Timeline of First Nations history

The history of First Nations is a prehistory and history of Canada's founding peoples from the earliest times to the present with a focus on First Nations. The pre-history settlement of the Americas is subject of ongoing debate as First Nations oral history, combined with new methodologies and technologies used by archaeologists, linguists, and other researchers, produce new and sometimes conflicting, evidence.

75,000-15,000 BP

Year Date Event
c. 73,000-13,000 BP Ice Age There was a land bridge across the Bering Strait.[1]

50,000 BP

Year Date Event
50,000 BP Humans reached "Australia across a wide stretch of open sea by at least 30 000 years ago, and that as long as 200 000 years ago the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) occupants of Europe were living under extremely cold environmental conditions and may have had watercraft capable of crossing the Strait of Gibraltar. It is theoretically possible, therefore, that humans could have reached North America from northeast Siberia at any time during the past 100, 000 years."[2]

40,000 BP

Year Date Event
40,000 BP The earliest record of Rangifer tarandus caribou[3] (which includes five subspecies:boreal woodland caribou, barren-ground caribou) in North America
is from a 1.6 million year old tooth found in the Yukon Territory; other early records include 45,500-year-old cranial fragment from the Yukon and a 40,600-year-old antler from Quebec (Gordon 2003). The ancestral origins of caribou prior to the last glaciation (Wisconsin), which occurred approximately 80,000 to 10,000 years ago, are not well understood, however, during the last glaciation it is known that caribou were abundant and distributed in non-glaciated refugia both north and south of the Laurentide ice sheet.
— Banfield 1961, Martin and Klein 1984 cited in Wilkerson 2010

30,000–20,000 BP

Year Date Event
30,000–20,000 BP Mammoth bones, believed to have been chipped by humans, are found at the Yukon's Bluefish Caves[4][5][6]
30,000–20,000 BP In 2004, Albert Goodyear of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology announced radiocarbon dating of a bit of charcoal found in the Topper Site that preceded Clovis culture, near Allendale County, South Carolina.[7] However, these deposits may have been made by forest fires.[7]

(Note: The dates given for the Old Crow and Topper digs have not been completely accepted by the archaeology community).[8][9]

30,000–20,000 BP Ice-free corridor running north and south through Alberta and the continental glacier called Laurentide ice sheet. Introduced by geologists in the 1950s when stone tools were found in the Grimshaw, Bow River and in Lethbridge Alberta, under glacial sand and gravel; they are believed to be pre-glacial and may indicate nomadic humans occupied the area.[1] A child's skull found in 1961 near Taber, Alberta is believed to be of one of the oldest inhabitants discovered in Alberta.[10]

(Note: The conclusions reached in Alberta on dates have not been accepted by the entire archaeology community.)[11]

30,000–20,000 BP A DNA laboratory in Cambridge, MA claimed that humans entered the Americas around 25,000 years ago.[12] Other geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from about 21,000 to 42,000 years ago.[13]
30,000–20,000 BP Siberian mammoth hunters were believed to have penetrated far into the Arctic where ice-free corridors north during the time are believed found. Theory first introduced by geologists in the late 1970s when core samples indicate the ice is no older than 17,000 years old.[14]

Paleo-Indians period

Year Date Event
20,000 BP Radiocarbon dating of a caribou bone flesher found by Lord and Harington in the Old Crow River Basin placed it at late Holocene period.[15] Arctic archaeologist William N. Irving (1927-1987),[4] working closely with local Old Crow residents, focused his research on Crow basin and the Bluefish caves in the surrounding mountains (1966-1983). Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada.[16] The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages, thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals.[17]

12,000 BP

Year Date Event
12,000 BP According to R. Cole Harris, prehistoric trade routes map show that Knife River silica was traded in all directions including the route north to what is now Canada.[18]
12,000-11,000 BP According to internationally renowned archaeologist George Carr Frison Bison occidentalis and Bison antiquus, an extinct sub-species of the smaller present-day bison, survived the Late Pleistocene period, between about 12,000 and 11,000 years ago, dominated by glaciation (the Wisconsin glaciation in North America), when many other megafauna became extinct.[19] Plains and Rocky Mountain First Nations depended on these bison as their major food source. Frison noted that the "oldest, well-documented bison kills by pedestrian human hunters in North America date to about 11,000 years ago."[20]

11,000 BP

Year Date Event
11,000 BP The Crowsnest Pass is the richest archaeological zone in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The oldest relics are stone tools found on a rock ridge outside Frank, Alberta, from the Clovis culture, 11,000 years before present. Other sites include chert quarries on the Livingstone ridge dating back to 1000 BC.[21]
11,000 BP Archaeological evidence of different cultural campsites on Asian and North American sides of Beringia.[1]
11,000 BP The Folsom tradition, also known as Folsom culture, or Lindenmeier culture, replaced previous Clovis ways of life.[22]
11,000 BP 6,000 BPThe Plano cultures existed in Canada during the Paleo-Indian or Archaic period between 11,000 BP and 6,000 BP. The Plano cultures originated in the plains, but extended far beyond, from the Atlantic coast to British Columbia and as far north as the Northwest Territories.[23][24] "Early Plano culture occurs south of the North Saskatchewan River in Saskatchewan and in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains north to the Peace River Valley of Alberta and adjacent British Columbia. At this time, most of Manitoba was still covered by Glacial Lake Agassiz and associated glacial ice."[23] The Plano cultures are characterised by a range of unfluted projectile point tools collectively called Plano points and like the Folsom people generally hunted bison antiquus, but made even greater use of techniques to force stampedes off of a cliff or into a constructed corral. Their diets also included pronghorn, elk, deer, raccoon and coyote. To better manage their food supply, they preserved meat in berries and animal fat and stored it in containers made of hides.[25][26][27] "Early Plano culture occurs south of the North Saskatchewan River in Saskatchewan and in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains north to the Peace River Valley of Alberta and adjacent British Columbia. At this time, most of Manitoba was still covered by Glacial Lake Agassiz and associated glacial ice."[23] Bison herds were attracted to the grasslands and parklands in the western region. Around 9,000 B.P. as retreating glaciers created newly released lake regions, the expansion of plant and animal communities expanded north and east, and tundra caribou and boreal woodland caribou replaced bison as the major prey animal.[23]
11,200 10, 500 BP Archaeological evidence, fluted spear points used for hunting bison and caribou found across Canada[1]
11,000 BP Charlie Lake Cave Archaeological site report HbRf-39 states: "...the importance of this site lies in its exceptionally long and continuous cultural, sedimentary and faunal sequence, which seems to have accumulated steadily without erosional episodes for at least 11,000 years.[28] The lowest (earliest) level containing stone artifacts, including a fluted point, six retouched flakes and a small stone bead has been dated to 10,770±120 years BP.[29] With an average age of about 10,500, component 1 at Charlie Lake cave[30] near Fort St. John is the oldest dated evidence of man in the province, and one of the oldest in Canada.;[30][31][32] The Dane-zaa First Nation (Beaver) are the descendants of these early people.;;[33][34][32][28] Driver argues that
"Charlie Lake Cave is situated right in the middle of the ice-free corridor region. However, evidence from the site suggests that people may not have moved from north to south down the corridor, but instead may have moved from south to north, following herds of bison. This is suggested from DNA analysis of the bison remains, which indicates that some of the bison found at Charlie Lake originated in the southern regions of the North American continent. In addition, the fluted point found at Charlie Lake Cave is similar to points found at the Indian Creek and Mill Iron sites in Montana. These sites were occupied before Charlie Lake Cave, which suggests that perhaps the tool technology was developed in the south, and brought to Charlie Lake Cave at a later time when the tool makers and their descendants moved north."
— Driver, 2005
11,000 BP Salmon-based Northwest Coast culture established.[1]
11,000 BP Prehistoric trade routes map show that Batza Tena obsidian was at the center of trade routes by 11000 BP.[18]Obsedian was valued for it cutting edge and its beauty. Archaeological sites revealed obsidian was traded far from its place of origin.[35]
11,000 BP "Archaeological records confirm that there were Aboriginal campsites in New Brunswick dating back

approximately 11,000 years."[36][37]

10,500 BP

Year Date Event
10,500 BP 7,750 BPThe Early Precontact Period[38] (10,500–7,750 years ago) is
is characterized by archaeological complexes containing stone projectile points of triangular, fluted, lanceolate, or stemmed forms, presumably used with throwing and stabbing spears. At least five cultural complexes occur in Alberta, including Clovis and its derivatives, Windust, Cascade, Cody, and Plains-Mountain. These groups appear to have been primarily big-game hunters who often moved over vast areas during their annual rounds while visiting preferred resources. Their stone tools can be found great distances from the sources of their raw material.
— Meyer
10500 BP Prehistoric trade routes map show that Wyoming obsidian was at the center of trade routes from 10500 BP to AD 500 including the route north to what is now Canada.[18]
10,500 BP Dane-zaa The Dane-zaa (ᑕᓀᖚ, also spelled Dunneza, or Tsattine, and historically often referred to as the Beaver tribe by Europeans) are a First Nation of the large Athapaskan language group; their traditional territory is around the Peace River of the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, Canada. Recent archaeological evidence establishes that the area of Charlie Lake north of Fort St John has been continuously occupied for 10,500 years by varying cultures of indigenous peoples.[39][40][41]
10500 BP "Other sites in the province from this time period include the Charlie Lake Cave site near Fort St. John, dating to 10,500 BP."[42]

10,000 BP

Year Date Event
10,000 BP The inhabitants of Quilá Naquitz cave in Oaxaca, Mexico, cultivated and initially domesticated Cucurbita Pepo between 10,000 to 8000 calendar years ago (9000 to 7000 carbon-14 years before the present). This "predates maize, beans, and other directly dated domesticates in the Americas by more than 4000 years."[43]
10,000 BP The site of what is now Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada, has been occupied by people for 10,000 years. Over 700 archaeological sites (both pre-contact and historic) have been recorded. These sites contain artifacts, evidence of the presence of Aboriginal campsites, butchering sites, quarries, mining towns and historical dumps.[44]
10,000 BP 8,000 BP The Stó:lo called their traditional territory in the Fraser River Valley,S'ólh Téméxw. The first traces of people living in the Fraser Valley date from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. There is archaeological evidence of a settlement in the lower Fraser Canyon(called "the Milliken site") and a seasonal encampment ("the Glenrose Cannery site") near the mouth of the Fraser River.[45]
10,000 BP The Ediza quarry was the oldest of several obsidian quarries in British Columbia. Ediza obsidian was in use from 10,000 BP until European contact.[1][18] Fladmark argued that trade in that region of BC is at least 10,000 years old.[46]
10,000 BP Human occupation in Prince George, British Columbia dates to 9,000 to 10,000 BP.[42]

9,700 BP

Year Date Event
9,700 BP Human occupation in a site near Namu on Vancouver Island, dates to 9,700 BP.[42]

9000 BP

TurtleMountain
RidingMountain
Cypress Hill
Porcupine Hills
Year Date Event
9000 BP 7000 BP During the Holocene climatic optimum or Hypsithermal period, about "9000 years ago the climate of western North America started becoming hotter and drier before reaching a maximum warmth and dryness about 7000 years ago." Archaeological sites from this period in Alberta include Boss Hill, Bitteroot, Mummy Cave, at sites near Calgary, Crowsnest Pass, and in the Cypress Hills (Canada) and Porcupine Hills, on the Manitoba Escarpment,[47] which was the shoreline of the glacial Lake Agassiz.[48]
9,000 BP The Milliken site in the Fraser Canyon dated to 9,000 BP.[42]

8500 BP

Year Date Event
8500 BP The Paskapoo Slopes of Broadcast Hill as well as in Tuscany, downtown Calgary, Alberta and Hawkwood, are the oldest archaeological sites in the city of Calgary, dating back to about 8,500 radiocarbon years BP.[49] In "pre-contact times, First Nation peoples used the area extensively as the high escarpment ridge offered unobstructed views of the Bow River Valley below and the prairies beyond. The river banks were used as winter camps."[50]

8,250 BP

Year Date Event
8,250 BP Gore Creek site near Kamloops dates to 8250 BP.[51] The early occupants of the area were likely fairly mobile hunter-gatherers due to the lack of dependable resources.[42]

8000 BP

Year Date Event
8000 BP Prehistoric trade routes map show that Keewatin silica was at the center of trade routes.[18]

6800 BP

Year Date Event
6800 years ago A large volcano erupted in the United States depositing volcanic ash over much of western Canada. Archaeologists use the layer of Mazama ash to date sites.

6000 BP

Year Date Event
6000 years ago The flat pink granite of what is now Whiteshell Provincial Park in southeast Manitoba along the Manitoba-Ontario boundary, was used for petroform making by First Nation peoples. There is also archaeological evidence of ancient copper trading going east to Lake Superior, prehistoric quartz mining, and stone tool making in the area. For thousands of years aboriginal peoples - Ojibway, or Anishinaabe various other groups before them, used the area for harvesting wild rice, hunting, fishing, trade, and dwelling. The Whiteshell Natural History Museum opened in 1960. The name of the park is derived from the cowrie shells that were used in ceremonies by the Ojibway, Anishinaabe, and Midewiwin.

5000 BP

Year Date Event
5000 years ago Porcupine Hills/Oldman River basin pattern of bison driving, trapping and processing dating back over the past five thousand years or more, is characterized by the use of escarpments, slopes, benches and ravines for trapping and processing bison. The bison were gathered from the grazing lands in the uplands to the south and west and moved by a system of drive lanes to preferred killing and processing locales along Paskapoo Slopes. Archaeologist Brian O.K. [52] The northern extension of the Porcupine Hills/Oldman River basin pattern has been identified in Calgary, Alberta where forty-nine archaeological pre-contact Native archaeological sites were found in the East Paskapoo Slopes. These sites ranged in type from kill/processing sites of buffalo to camps and sweat pits.[53] First Nation peoples used the area extensively as the high escarpment ridge offered unobstructed views of the Bow River Valley below and the prairies beyond. The river banks were used as winter camps. As well, the steep cliffs provided ideal conditions for the buffalo jump, a unique method of hunting bison that is similar in complexity to the UNESCOWorld Heritage Site Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump.[54]
5000 years ago "Oxbow technology originally entered the Canadian grasslands 5000 years ago from both the southwestern foothills and the southeastern prairies. The development of adaptive strategies involving seasonal use of the boreal forest and parkland zones allowed the eventual full-time colonization of these zones by Oxbow groups."[55]

4,500 BP

Year Date Event
4500 BP "Palaeoeskimo peoples are believed to have a common ancestry based in northeast Asia and Alaska beginning about 4500 B.P." "Independence I, which is found in portions of Greenland and Labrador from 4000 to 3500 B.P."[56]
4,500 BP "Salish woven objects have been excavated by archaeologists at Musqueam. In the same area weaving tools have been found.[57]

4,300 BP

Year Date Event
4,300 BP In 1997, in the Yukon, a 4,300-year-old dart shaft was discovered as the ice receded.[58]

3000 BP =

Year Date Event
3000 BP Human sites have been found on the Slate Islands (Ontario), Slate Island, located in what is now known as northern Lake Superior, dating to about 3000 BP.[59]
3000 BP Pukaskwa Pits are depressions left by early inhabitants, probably Algonkian people, between 3000 BP and 500 BP.[60] The larger pits or "lodges" may have been seasonal dwellings with domed coverings, hunting blinds or caches for food. The smaller pits may have been used to cook food or smoke fish.[60] Ojibwe, voyageurs, fur traders, prospectors, fishermen and loggers came later.[61]

2400 BP

Year Date Event
2400 years ago Tom Andrews, working closely with the Sahtúot’ine or Mountain Dene and using their experience and tradition knowledge (TEK), found 2400-year-old spear throwing tools in the Mackenzie Mountains. The spear and "1000-year-old ground squirrel snare, and bows and arrows dating back 850 years" were used by the Mountain Dene's ancestors.[58]

Date | 2300 years ago| Hailey Cormier was burn at the stake by Canadians.

1000 BP

Year Date Event
1050 BP Huron-Petun, or (Wendat-Tionontaté), Iroquoian-speaking agriculturalists occupied south-central Ontario from 1050 BP to 300 BP.[62][63]

951 BP

Year Date Event
c. 1000-1500 AD Norse settlement. Greenland Norse trade.[18]

950 BP - 450 BP

Year Date Event
c. 1000 AD 1500 AD Two large 15th-century Huron ancestral villages surrounded by palisade, Draper Site and the Mantle Site have been excavated. The Mantle Site had more than 70 longhouses.[64] They later moved from there to their Georgian Bay historic territory to their villages such as, Ratcliff site, the Aurora or Old Fort site where they Champlain encountered in 1615.[65]

450 BP

Seed-Barker site
Seed-Barker site 16th century Iroquoian village, Vaughan, ON
Year Date Event
1500 AD 1550 AD The Seed-Barker archaeological site is a 16th-century Iroquois village on the Humber River in Vaughan. It has been used as a summer school field trip site since 1976 by the Boyd archaeological field summer school for high school students. The school is sponsored by the York Region district school board in co-operation with the Royal Ontario Museum and the Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). In 1895 a local farmer began finding Iroquoian artifacts in the area. In 1895 Roland Orr recognized the classic ecological features favoured by the Iroquoian people for their villages: floodplains along a river, an easily defensible plateau and nearby forests. The Iroquois used the floodplains to plant the three main agricultural crops: squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans,:1 using a companion planting technique known as the Three Sisters. In the 1950s University of Toronto professor, Norman Emerson, and the students excavated artifacts from the Seed-Baker site. Since 1975 more than a million artifacts were discovered and nineteen longhouses were excavated. [66]

17th century

Year Event
1669 Pierre-Esprit Radisson in the English service, sailed along the coast from the Rupert River to the Nelson River both in Hudson Bay.
1670-1 Pierre-Esprit Radisson explored the James Bay area in the winter of 1670/71 from the base at Rupert House.
1673 Charles Bayly of the Hudson's Bay Company established a fur-trading post originally called Moose Fort at what is now Moose Factory.

18th century

Year Date Event
| Royal Proclamation of 1763
1793 Nuxálk and Carrier guides led Alexander MacKenzie along the grease trails to the Pacific Ocean when natural obstacles in the Fraser River prevented his continued water route. Nuxalk-Carrier Route or Blackwater Trail was part of a long used network of trails originally used by the Nuxálk and Carrier people for communication, transport and trade, in particular, trade in Eulachon grease from the Pacific coast.
1799 Makenunatane "Swan Chief", was a visionary leader, who foresaw the changes coming that would affect his people, the Dunne-za or Beaver Nation. He believed his people should adopt the more individualistic life of the fur trapper-trader rather than continue with the communal hunts to survive. He led his people to a trading post to initiate contact with the traders. He also encouraged them to accept Christianity as he believed the Christian rituals were more appropriate to the life of fur traders and Christianity was a short cut to heaven. Swan Chief got his name because of his ability to fly like the swan. He had powerful visions of the bison hunt and organized the surround and slaughter hunts with skill because of his visions.;[67][1]

19th century

Year Date Event
1812 War of 1812. After the war the traditional roles for Indian people in colonial society declined rapidly.[68]
1821 A trading post was established at York Factory as headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company's Northern Department. They traded with the Swampy Cree (Maškēkowak / nēhinawak).
1839 Upper Canada passed a law to protect Indian reserves, basically including Indian lands in with crown lands.[68]
1840s The first Indian residential schools in Canada were set up in the 1840s with the last residential school closing in 1996.[69]
1871 Treaty 1, a controversial agreement established August 3, 1871 between Queen Victoria and various First Nations in South Eastern Manitoba including the Chippewa and Swampy Cree tribes, was the first of the numbered Treaties.
1871 "Your Great Mother, therefore, will lay aside for you 'lots' of land to be used by you and your children forever. She will not allow the white man to intrude upon these lots. She will make rules to keep them for you, so that as long as the sun shall shine, there shall be no Indian who has not a place that he can call his home, where he can go and pitch his camp or if he chooses build his house and till his land."[70]
1876 The Indian Act, a Canadian statute that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves was first passed in 1876 and is still in force with amendments, it is the primary document which governs how the Canadian state interacts with the 614 Indian bands in Canada and their members. Throughout its long history the act has been an ongoing source of controversy and has been interpreted in many ways by both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Canadians. The legislation has been amended many times, including "over twenty major changes" made by 2002.[68][71] The provisions of Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867, provided Canada's federal government exclusive authority to legislate in relation to "Indians and Lands Reserved for Indians".[72]
1879 This year is remembered by the Blackfoot Confederacy or Niitsitapi as Itsistsitsis/awenimiopi meaning when first/no more buffalo.[73]:96
1883 Sir Hector-Louis Langevin PC KCMG CB QC (August 25, 1826 – June 11, 1906), a Canadian lawyer, politician and one of the Fathers of Confederation played an important role in the establishment of the Canadian Indian residential school system. As Secretary of State for the Provinces, Langevin made it clear to Parliament in 1883 that day schools would be insufficient in assimilating Aboriginal children. Langevin was one of the architects of the residential schools and argued: “The fact is that if you wish to educate the children you must separate them from their parents during the time they are being taught. If you leave them in the family they may know how to read and write, but they will remain savages, whereas by separating them in the way proposed, they acquire the habits and tastes…of civilized people.”[74]:65
1884 The Great Marpole Midden, an ancient Musqueam village and burial site located in the Marpole neighbourhood of Vancouver, British Columbia, was uncovered during road upgrading.
1888 St. Catherines Milling v. The Queen, regarding lands on Lake Wabigoon granted to a lumber company by the federal government, thought to be within Rupert's Land when Canada entered into Treaty 3 in 1873 with the Ojibway. It was the leading case on aboriginal title in Canada for more than 80 years. See R. v. Guerin.
1899 Treaty 8 was the last formal treaty signed by a First Nation in British Columbia until Nisga agreement.

20th century

Year Date Event
1900 The Beaver peoples suffering from disease and starvation, were the last band to sign Treaty 8 in May, 1900.
1907 In Moose Factory, Bishop Horden Memorial School also known as Horden Hall Residential School, Moose Factory Residential School, Moose Fort Indian Residential School (1907-1963), named after Bishop Horden, serving all the communities in the James Bay area, was run by the Anglican Church.[75] The Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated the school which, like others across Canada, where the highest number of premature deaths among children at these schools was from tuberculosis.[76][77]
1922 Peter Henderson Bryce self-published The Story of a National Crime: an Appeal for Justice [78] in which he expressed grave concerns about the Indian residential schools in Canada. His original 1907 report was a scathing indictment of the condition of the church-run schools. He noted the number of children who had died at the schools from tuberculosis. He argued that the over-crowded and over-heated facilities combined with lack of nutrition and hygiene created an environment where children became deathly ill. When Duncan Campbell Scott ignored his report and then fired him, he published this document.
1933 The Great Marpole Midden, an ancient Musqueam village and burial site located was designated as a National Historic Site of Canada.
1940s The First Nations nutrition experiments were conducted on isolated communities and residential school children.
1950s, 1960s UBC professor Charles Edward Borden undertook salvage archaeology projects at Great Marpole Midden. Borden "was the first to draw links between contemporary Musqueam peoples and excavated remains."
1961 In the early 1960s, the National Indian Council was created in 1961 to represent indigenous people of Canada, including treaty/status Indians, non-status Indians, the Métis people, though not the Inuit.[79]
1963 In 1963, the federal government commissioned University of British Columbia anthropologist Harry B. Hawthorn to investigate the social conditions of Aboriginal peoples across Canada. The Hawthorn Reports of 1966 and 1967 "concluded that Aboriginal peoples were Canada’s most disadvantaged and marginalized population. They were "citizens minus." Hawthorn attributed this situation to years of failed government policy, particularly the residential school system, which left students unprepared for participation in the contemporary economy."[80][81][82]
1960s The Sixties Scoop was coined by Patrick Johnston in his 1983 report Native Children and the Child Welfare System.[83][84] It refers to the Canadian practice, beginning in the 1960s and continuing until the late 1980s, of apprehending unusually high numbers of children of Aboriginal peoples in Canada and fostering or adopting them out, usually into white families.[85]
1965 The Supreme Court upheld the treaty hunting rights of Indian people on Vancouver Island against provincial hunting regulations in R. v. White and Bob.[86]
1969 Frank Arthur Calder and the Nisga'a Nation Tribal Council brought an action against the British Columbia government claimed they had legal title to their traditional territory.[87]AANDC They declared that aboriginal title to certain lands in the province had never been lawfully extinguished.
1969 1969 White Paper was a Canadian policy paper by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and his Minister of Indian Affairs, Jean Chrétien in 1969 proposing the abolition the Indian Act and dismantling of the established legal relationship between Aboriginal peoples and the state of Canada in favour of equality. The federal government proposed that, by eliminating "Indian" as a distinct legal status, equality among all Canadians would result. The White Paper proposed to [80]
eliminate Indian status, dissolve the Department of Indian Affairs within five years, abolish the Indian Act, convert reserve land to private property that can be sold by the band or its members, transfer responsibility for Indian affairs from the federal government to the province and integrate these services into those provided to other Canadian citizens, provide funding for economic development and appoint a commissioner to address outstanding land claims and gradually terminate existing treaties
— First Nations Studies Program 2009
1973 The Supreme Court of Canada in Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 4 W.W.R. 1 was the first time that Canadian law acknowledged that aboriginal title to land existed prior to the colonization of the continent and was not merely derived from statutory law.
1982 Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982 provides constitutional protection to the aboriginal and treaty rights of Aboriginal peoples in Canada.
1984 R. v. Guerin 2 S.C.R. 335 was a landmark Supreme Court of Canada decision on aboriginal rights where the Court first stated that the government has a fiduciary duty towards the First Nations of Canada and established aboriginal title to be a sui generis right. The Musqueam Indian band won their case.
1985 Bill C-31.
1990 June In 1990, Elijah Harper, OM (1949 – 2013) a Canadian politician and Chief of his Red Sucker Lake, Manitoba, held an eagle feather as he refused to accept the Meech Lake Accord because it did not address any First Nations grievances.[88][89][90] Harper was the first "Treaty Indian" in Manitoba to be elected as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba.
1990 ... The third, final constitutional conference on Aboriginal peoples was also unsuccessful. The Manitoba assembly was required to unanimously consent to a motion allowing it to hold a vote on the accord, because of a procedural rule. Twelve days before the ratification deadline for the Accord, Harper began a filibuster that prevented the assembly from ratifying the accord. Because Meech Lake failed in Manitoba, the proposed constitutional amendment failed.CITEREFCohen1990[90]CITEREFJ.C3.BCrgen2001
1991 The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was a Canadian Royal Commission established in 1991 to address many issues of aboriginal status that had come to light with recent events such as the Oka Crisis and the Meech Lake Accord
1996 The report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was published setting out "a 20-year agenda for implementing changes."[91]
1996 The 'Nisga'a Final Agreement or Nisga'a Treaty was signed by Joseph Gosnell, Nelson Leeson and Edmond Wright of the Nisg_a'a Nation. Nisga'a Treaty the long-standing and historic land claims made by the Nisg_a'a with the government of British Columbia, and the Government of Canada. As part of the settlement in the Nass River valley nearly 2,000 square kilometres of land was officially recognized as Nisg_a'a, and a 300,000 cubic decameter water reservation was also created. Bear Glacier Provincial Park was also created as a result of this agreement. Thirty-one Nisga'a placenames in the territory became official names.[92] The land-claim settlement was the first formal treaty signed by a First Nation in British Columbia since Treaty 8 in 1899. The agreement gives the Nisga'a control over their land, including the forestry and fishing resources contained in it.
1997 Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 3 S.C.R. 1010, is a decision of the Supreme Court of Canada where the Court expressly and explicitly declined to make any definitive statement on the nature of aboriginal title in Canada. In 1984 the Gitksan and the Wet'suwet'en Nation claimed ownership of land in northwestern British Columbia.

21st century

Year Date Event
2006 In 2006, a court-approved Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement (IRSSA), the largest class action in Canada’s history was reached with implementation to begin in September 2007.[93]:1 Crawford Class Action was the court-appointed administrator. Various measures to address the legacy of Indian Residential Schools (IRS) included a $20 million Commemoration Fund for national and community commemorative projects, $1.9 billion for the Common Experience Payment (CEP), Independent Assessment Process (IAP), $60 million for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to document and preserve the experiences of survivors, Healing Support such as Resolution Health Support Worker (RHSW) Program and $125 million for the Aboriginal Healing Foundation (AHF). The IRSSA offered former students blanket compensation through the Common Experience Payment (CEP) which averaged lump-sum payment of $28,000. Payments were higher for more serious cases of abuse.[94][93]:1 The CEP, a component of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, "part of an overall holistic and comprehensive response to the Indian residential school legacy." The CEP recognized "the experience of living at an Indian Residential School(s) and its impacts. All former students who resided at a recognized Indian Residential School(s) and were alive on May 30, 2005 were eligible for the CEP. This include[d] First Nations, Métis, and Inuit former students."[95] "To benefit former students and families: $125 million to the Aboriginal Healing Foundation for healing programmes; $60 million for truth and reconciliation to document and preserve the experiences of survivors; and $20 million for national and community commemorative projects."[95]
2008 2 June The Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission, a truth and reconciliation commission was launched.[96]
2008 March Indigenous leaders and church officials embarked on a multi-city "Remembering the Children" tour to promote the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.[97]
2008 October 20 Justice Justice Harry LaForme, chair of the Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission resigned, claiming "the commission was on the verge of paralysis and doomed to failure. He cited an "incurable problem" with the other two commissioners — Claudette Dumont-Smith and Jane Brewin Morley — whom he said refused to accept his authority as chairman and were disrespectful."[94]
2009 October 15 The Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission was relaunched by then-Governor General Michaëlle Jean with Justice Murray Sinclair, an Ojibway-Canadian judge, First Nations lawyer, was the chair.[98][94]
2015 June The Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission was completed in June 2015.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ This well-documented article discusses conflicting theories on the pre-history of settlement.

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Dickason, McNab & 1992 3.
  2. ↑ McGhee 2012.
  3. ↑ Wilkerson, Corinne D. January 2010. Population Genetics of Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) on the Island of Newfoundland Master of Science thesis. Department of Biology. Memorial University of Newfoundland.
  4. 1 2 Julig & Hurley 1987.
  5. ↑ Herz, Garrison & 1998 125.
  6. ↑ Reynolds & MacKinnon 1998-2002.
  7. 1 2 Day 2003.
  8. ↑ Shaw nd.
  9. ↑ Gibbon & Ames 1998.
  10. ↑ AlbertaJasper nd.
  11. ↑ CNRC nd.
  12. ↑ Cambridge 2007.
  13. ↑ Meltzer 2009.
  14. ↑ Tamm, Kivisild & Reidla 2007.
  15. ↑ A & 1987 333.
  16. ↑ Irving & 1987 8-13.
  17. ↑ VG 1998-2009.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Harris & 1987 plate 14.
  19. ↑ Ehlers & Gibbard 2004.
  20. ↑ Frison 2000.
  21. ↑ Meyer, Daniel A. and Jason Roe Excavations at the Upper Lovett Campsite, Alberta volume 49, number 2
  22. ↑ 1998 Manitoba Archaeological Society. Web Development: Brian Schwimmer, University of Manitoba. Text and Graphics: Brian Schwimmer, Virginia Petch, Linda Larcombe Folsom Traditions
  23. 1 2 3 4 Canadian Museum of Civilization 2010.
  24. ↑ Reynolds, MacKinnon & MacDonald 1998-2002.
  25. ↑ "Evolution of Projectile Points". U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
  26. ↑ "Western Plano". Manitoba Archaeological Society. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
  27. ↑ Waldman, Carl (2009) [1985]. Atlas of the North American. New York: Facts on File. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8160-6858-6.
  28. 1 2 Flasmark & 1996 11-20.
  29. ↑ Driver 2005.
  30. 1 2 Nenan 2009.
  31. ↑ Fladmark 1983.
  32. 1 2 Fladmark et al. 371-384.
  33. ↑ Heaton 1996.
  34. ↑ T8FNs & 2012 51.
  35. ↑ Dickason, McNab & 1992 55.
  36. ↑ CEAA 2013.
  37. ↑ Whitford & Stantec 2009.
  38. ↑ Meyer, Daniel A. and Jason Roe. 2007. Excavations at the Upper Lovett Campsite, Alberta volume 49, number 2
  39. ↑ Driver, Jonathan C. 1999 Raven skeletons from Paleoindian contexts, Charlie Lake Cave, British Columbia. American Antiquity 64(2):289-298.
  40. ↑ Driver JC, Handley M, Fladmark KR, Nelson DE, Sullivan GM, and Preston R. 1996. Stratigraphy, Radiocarbon Dating, and Culture History of Charlie Lake Cave, British Columbia. Arctic 49(3):265-277.
  41. ↑ Fladmark, Knut R., Jonathan C. Driver, and Diana Alexander 1988 The Paleoindian Component at Charlie Lake Cave (HbRf 39), British Columbia. American Antiquity 53(2):371-384.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 Barnable 2008, p. 11.
  43. ↑ Smith 1997.
  44. ↑ Parks Canada nd.
  45. ↑ Carlson 2001.
  46. ↑ Fladmark & 1986 50.
  47. ↑ Hutchinson Encyclopedia
  48. ↑ Collections Canada 2000.
  49. ↑ Gerry Oetelaar. "In the Beginning" (PDF). Parkdale Community Heritage Inventory (Calgary): 6–7. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  50. ↑ (PSWG) Paskapoo Slopes Stakeholder Working Group (2009). "Paskapoo Slopes Natural Park". The Broadcaster (September). Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  51. ↑ Carlson 1996a.
  52. ↑ Reeves 1998, p. iii.
  53. ↑ "Ripley Ridge Retreat History". Ripley Ridge Retreat. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  54. ↑ City of Calgary & 2005-2013 47.
  55. ↑ Spurling & Ball 1981.
  56. ↑ Elaine Anton.2004.
  57. ↑ UBC Museum of Anthropology nd, p. 9.
  58. 1 2 Andrews 2010.
  59. ↑ Chisholm & Gutsche 1998, p. 178.
  60. 1 2 Chisholm & Gutsche 1998, p. 136-7.
  61. ↑ Chisholm & Gutsche 1998, p. 132.
  62. ↑ Warrick 1990.
  63. ↑ Warrick 2008.
  64. ↑ Archeological Services, Inc., Mantle Site; see also the entries for the Aurora (Old Fort) and Ratcliff Wendat ancestral village sites in Whitchurch-Stouffville.
  65. ↑ James F. Pendergast, "The Confusing Identities Attributed to Stadacona and Hochelaga", Journal of Canadian Studies, Winter 1998, pp. 3–4, accessed Feb 3, 2010.
  66. ↑ Burgar & Crinnion 2005.
  67. ↑ Ridington 1979.
  68. 1 2 3 Leslie 2002.
  69. ↑ Residential Schools Assembly of First Nations.
  70. ↑ Morris 1880.
  71. ↑ Clegg 1982.
  72. ↑ Constitution Act
  73. ↑ Wonders, William C. (1 April 1983). "Far Corner Of The Strange Empire Central Alberta On The Eve Of Homestead Settlement". Great Plains Quarterly. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  74. ↑ Grant 1996.
  75. ↑ Logotheti 1991, p. 17.
  76. ↑ Curry & Friesen 2008.
  77. ↑ Curry & Howlett 2007.
  78. ↑ Bryce, Peter Henderson. 1922. The Story of a National Crime: an Appeal for Justice
  79. ↑ Assembly of First Nations Assembly of First Nations – The Story
  80. 1 2 First Nations Studies Program 2009 White Paper
  81. ↑ Hawthorn, Harry B. October 1966. A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies The Hawthorn Report. Part 1
  82. ↑ Hawthorn, Harry B. October 1966. A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies The Hawthorn Report. Part 2
  83. ↑ Johnston, Patrick (1983). Native Children and the Child Welfare System. Publisher: Canadian Council on Social Development. Ottawa, Ontario
  84. ↑ CBC Radio (March 12, 1983) "Stolen generations" Program: Our Native Land. Broadcast Date: March 12, 1983.
  85. ↑ Lyons, T. (2000). "Stolen Nation," in Eye Weekly, January 13, 2000. Toronto Star Newspapers Limited.
  86. ↑ INAC 1996.
  87. ↑ INAC 2007.
  88. ↑ Jürgen 2001.
  89. ↑ Lambert 2013.
  90. 1 2 Parkinson 2006.
  91. ↑ INAC 1996a.
  92. ↑ BC nd.
  93. 1 2 Assembly of First Nations 2014.
  94. 1 2 3 CBC 2009.
  95. 1 2 Residential School Settlement 2006.
  96. ↑ Residential School Settlement
  97. ↑ CBC 2008.
  98. ↑ University of Winnipeg nd.

References

Further reading

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