Past: Investigating the Archaeological and Historical Records. Sydney: UNSW Press. pp. 152–153. ISBN 978-1-74223-116-7. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
20. Stockton, Eugene D.; Nanson, Gerald C. (April 2004). "Cranebrook Terrace Revisited". Archaeology in Oceania 39 (1): 59–60. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
21. "Aboriginal people and place". Sydney Barani. 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
22. "Cook's landing site". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
23. "Ku Ring Gai Chase National Park". AuInfo. 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
24. "Pages from the past". The Argus. 31 May 1919. p. 20.
25. "Once were warriors". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2002. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
26. http://www.manly.nsw.gov.au/council/about-manly/manly-heritage--history/
27. http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/letters/phillip/index.html
28. "Sydney's history". City of Sydney. 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
29. "Early European settlement". Parliament of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
30. "History and heritage". The Rocks. 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
31. Lambert, Tim (2014). "A Brief History of Sydney". LocalHistories.org. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
32. "Early sufferings of the colony". History of Australia Online. 2007. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
33. Mear, Craig (2008). "The origin of the smallpox outbreak in Sydney in 1789". Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
34. "Arthur Phillip". Australian National University. 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
35. "Lachlan Macquarie". Dictionary of Sydney. 2008. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
36. Australian Encyclopaedia 2. 1926. p. 524.
37. "Sydney". Postcardz.com.au. 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
38. "Surviving the Great Depression". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
39. "Sydney Harbour Bridge". Commonwealth of Australia. 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
40. "Remembering 1942: Sydney under attack". Australian War Memorial. 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
41. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
42. "Sydney Opera House". UNESCO. 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
43. Longman, Jere (2000). "Sydney 2000: Closing Ceremony; A Fond Farewell From Australia". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
44. "Linking a nation". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
45. "Arthur Phillip". State Library of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
46. "Sydney inner city: region data summary". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
47. "Greater Sydney: region data summary". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
48. "Census of population and housing: selected characteristics for urban centres, Australia" (PDF). Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2003. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
49. "Sydney Basin". Office of Environment and Heritage. 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
50. Latta, David (2006). "Showcase destinations Sydney, Australia: the harbour city". Archived from the original on 9 April 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
51. "Modelling and simulation of seasonal rainfall" (PDF). Centre for Computer Assisted Research Mathematics and its Applications (CARMA). 20 May 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2016. Brisbane and Sydney each have a humid sub-tropical or temperate climate with no pronounced dry season...the classification is Cfa
52. "Climate and the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games". Australian Government. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 24 September 2007. Archived from the original on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
53. "Climate statistics for Australian locations". Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
54. Australian Bureau of Meteorology. 2005. Ellyard, D. 1994. Droughts and Flooding Rains. Angus & Robertson ISBN 0-207-18557-3
55. "Sydney winter not snow, just hail". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 15 November 2013. Mr Zmijewski doubted the 1836 snow report, saying weather observers of the era lacked the expertise of today. "We are almost in the sub-tropics in Sydney", he said.
56. MacDonnell, Freda. Thomas Nelson (Australia) Limited, 1967. Before King's Cross
57. "Sydney (Observatory Hill)". Climate statistics for Australian locations. Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
58. Bureau of Meteorology. 2006. Climate summary for Sydney, January 2006
59. "Sydney Airport AMO". Climate statistics for Australian locations. Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
60. "The Sydney Hailstorm – 14 April 1999". Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 5 October 2006.
61. "Sydney area an 'urban heat island' vulnerable to extreme temperatures". The Sydney Morning Herald. 14 January 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
62. Sydney has coldest June in 24 years in Sydney Monthly Climate Summary – NSW Regional Office, Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 21 October 2007.
63. "Sydney – Greater Sydney in 2008". Bom.gov.au. 5 January 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
64. "Sydney in 2009". Bom.gov.au. 4 January 2010. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
65. "Sydney in 2010". Bom.gov.au. 4 January 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
66. "Sydney in 2011". Bom.gov.au. 3 January 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
67. Creagh, Sunanda. "Sydney smashes temperature records but heatwave nearly over". The Conversation (The Conversation Media Group). Retrieved 21 January 2013.
68. "Sydney Climate Guide". Retrieved February 2013.
69. "Bondi Beach Water Temperature and Wetsuit Guide". This has been derived from analysis of two decades of oceanographic satellite measurements of nearby open water. Surf-Forecast.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
70. "Sydney (Observatory Hill)". Climate statistics for Australian locations. Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
71. "Climate statistics for Australian locations Sydney Airport AMO". Bureau of Meteorology.
72. McGillick, Paul; Bingham-Hall, Patrick (2005). Sydney architecture. p. 14 to 15.
73. "Complete official list of Sydney suburbs". Walk Sydney Streets. 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
74. "Areas of service". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
75. "Draft metropolitan strategy for Sydney to 2031" (PDF). State of New South Wales. 2013. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
76. Kass, Terry (2008). "Parramatta". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
77. "Ultimo and Pyrmont: a decade of renewal" (PDF). Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority. 2004. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
78. "Business-friendly boost for Oxford St lane way". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
79. Dick, Tim (2014). "At the crossroads". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
80. Dunn, Mark (1970). "Darlinghurst". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
81. "Green Square". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
82. "Discover Barangaroo". Barangaroo Delivery Authority. 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
83. Wotherspoon, Garry (2012). "Paddington". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
84. "Free Suburb Profile report for Roseville NSW (2069)". plus.google.com. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
85. "Free Suburb Profile report for Killara NSW (2071)". plus.google.com. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
86. Badkar, Mamta (2011). "The 10 most expensive streets in the world". Business Insider. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
87. Pollen, Frances (1990). The Book of Sydney Suburbs. p. 162.
88. "Parramatta". Parramatta Chamber of Commerce. 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
89. "Balmain". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2011. Archived from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
90. "Australia's World Heritage List". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
91. "Australia's National Heritage List". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
92. "Australian Heritage Database". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
93. "Macquarie Lighthouse". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
94. "Macquarie Lightstation". Sydney Harbour Federation Trust. 2001. Archived from the original on 9 February 2006. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
95. "Hyde Park Barracks". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
96. Judd, Stephen; Cable, Kenneth (2000). Sydney Anglicans — a history of the diocese. p. 12.
97. "Chronology of styles in Australian architecture". Sydney Architecture. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
98. "Government House". Department of Premier and Cabinet. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
99. "Kirribilli House". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
100. "A short history of the Australian Museum". Australian Museum. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
101. "General Post Office". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
102. "Sydney Customs House". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
103. "Construction of Sydney Town Hall". Sydney Town Hall. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
104. "Features of Sydney Town Hall". Sydney Town Hall. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
105. Freyne, Catherine (2010). "Sydney Technical College". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
106. "History of Queen Victoria Building". Queen Victoria Building. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
107. Ellmoos, Laila (2008). "Queen Victoria Building". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
108. "Sydney Harbour Bridge". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
109. "Sydney Opera House". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
110. "Citigroup Centre". Emporis. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
111. "Aurora Place". Emporis. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
112. "Chifley Tower". Emporis. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
113. Ellmoos, Laila (2008). "Chifley Tower". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
114. "Reserve Bank". Department of the Environment. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
115. "Deutsche Bank Place". Emporis. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2004.
116. "MLC Centre". Emporis. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
117. "Castlereagh Centre". Emporis. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
118. Dunn, Mark (2008). "Centrepoint Tower". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
119. Darcy, Michael (2008). "Housing Sydney". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
120. "Services offered". Housing New South Wales. 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
121. Hasham, Nicole (2014). "Sydney waterfront public housing properties to be sold off". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
122. "Sydney's culture of place". Charles Sturt University. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
123. "Major parks". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
124. "Royal National Park". Office of Environment and Heritage. 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
125. "Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park history". Office of Environment and Heritage. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
126. "Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park heritage". Office of Environment and Heritage. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
127. "Royal Botanic Gardens history". Office of Environment and Heritage. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
128. "Royal Botanic Gardens". Dictionary of Sydney. 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
129. "Royal Botanic Gardens fast facts". Office of Environment and Heritage. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
130. "Hyde Park plan of management and masterplan" (PDF). City of Sydney. 2006. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
131. "Hyde Park". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
132. "The world according to GaWC 2012". Loughborough University. 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
133. Florida, Richard (2014). "The 25 most economically powerful cities in the world". CityLab. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
134. "2014 Global Cities Index" (PDF). AT Kearney. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
135. "Cities of opportunity" (PDF). PricewaterhouseCoopers. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
136. Wotherspoon, Garry (2008). "Economy". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
137. "Creative and digital". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
138. Wade, Matt (2014). "NSW dominates creative industries: report". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
139. "Economic profile". Regional Development Australia. 2010. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
140. "Global connections: a study of multinational companies in Sydney" (PDF). Australian Business Foundation. 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
141. "Multinational companies regional headquarters". Parliament of New South Wales. 2000. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
142. "Prices and earnings". UBS. 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
143. Levy, Megan (2014). "Sydney, Melbourne more expensive than New York, says Living Index". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
144. "2014 Quality of Living Index". Mercer. 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
145. "Employment status". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
146. "Industry sector of employment". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
147. Wade, Matt (2014). "The daily exodus from western Sydney". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
148. Abelson, Peter; Chung, Demi (2004). "Housing prices in Australia: 1970 to 2003" (PDF). Macquarie University. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
149. "Residential property price indexes: eight capital cities". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
150. "Home value index results" (PDF). RP Data. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 April 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
151. "Australia's banking history". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 1998. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
152. "Bank of New South Wales". Dictionary of Sydney. 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
153. "History". ASX. 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
154. Murray, Lisa (2005). "Sydney's niche in global finance". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
155. "Financial services". Department of Trade and Investment. 2014. Archived from the original on 21 June 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
156. "List of authorised deposit-taking institutions". Australian Prudential Regulation Authority. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
157. Fitzgerald, Shirley (2011). "Sydney". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
158. Wade, Matt (2014). "Sydney takes manufacturing capital crown from Melbourne". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
159. "Travel to Sydney" (PDF). Destination New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
160. Dennis, Anthony (2013). ""Too expensive" Sydney slips from top 10 tourism list". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
161. "World's Best Cities 2014 winners list". Travel + Leisure. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
162. "Tourism". City of Sydney. 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
163. Greenwood, Justine; White, Richard (2011). "Tourism". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
164. Smith, Alexandra (2014). "Sydney named top destination in the world for international students". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
165. "International education". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
166. "Where do migrants live?". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 27 June 2014.
167. Jupp, James (2008). "Immigration". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
168. "Australian historical population statistics, 2006". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
169. "Australian historical population statistics, 2008". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
170. "Population projections, Australia, 2012 to 2101". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
171. Wade, Matt (2014). "Why Sydney is on course to lose its status as Australia's biggest city". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
172. "Regional population growth, Australia, 2011 to 2012". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
173. http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/CensusOutput/copsub.NSF/All%20docs%20by%20catNo/2011~Community%20Profile~1GSYD/$File/BCP_1GSYD.zip?OpenElement
174. "Birthplace". .id. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
175. Mele, Nicola (2014). "When diversity means cultural richness". Webdiary. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
176. Ellmoos, Laila (2008). "Australian Museum". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
177. Ellmoos, Laila; Walden, Inara (2011). "Museum of Sydney". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
178. "About the Powerhouse Museum". Powerhouse Museum. 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
179. "Our Museum: history and vision". Australian National Maritime Museum. 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
180. Tyler, Peter (2010). "Royal Society of New South Wales". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
181. Ellmoos, Laila (2008). "Sydney Observatory building". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
182. "ANZAC Memorial, Sydney", ANZAC Day Commemoration Committee (Qld) Incorporated, 1998.
183. Ellmoos, Laila (2008). "Museum of Contemporary Art". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
184. "About us". Art Gallery of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
185. McPherson, Ailsa (2008). "Theatre". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
186. "History". Sydney Conservatorium of Music. 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
187. Balint, Ruth; Dolgopolov, Greg (2008). "Film". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
188. "History". National Institute of Dramatic Art. 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
189. Kaur, Jaskiran (2013). "Where to party in Australia on New Year's Eve". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 8 July 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
190. "About us". Sydney Festival. 2014. Archived from the original on 27 September 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
191. Fitzgerald, Shirley (2008). "Chinatown". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
192. Carey, Hilary (2008). "Religion". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
193. Cashman, Richard (2008). "Sport". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
194. Fenner, Peter (2005). "Surf Life Saving Australia". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal: 33 to 43.
195. "Timeline". City2Surf. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
196. de Montfort, Carlin (2010). "Sailing". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
197. "Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race". About.com. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
198. "Tough legacy of a Sydney classic". British Broadcasting Corporation. 2001. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
199. "Sydney to Hobart yacht race". Dictionary of Sydney. 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
200. "Randwick Race Course". Royal Randwick Racecourse. 2014. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
201. Lagan, Bernard (2012). "Breaking: news and hearts at the Herald". The Global Mail. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
202. Clancy, Laurie (2004). "The media and cinema". Culture and Customs of Australia: 126.
203. Wotherspoon, Garry (2010). "The Bulletin". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
204. "Network contacts". Free TV. 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
205. "Contact us". Network Ten. 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
206. "ABC offices". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
207. "Contact". Special Broadcasting Service. 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
208. "Contact Foxtel". Foxtel. 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
209. Griffen-Foley, Bridget (2008). "Commercial radio". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
210. Bodey, Michael (2010). "Major players maintain leading shares in second radio ratings survey of 2010". The Australian. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
211. "Governor Lachlan Macquarie". Parliament of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
212. "The first Legislature". Parliament of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
213. "Towards responsible government". Parliament of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
214. "Responsible government and colonial development". Parliament of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
215. "Towards federation". Parliament of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
216. Ellmoos, Laila (2008). "Parliament House". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
217. "Behold a palace". Sydney Living Museums. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
218. "Court locations". Supreme Court of New South Wales. 2014. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
219. "Find a court". New South Wales Courts. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
220. "Three levels of government". Australian Electoral Commission. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
221. Golder, Hilary (2004). Sacked: removing and remaking the Sydney City Council.
222. "History of Sydney City Council" (PDF). City of Sydney. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2005. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
223. "About Council". City of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
224. "Organisation detail". State Records. 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
225. Campbell, Craig; Sherington, Geoffrey (2008). "Education". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
226. "Educational qualifications". .id. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
227. "Education institution attending". .id. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
228. "Facts and figures". University of Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
229. "QS world university rankings 2014". Quacquarelli Symonds. 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
230. "School locator". Department of Education and Communities. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
231. "List of selective and agricultural high schools". Department of Education and Communities. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
232. Godden, Judith (2008). "Hospitals". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
233. "Local health districts". Government of New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
234. "Prince of Wales Hospital". South Eastern Sydney Local Health District. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
235. "Our history". The Children's Hospital at Westmead. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
236. "Prince Henry Hospital". South Eastern Sydney Local Health District. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
237. "Royal Prince Alfred Hospital". Sydney Local Health District. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
238. "About us". Northern Sydney Local Health District. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
239. "About us". South Eastern Sydney Local Health District. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
240. "About Nepean Hospital". Nepean Blue Mountains Local Health District. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
241. "Our history". Western Sydney Local Health District. 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
242. Wotherspoon, Garry (2008). "Transport". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
243. "Method of travel to work". .id. 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
244. "Australian social trends". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
245. Wotherspoon, Garry (2008). "Buses". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
246. "The light rail network". Transdev Sydney. 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
247. "CBD and South East Light Rail contract awarded with earlier delivery date". Sydney Light Rail. Transport for NSW.
248. Transport for NSW (2014). TfNSW 2013–2014 Annual Report (PDF) (Report). pp. 35,36. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
249. "Facts and stats". Sydney Trains. 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
250. "Central Station". Sydney Trains. 2014. Archived from the original on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
251. "Rail Clearways Plan". CityRail. 2002. Archived from the original on 12 June 2004. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
252. "Peak punctuality". Sydney Trains. 2014. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
253. "Service reliability". Sydney Trains. 2014. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
254. "Sydney's North West Rail Link reaches first milestone". Rail Journal.com. 28 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
255. "Sky's the limit as the North West Rail Link lifts its game". The Daily Telegraph. 12 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
256. "Northwest rail link under budget and ahead of time as first tunnel sees light". ABC Online. 21 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
257. "Fourth TBM begins tunnelling for Sydney's $8.3 billion North West Rail Link". Trenchless Australasia. 16 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
258. "Transport minister Andrew Constance says new Sydney Metro train line a 'massive city shaping project'". The Sydney Morning Herald. 16 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
259. "New metro train stations in Sydney could be built in Crows Nest or St Leonards and Artarmon by 2024". The Daily Telegraph. 11 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
260. "Sydney Ferries". Transport for New South Wales. 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
261. "Overview". Sydney Airport. 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
262. Cox, Lisa; Massola, James (2014). "Tony Abbott confirms Badgerys Creek as site of second Sydney airport". The Age. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
263. "Look who's polluting: Sydney Water's shame". 23 October 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
264. "Air Pollution in Sydney: An Update Briefing Paper" (PDF). August 1998. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
265. "Car dependence in Australian cities: a discussion of causes, environmental impact and possible solutions" (PDF). Flinders University study. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
266. "Off the rails: the suburbs where the car rules". The Sydney Morning Herald. 30 May 2005. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
267. "Sydney not yet a true global city". The Sydney Morning Herald. 12 April 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
268. "CBDs turning into no-car zones as the great divide grows". The Australian. 11 October 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
269. "Buses and the Environment". statetransit.info. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
270. "City clears the way on pollution-free car fleet". sydneymedia.com.au. 13 February 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
271. "Causes of Climate Change". epa.gov. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
272. IPCC, "Summary for Policymakers", Detection and Attribution of Climate Change, «It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century» (page 15) and «In this Summary for Policymakers, the following terms have been used to indicate the assessed likelihood of an outcome or a result: (...) extremely likely: 95–100%» (page 2)., in IPCC AR5 WG1 2013.
273. "Achievements: City of Sydney". cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
274. "Sydney Water to become carbon neutral". The Age. 19 July 2007. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
275. "Sydney Becomes Australia's First Carbon-Neutral Government Body". treehugger.com. 5 September 2008. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
276. "It’'s official, Sydney is first carbon neutral council". SydneyMedia.com.au. 9 November 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2015. C1 control character in |title= at position 3 (help)
277. "Building owners applaud city's ambitious master plan". climatecontrolnews.com.au. 25 February 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
278. "Sydney businesses cotton on: climate change action is good for the bottom line". The Guardian (UK). 18 March 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
279. "City of Sydney extends solar roll out to historic Rocks". RenewEconomy.com. 16 June 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
280. "Urban Forest Strategy" (PDF). Retrieved 6 May 2015.
281. "'Greenest' Sydney building using rainforest timber". Sydney Morning Herald. 27 July 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
282. "One Central Park Gardens". Frasers Property. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
283. "Central Park Sydney – Architecture". Frasers Property. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
284. "Sydney Central Park project shows sustainable living". Financial Review. 28 November 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
285. North, MacLaren (2011). "Water". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
286. "Sydney Water timeline". Sydney Water. 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
287. "Sydney's Largest Water Supply Dam". Water NSW. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
288. "Dams and reservoirs". Sydney Catchment Authority. 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
289. "About Ausgrid". Ausgrid. 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
290. "About us". Endeavour Energy. 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
291. "Our company". AGL Energy. 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
292. "Energy retailer". EnergyAustralia. 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
293. "Who we are". Origin Energy. 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.

External links

• Media related to Sydney Architecture at Wikimedia Commons
• Media related to Sydney Harbour National Park at Wikimedia Commons
• Official Sydney, NSW government site
• Official Sydney tourism site
• Historical film clips of Sydney on the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia's australianscreen online
• 13766899 Sydney on OpenStreetMap
• Dictionary of Sydney – the history of Sydney
• Sydney Official History Archives
• State Records New South Wales
• National Archives of Australia
• Understanding Society Through its Records – John Curtin Library
• Directory of Archives in Australia