Toubou people

Toubou people
Total population
350,000
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Tebu
Religion
Predominantly Islam (Sunni)

The Tubu or Toubou (Old Tebu: "Rock People;"[1] also written Tibu, Tibbu, Tebu, Tubu, Tebou, Umbararo) are Nilotic people that live mainly in northern Chad, but also in southern Libya, northeastern Niger and northwestern Sudan. They speak Tebu, in the Saharan subfamily of the Nilo-Saharan languages language family.[2]

The majority of Toubou live in the north of Chad around the Tibesti mountains (Old Tebu: "Rocky Mountains," whence the Toubou's own name.)[3] Numbering roughly 350,000, they are mostly Muslim. Most Toubou are herders and nomads, though many are now semi-nomadic. Their society is clan-based, with each clan having certain oases, pastures and wells.[4] They are divided in two closely associated people, the Teda and the Daza.[5]

Many of Chad's leaders have been Toubou, including presidents Goukouni Oueddei and Hissène Habré.[6]

Herodotus spoke of the Toubou, describing them as swift footed "Ethiopian Troglodytes" who were being hunted by Garamantes.[7]

Society

Tubu areas.

Toubou life centers on their livestock (their major source of wealth and sustenance) and on the scattered oases where they or their herders cultivate dates and grain. In a few places, the Toubou (or more often members of the Haddad group who work for them) also mine salt and natron,[8][9] a salt like substance which is essential in nearly all components of Toubou life from medicinal purposes, as a mixture in chewing tobacco, preservation, tanning, soap production, textiles and for livestock.[10][11]

The Toubou family is made up of parents, children, and another relative or two. Although the husband or father is the head of the household, he rarely makes decisions without consulting his wife. When he is absent, his wife often takes complete charge, moving family tents, changing pastures, and buying and selling cattle such as dromedaries and goats.[3] Although Toubou men may have several wives, few do. Families gather in larger camps during the months of transhumance. Camp membership is fluid, sometimes changing during the season and almost never remaining the same from one season to the next.

After the family, the clan is the most stable Toubou institution. Individuals identify with their clan, which has a reputed founder, a name, a symbol, and associated taboos. Clans enjoy collective priority use of certain palm groves, cultivable land, springs, and pastures; outsiders may not use these resources without clan permission. Social relations are based on reciprocity, hospitality, and assistance. Theft and murder within the clan are forbidden, and stolen animals must be returned.

Within the overall context of clan identity, however, Toubou society is shaped by the individual. Jean Chapelle, a well-known observer of Chadian societies,[12] notes that "it is not society that forms the individual, but the individual who constructs the society most useful" for him or her. Three features of Toubou social structure make this process possible. The first is residence. In general, clan members are scattered throughout a region; therefore, an individual is likely to find hospitable clans people in most settlements or camps of any size. A second factor is the maintenance of ties with the maternal clan. Although the maternal clan does not occupy the central place of the parental clan, it provides another universe of potential ties.[13]

Marriage creates a third set of individual options. Although relatives and the immediate family influence decisions about a marriage partner, individual preference is recognized as important. In addition, once a marriage is contracted between individuals of two clans, other clan members are forbidden to change it. The Toubou proscribe marriage with any blood relative less than four generations removed - in the words of the Toubou recorded by Chapelle, "when there are only three grandfathers."

The ownership of land, animals, and resources takes several forms. Within an oasis or settled zone belonging to a particular clan, land, trees (usually date palms), and nearby wells may have different owners. Each family's rights to the use of particular plots of land are recognized by other clan members. Families also may have privileged access to certain wells and the right to a part of the harvest from the fields irrigated by their water. Within the clan and family contexts, individuals also may have personal claims to palm trees and animals.

Toubou legal customs are based on restitution, indemnification, and revenge. Conflicts are resolved in several settings. Murder, for example, is settled directly between the families of the victim and the murderer. Toubou honor requires that someone from the victim's family try to kill the murderer or a relative; such efforts eventually end with negotiations to settle the matter. Reconciliation follows the payment of the goroga, or blood money, usually in the form of camels.

Despite shared linguistic heritage, few institutions among the Toubou generate a broader sense of identity than the clan. Regional divisions do exist, however. During the colonial period (and since independence in 1960), Chadian administrations have conferred legality and legitimacy on these regional groupings by dividing the Toubou and Daza regions into corresponding territorial units called cantons and appointing chiefs to administer them.

Only among the Teda of the Tibesti region have institutions evolved somewhat differently. Since the end of the 16th century, the derde (spiritual head) of the Tomagra clan has exercised authority over part of the massif and the other clans who live there. He is selected by a group of electors according to strict rules. The derde exercises judicial rather than executive power, arbitrating conflict and levying sanctions based on a code of compensations.[14]

The Toubou have a high illiteracy rate due to the harsh conditions of the landscape they reside in.[15]

History

Chad

During the civil conflict in Chad (1966–1993), the derde came to occupy a more important position. In 1965 the Chadian government assumed direct authority over the Tibesti Mountains, sending a military garrison and administrators to Bardaï, the capital of Tibesti Subprefecture. Within a year, abuses of authority had roused considerable opposition among the Toubou. The derde, Oueddei Kichidemi, recognized but little respected up to that time, protested the excesses, went into exile in Libya, and, with the support of Toubou students at the Islamic University of Bayda, became a symbol of opposition to the Chadian government. This role enhanced the position of the derde among the Toubou.[16]

After 1967 the derde hoped to rally the Toubou to the National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT). Moral authority became military authority shortly thereafter when his son, Goukouni Oueddei, became one of the leaders of the Second Liberation Army of FROLINAT. Goukouni was to become a national figure; he played an important role in the battles of N'Djamena in 1979 and 1980 and served as head of state for a time. Another northerner, Hissène Habré of the Daza Anakaza, replaced Goukouni in 1982, and lost eventually power to Idriss Dédy after 8 years, a Zaghawa.[17]

Libya

The Toubou minority in Libya suffered what has been described as "massive discrimination"[18] both under the leadership of Muammar Gaddafi as well as after the Arab Spring.[15]

In a report released by the UNHCR, the Society for Threatened Peoples (STP) reported "massive discrimination" against the Toubou minority, which resides in the southeastern corner of the country around the oasis town of Kufra. In December 2007, the Gaddafi government stripped Toubou Libyans of their citizenship, claiming that they were not Libyans, but rather Chadians. In addition, local authorities denied Toubou people access to education and healthcare. In response, an armed group called the Toubou Front for the Salvation of Libya (TFSL) staged an uprising in November 2008 which lasted for five days and claimed 33 lives before being crushed by government security forces. Despite resistance and public condemnation, the Gaddafi regime continued its persecution of the Toubou minority in Libya. Beginning in November 2009, the government began a program of forced eviction and demolition of Toubou homes, rendering many Toubou homeless. Several dozen who protested the destruction were arrested, and families who refused to leave their homes were beaten.[18]

In the Libyan Civil War, Toubou tribespeople in Libya sided with the rebel anti-Gaddafi forces and participated in the Fezzan campaign against forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi, briefly capturing the town of Qatrun[19] and claiming to capture Murzuk for the rebel movement a month later.[20]

In March 2012, bloody clashes broke out between Toubou and Arab tribesmen in the southern city of Sabha, Libya. In response, Issa Abdel Majid Mansour, the leader of the Toubou tribe in Libya threatened a separatist bid, decrying what he saw as "ethnic cleansing" against Toubou and declaring "We announce the reactivation of the Toubou Front for the Salvation of Libya to protect the Toubou people from ethnic cleansing." The TFSL was the opposition group active in the unrest of 2007-2008 that was "ruthlessly persecuted" by the Gaddafi regime.[21]

Teda and Daza

The Toubou are subdivided in two separate people, the Teda and Daza. They are believed to share a common origin, but speak now two distinct if clearly associated languages, Tedaga (Téda Toubou) and Dazaga (Daza Toubou), both Nilo-Saharan languages. Of the two, the Daza are the most numerous, being 312,000 persons, while the Teda are only 42,000.[22]

The Daza live primarily in the Sahara regions of south-eastern Niger and north and central Chad. They consider themselves a warrior people, and are almost entirely Muslim. The increasing desertification of Africa has resulted in a reduction of their traditionally nomadic, herding lifestyle. Much of the political class of Chad are drawn from Daza. There are more than a dozen subgroups of Daza: the Kreda of Bahr el Ghazal are the largest; next in importance are the Daza of Kanem Prefecture.[23]

The Teda live mostly in northern Chad, but are also present in Libya, Niger and Nigeria. They are Muslims. Among the Teda, there are four regional subgroups, the Teda of Tibesti Subprefecture being the largest.[22]

See also

References

  1. ↑ MacMichael, Harold: A history of the Arabs in the Sudan and some account of the people who preceded them and of the tribes inhabiting Darfur. 1922.
  2. ↑ International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. 2003-01-01. ISBN 9780195139778.
  3. 1 2 Gertel, Prof Dr Jörg; Heron, Professor Richard Le (2012-11-28). Economic Spaces of Pastoral Production and Commodity Systems: Markets and Livelihoods. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781409490364.
  4. ↑ Copson, Raymond W. (1994-01-01). Africa's Wars and Prospects for Peace. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9781563243004.
  5. ↑ Smith, Andrew Brown (2005-01-01). African Herders: Emergence of Pastoral Traditions. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 9780759107489.
  6. ↑ Young, Tom (2003-01-01). Readings in African Politics. Indiana University Press. ISBN 025321646X.
  7. ↑ Zweig, Paul (1976-01-01). Three journeys: an automythology. Basic Books. ISBN 9780465086108.
  8. ↑ Cyr, Ruth (2001-01-01). Twentieth Century Africa. iUniverse. ISBN 9780595189823.
  9. ↑ Vikør, Knut S. (1999-01-01). The Oasis of Salt: The History of Kawar, a Saharan Centre of Salt Production. Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies. ISBN 9781850653080.
  10. ↑ Lovejoy, Paul E. (1986-05-22). Salt of the Desert Sun: A History of Salt Production and Trade in the Central Sudan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521301824.
  11. ↑ Minerals (1835-01-01). Minerals and metals; their natural history and uses in the arts.
  12. ↑ Chapelle, Jean (1982-01-01). Nomades noirs du Sahara: les Toubous (in French). Editions L'Harmattan. ISBN 9782858022212.
  13. ↑ Baroin, Catherine (1985-01-01). Anarchie Et Cohésion Sociale Chez Les Toubou: Les Daza Késerda (Niger) (in French). Les Editions de la MSH. ISBN 9780521304764.
  14. ↑ Rights, African Commission on Human and Peoples' (2009-02-01). Rapport Du Groupe de Travail de la Commission Africaine Sur Les Populations/communautes Autochtones : Mission en Republique de Niger 14-24 Février 2006 (in French). IWGIA. ISBN 9788791563485.
  15. 1 2 Cole, Peter; McQuinn, Brian (2015-01-01). The Libyan Revolution and Its Aftermath. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190210960.
  16. ↑ Olympio, Francisco Kofi Nyaxo (2013-12-11). Neo-Panafricanism Foreign Powers and Non-State Actors. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 9783643904225.
  17. ↑ Africa international (in French). Africa S.A. 2000-01-01.
  18. 1 2 Summary prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in accordance with paragraph 15 (c) of the annex to Human rights Council resolution 5/1: Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
  19. ↑ "Libya rebels report loss of Qatrun". The Daily Star Newspaper - Lebanon. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
  20. ↑ "Libya: Toubou rebels engage in battle against Gaddafi". Retrieved 21 November 2014.
  21. ↑ "Libya's Toubou tribal leader raises separatist bid". Retrieved 21 November 2014.
  22. 1 2 Olson, James Stuart (1996-01-01). The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313279188.
  23. ↑ Ndulu, B. J. (2008-01-01). The Political Economy of Economic Growth in Africa, 1960-2000. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521878494.
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