Timeline of feminism in the United States

This is a timeline of feminism in the United States. It contains feminist and antifeminist events.

1700s

1776

• Abigail Adams writes to her husband John at the Continental Congress on March 31: "...remember the ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation."^[1]

1777

• Women lose the right to vote in New York.^[2]

1780

• Women lose the right to vote in Massachusetts.^[2]

1784

• Women lose the right to vote in New Hampshire.^[2]

1787

• The U.S. Constitutional Convention places voting qualifications in the hands of the states. Women in all states except New Jersey lose the right to vote.^[2]

1790

• The state of New Jersey grants the vote to "all free inhabitants," including women.^[3]

1794

• Susanna Rowson publishes her novel Charlotte Temple in the U.S.. Its sales are not surpassed until Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin appears in 1852.^[4] It portrays a British soldier who seduces a British schoolgirl, transports her to the U.S., and abandons her when she becomes pregnant.^[5]

1799

• Mary Wollstonecraft's novel Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman is published in the U.S.^[6]

1800s

1800 to 1850

1807

• Women lose the right to vote in New Jersey, the last state to revoke the right.^[2]

1809

• Connecticut allows married women to execute wills.^[7]

1815

• Clarissa Danforth was ordained in New England. She was the first woman ordained by the Free Will Baptist denomination.

1821

• Maine allows married women to manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse.^[8]

1833

• The first co-educational institution of higher learning, Oberlin College, is founded in Ohio. It grants women degrees equivalent to those granted men beginning in 1841.^[9]

1834

• The New York Female Moral Reform Society is founded. It aims to transform the lives of prostitutes by providing shelter and moral guidance. Hundreds of similar groups are organized in the 1840s in New York and New England.^[10]

1835

• Arkansas allows married women to manage property in their own name, but not to buy or sell it.^[11]

1837

• Women organize the Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, the first assembly to discuss the rights of women, especially African-American women.^[12]

1838

• Kentucky gives school suffrage, the right to vote at school meetings, to widows with children of school age.^[13]
• Iowa becomes the first U.S. state to allow a mother to have sole custody of a child in the event of divorce.^[13]

1839

• Mississippi is the first U.S. state to give married women limited property rights.^[13]
• Mississippi's Married Women's Property Act 1839 grants married women the right to manage property in their own name.^[14]

1840

• The Texas Constitution–adopted by the Republic of Texas before statehood–allows married women to own property in their own name.^[15]

1844

• Maine is the first U.S. state to enact legislation allowing married women to own separate property in their own name (separate economy).^[16] Its Sole Trader Law grants married women the ability to engage in business without their husbands' consent.^[13]
• Massachusetts grants married women separate economy.^[17]
• Pennsylvania and Michigan enact criminal seduction statutes, transforming earlier civil charges that could only be brought by the father of a woman who consented to sexual relations on the basis of a promise of marriage, into a criminal offense prosecuted by the state. Twenty states had such a statutes by 1900 and 35 by 1935, sometimes called criminal coercion.^[18]

1845

• New York allows married women to hold patent rights.^[19]

1848

• New York's Married Women's Property Act grants married women separate economy.^[20]
• On June 14–15, presidential candidate Gerrit Smith makes women's suffrage a plank in the Liberty Party platform at the party's convention in New York.^[21]
• The Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, meets in New York in July.^[12][22] Women's suffrage is proposed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and agreed to after an impassioned argument from Frederick Douglass.^[2]

1849

• Elizabeth Blackwell, born in England, becomes the first female medical doctor in the U.S.^[23]

1850

• Ohio feminists organized a convention in April to start a petition for women's equal legal and political rights, the petition to be presented to the Ohio legislature.^[24]
• California's Married Women's Property Act grants married women separate economy.^[25]
• Wisconsin's Married Women's Property Act grants married women separate economy.^[25]
• Oregon allows unmarried women to own land.
• The first National Women's Rights Convention was organized by Lucy Stone and Paulina Wright Davis, held in Worcester, Massachusetts, in October.

1898

• Hawker v. New York, 170 U.S. 189 (1898), is a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States upheld a New York state law preventing convicted felons from practicing medicine (in this case, performing abortions), even when the felony conviction occurred before the law was enacted.

1851 to 1899

1852

• New Jersey grants married women separate economy.^[17]

1853

• Antoinette Brown Blackwell was the first woman ordained as a minister in the United States.^[26] She was ordained by a church belonging to the Congregationalist Church.^[27] However, her ordination was not recognized by the denomination.^[28] She later quit the church and became a Unitarian.^[28] The Congregationalists later merged with others to create the United Church of Christ, which ordains women.^[28][29]
• On the occasion of the World's Fair in New York City, suffragists hold a meeting in the Broadway Tabernacle.^[3]

1854

• Massachusetts grants married women separate economy.^[25]
• Nineteenth-century United States advocates Mary Gove Nichols and Thomas Low Nichols publish Marriage: Its History, Character, and Results.^[30]

1855

• Michigan grants married women separate economy.
• The University of Iowa is founded, the first coeducational non-private university in the United States.^[9]

1857

• Maine grants married women the right to control their own earnings.^[17]

1859

• Kansas' Married Women's Property Act grants married women separate economy.^[25]

1860

• New York passes a revised Married Women's Property Act that gives women shared ownership of their children, allowing them to have a say in their children's wills, wages, and granting them the right to inherit property.

1861-1865

• The American Civil War. Most suffragists focused on the war effort and suffrage activity was minimal.^[3]

1861

• Kansas gives school suffrage to all women. Many U.S. states do likewise before 1900.^[13]

1866

• Helenor M. Davison was ordained as a deacon by the North Indiana Conference of the Methodist Protestant Church, probably making her the first ordained woman in the Methodist tradition.

1867

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone address a subcommittee of the New York State Constitutional Convention requesting that the revised constitution include woman suffrage. Their efforts fail.
• Kansas holds a state referendum on whether to enfranchise women and/or black males. Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton traverse the state speaking in favor of women suffrage. Both women and black male suffrage is voted down.^[31]
• The American Equal Rights Association, working for suffrage for both women and African Americans, is formed at the initiative of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.^[2]

1869

• Wyoming grants women the right to vote, the first U.S. state to do so.^[32]
• The suffrage movement splits into the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association. The NWSA is formed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony after their accusing abolitionist and Republican supporters of emphasizing black civil rights at the expense of women's rights. The AWSA is formed by Lucy Stone, Julia Ward Howe, and Thomas Wentworth Higginson, and it protests the confrontational tactics of the NWSA and tied itself closely to the Republican Party while concentrating solely on securing the vote for women state by state.^[33] Elizabeth Cady Stanton was the first president of the National Woman Suffrage Association, a position she held until 1893.^[34] Julia Ward Howe was the first president of the American Woman Suffrage Association.^[35]
• Arabella Mansfield became the first female lawyer in the United States in 1869, when she was admitted to the Iowa bar.

1870

• The AWSA launches its weekly Woman's Journal edited by Lucy Stone. It focuses narrowly on voting rights and acknowledges that voting rights for former slaves is a higher priority than women's suffrage. It ceases publication in 1931.^[36]
• The Utah Territory grants women the right to vote.^[37]
• The 15th amendment to the U. S. Constitution is adopted. The amendment grants suffrage to former male African-American slaves, but not to women. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton oppose the amendment, which for the first time in the constitution uses the word "males" with regard to a counting device for Congressional representation. Many of their former allies in the abolitionist movement, including Lucy Stone, support the amendment.^[31]
• Wyoming territory grants its first women suffrage since 1807.^[2]
• Ada Kepley became the first American woman to graduate from law school, and the first woman to graduate from law school in the United States, when she graduated from Union College of Law (now Northwestern).

1871

• Victoria Woodhull speaks to the Judiciary Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives, arguing that women have the right to vote under the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, but the committee does not agree.^[31]
• The Anti-Suffrage Society is formed.^[2]

1872

• A suffrage proposal before the Dakota Territory legislature loses by one vote.^[3]
• Susan B. Anthony registers and votes in Rochester, New York, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution gives her that right. However, she is arrested a few days later.^[31]
• Victoria Woodhull runs for president of the U.S., the first woman to do so, as the candidate of the Equal Rights Party.^[38]

1873

• Susan B. Anthony is denied a trial by jury and loses her case.^[2]
• There is a suffrage demonstration at the Centennial of the Boston Tea Party.^[2]
• In 1873 Congress adopted the Comstock Act, which prohibited the importation or mailing of "obscene matter". The law's definition of obscene matter included contraceptives or information about contraception.
• Bradwell v. State of Illinois, 83 U.S. 130 (1873), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the court ruled that Illinois constitutionally denied law licenses to women, because the right to practice law was not one of the privileges and immunities guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. Illinois Supreme Court affirmed.

1874

• In the case of Minor v. Happersett, the Supreme Court rules that the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution does not grant women the right to vote.^[3]
• There is a referendum in Michigan on women's suffrage, but women's suffrage loses.^[3]

1875

• Women in Michigan and Minnesota win the right to vote in school elections.^[3]

1878

• A federal amendment to grant women the right to vote is introduced for the first time by Senator A.A. Sargeant of California.^[3]

1880

• Anna Howard Shaw was the first woman ordained in the Methodist Protestant Church, an American church which later merged with other denominations to form the United Methodist Church.^[39]
• New York state grants school suffrage to women.^[31]

1882

• The U.S. House and Senate both appoint committees on women's suffrage, which both report favorably.^[2]

1883

• Women in the Washington territory are granted full voting rights.^[3]

1884

• The U.S. House of Representatives debates women's suffrage.^[2]

1886

• All but six U.S. states allow divorce on grounds of cruelty.^[13]
• In his novel The Bostonians, Henry James coins the term "Boston marriage" to denote a long-term co-habiting relationship between two unmarried women.^[40]
• The suffrage amendment is defeated two to one in the U.S. Senate.^[2]

1887

• The federal government abolishes women's suffrage in the Utah Territory with the Edmunds-Tucker Act.^[37]
• Women in Utah lose the right to vote.^[2]
• The Supreme Court strikes down the law that enfranchised women in the Washington territory.^[3]
• In Kansas, women win the right to vote in municipal elections.^[3]
• Rhode Island becomes the first eastern state to vote on a women's suffrage referendum, but it does not pass.^[3]

1889

• Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr co-found Hull House in Chicago, the first settlement house in the U.S.^[41]
• The Nolin Presbytery of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church ordained Louisa Woosley as the first female minister of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, USA.^[42]
• Ella Niswonger was the first woman ordained in the American United Brethren Church, which later merged with other denominations to form the American United Methodist Church, which has ordained women with full clergy rights and conference membership since 1956.^[43]

1890

• The National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association merge to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Its first president is Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The focus turns to working at the state level.^[2][3][33]
• A suffrage campaign loses in South Dakota.^[2]

1893

• After a campaign led by Carrie Chapman Catt, Colorado men vote for women suffrage.^[2]
• Colorado grants women the right to vote.^[44]

1894

• Despite 600,000 signatures, a petition for women suffrage is ignored in New York.^[2]

1895

• Women suffrage returns to Utah.^[2]
• The New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage begins.^[3]
• The National American Woman Suffrage Association formally condemns Elizabeth Cady Stanton's Women's Bible, a critique of Christianity.^[3]
• Almost all U.S. states have passed some form of Sole Trader Law, Property Law, and Earnings Law, granting married women the right to trade without their husbands' consent, own or control their own property, and control their own earnings.^[13]

1896

• On January 4, Utah becomes a state and its constitution providing for women's suffrage takes effect.^[37]
• Idaho grants women the right to vote.^[45]
• The National American Woman Suffrage Association hires Ida Husted Harper to launch an expensive suffrage campaign in California, which ultimately fails.^[3]

1897

• The New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage was founded in 1897; by 1908 it had over 90 members.^[46]
• The National American Woman Suffrage Association begins publishing the National Suffrage Bulletin, edited by Carrie Chapman Catt.^[3]

1900s

1900 to 1959

1900

• Carrie Chapman Catt becomes the new leader of the National American Woman Suffrage Association.^[2]

1902

• Women from 10 nations meet in Washington, D.C. to plan an international effort for suffrage. Clara Barton is among the speakers.^[3]
• The men of New Hampshire vote down a women's suffrage referendum.^[3]

1904

• The National American Woman Suffrage Association adopts a Declaration of Principles.^[2]
• Because Carrie Chapman Catt must attend to her dying husband, Anna Howard Shaw takes over as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association.^[3]

1906

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton's daughter, Harriot Stanton Blatch, returns from England and disapproves of the National American Woman Suffrage Association's conservatism. She responds by forming the Equality League of Self Supporting Women, to reach out to the working class.^[3]

1907

• Section 3 of the Expatriation Act of 1907 provided for loss of citizenship by American women who married aliens.^[47] Section 4 provided for retention of American citizenship by formerly alien women who had acquired citizenship by marriage to an American after the termination of their marriages. Women residing in the US would retain their American citizenship automatically if they did not explicitly renounce; women residing abroad would have the option to retain American citizenship by registration with a US.consul.^[48] The aim of these provisions was to prevent cases of multiple nationality among women.^[49] Nevertheless, these resulted in significant protests by members of the women's suffrage movement, and just two years after women gained the franchise, they were repealed by the Cable Act of 1922.^[48][50] However, the Cable Act itself continued to provide for the loss of citizenship by American women who married "aliens ineligible to citizenship,", namely Asians.^[51]

1909

• In Illinois, women are first elected to the procurer of the Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assembly of Chicago - the Bahai Temple Unity. Of the nine members elected by secret ballot three were women with Corinne True (later appointed as a Hand of the Cause) serving as an officer.^[52]
• A Geneva branch of the New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage was founded in 1909.^[53]

1910

• Emma Smith DeVoe organizes a grassroots campaign in Washington State, where women win suffrage.^[3]
• Harriet Stanton Blatch's Equality League changes its name to the Women's Political Union.^[3]
• Emulating the grassroots tactics of labor activists, the Women's Political Union organizes America's first large-scale suffrage parade, which is held in New York City.^[3]
• Washington grants women the right to vote.^[54]

1911

• California grants women the right to vote.^[55]
• California grants women suffrage.^[2]
• In New York City, 3,000 people march for women suffrage.^[2]

1912

• Oregon, Kansas, and Arizona grant women the right to vote.^[56]
• The all-male administrative bodies in the United States of the Bahá'í Faith are dissolved by `Abdu'l-Bahá during his visit to America and replaced with integrated institutions.^[52]
• Abigail Scott Duniway dissuades members of the National American Woman Suffrage Association from involving themselves in Oregon's grassroots suffrage campaign; Oregon women win the vote.^[3]
• Alaska's territorial legislature grants women suffrage.^[3]

1913

• Alice Paul becomes the leader of the Congressional Union (CU), a militant branch of the National American Woman Suffrage Association.^[3]
• Alice Paul organizes the women's suffrage parade on the eve of Wilson's inauguration. It is the largest suffrage parade to date and consists of 10,000 people marching down Fifth Avenue in New York City on May 10. The parade is attacked by a mob. Hundreds of women are injured, but no arrests are made.^[2][3][57]
• The Alaskan Territory grants women suffrage.^[2]
• Illinois grants municipal and presidential but not state suffrage to women.^[2]
• Kate Gordon organizes the Southern States Woman Suffrage Conference, where suffragists plan to lobby state legislatures for laws that will enfranchise white women only.^[3]
• The Senate votes on a women suffrage amendment, but it does not pass.^[3]

1914

• Montana and Nevada grant women the right to vote.^[56]
• The Congressional Union alienates leaders of the National American Woman Suffrage Association by campaigning against pro-suffrage Democrats in the congressional elections.^[3]

1915

• The American Medical Association admits its first women members.
• The Woman's Peace Party is organized at a convention in Washington, D.C., in January, a response to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.^[58]
• Anna Howard Shaw's tactical conservatism culminates in a loss of support from the National American Woman Suffrage Association members. She resigns and Carrie Chapman Catt replaces her as president.^[3]

1916

• Margaret Sanger opens the first birth control clinic in the U.S.^[59]
• Alice Paul and others break away from the National American Woman Suffrage Association and form the National Women's Party.^[2]
• Woodrow Wilson promises that the Democratic Party Platform will endorse women suffrage.^[3]
• Montana elects suffragist Jeannette Rankin to the House of Representatives.^[3] She is the first woman elected to the U.S. Congress.^[60]

1917

• New York grants women the right to vote.^[56]
• On July 4, thirteen members of the National Woman's Party are arrested after mounting a suffrage protest at the White House,^[61] the first of a series of such protests.
• Jeannette Rankin of Montana becomes the first woman to serve in the U.S. House of Representatives. She serves from 1917 to 1919 and again from 1941 to 1943.^[62]
• Beginning in January, the National Women's Party posts silent "Sentinels of Liberty," also known as the Silent Sentinels, at the White House. The National Women's Party is the first group to picket the White House. In June, the arrests begin. Nearly 500 women are arrested, and 168 women serve jail time.^[2][63][64]
• November 14, 1917: The "Night of Terror" occurs at the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia, in which suffragist prisoners are beaten and abused.^[65]
• The U.S. enters W.W.I. Under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, the National American Woman Suffrage Association aligns itself with the war effort in order to gain support for women's suffrage.^[3]
• Arkansas grants women the right to vote in primary, but not general elections.^[3]
• Indiana grants women presidential suffrage.^[2]
• Nebraska grants women presidential suffrage.^[2]
• North Dakota grants women presidential suffrage.^[2]
• Michigan grants women presidential suffrage.^[2]
• Rhode Island grants women presidential suffrage.^[2]
• The Oklahoma state constitution grants women suffrage.^[2]
• The South Dakota state constitution grants women suffrage.^[2]

1918

• Margaret Sanger was charged under the New York law against disseminating contraceptive information. On appeal, her conviction was reversed on the grounds that contraceptive devices could legally be promoted for the cure and prevention of disease.
• The first two women are admitted to the American Bar Association on August 28 at the organization's annual meeting in Cleveland.^[66]
• Michigan, South Dakota, and Oklahoma grant women the right to vote.^[56]
• Alma Bridwell White, head of the Pillar of Fire Church, became the first woman to be a bishop in the United States.^[67][68]
• The jailed suffragists are released from prison. An appellate court rules all the arrests were illegal.^[2]
• The Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which eventually granted women suffrage, passes the U.S. House with exactly a two-thirds vote but loses by two votes in the Senate. Jeannette Rankin opened debate on it in the House, and President Wilson addressed the Senate in support of it.^[2][3]
• President Wilson declares his support for women suffrage.^[2]

1919

• After President Woodrow Wilson calls a special session of Congress to consider the proposed women's suffrage amendment, the House of Representatives passes it on May 21 and the Senate passes it on June 4.
• Michigan grants women full suffrage.^[3]
• Oklahoma grants women full suffrage.^[3]
• South Dakota grants women full suffrage.^[3]
• The National American Woman Suffrage Association holds its convention in St. Louis, where Carrie Chapman Catt rallies to transform the association into the League of Women Voters.^[3]
• In January, the National Women's Party lights and guards a "Watchfire for Freedom." It is maintained until the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution passes the U.S. Senate on June 4.^[2]

1920

• On August 18, Tennessee becomes the 36th state to ratify the women's suffrage amendment. It becomes the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and takes effect a few days later.^[69]
• In the case of Hawke v. Smith, anti-suffragists file suit against the Ohio legislature, but the Supreme Court upholds the constitutionality of Ohio's ratification process.^[3]
• Wife beating is outlawed nationwide.^[70][71]

1921

• Margaret Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which later became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

1922

• The Jewish Reform movement's Central Conference of American Rabbis stated that "...woman cannot justly be denied the privilege of ordination."^[72] However, the first woman in Reform Judaism to be ordained (Sally Priesand) was not ordained until 1972^[73]
• The Cable Act of 1922 (ch. 411, 42 Stat. 1021, "Married Women’s Independent Nationality Act") was a United States federal law that reversed former immigration laws regarding marriage.(It is also known as the Married Women's Citizenship Act or the Women's Citizenship Act). Previously, a woman lost her US citizenship if she married a foreign man, since she assumed the citizenship of her husband, a law that did not apply to US citizen men who married foreign women. The law repealed sections 3 and 4 of the Expatriation Act of 1907.^[74] However, The Cable Act of 1922 guaranteed independent female citizenship only to women who were married to an "alien eligible to naturalization."^[75] At the time of the law's passage, Asian aliens were not considered to be racially eligible for US citizenship.^[76][77] As such, the Cable Act only partially reversed previous policies and allowed women to retain their US citizenship after marrying a foreigner who was not Asian. Thus, even after the Cable Act become effective, any woman who married an Asian alien lost her US citizenship, just as under the previous law. The Cable Act also had other limitations: a woman could keep her US citizenship after marrying a non-Asian alien if she stayed within the United States. However, if she married a foreigner and lived on foreign soil for two years, she could still lose her right to US nationality.
• In Leser v. Garnett (1922), the Supreme Court rejected claims that the Nineteenth amendment was unconstitutionally adopted.

1925

• Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming becomes the first female governor, elected in November 1924 to succeed her husband, who died in October.^[78]

1927

• Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927), is a decision of the United States Supreme Court, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., in regards to the case of Carrie Buck, in which the Court ruled that a state statute permitting compulsory sterilization of the unfit, including the intellectually disabled, "for the protection and health of the state" did not violate the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.

1930

• A predecessor church of the Presbyterian Church (USA) ordained its first female as an elder.^[28]

1931

• An amendment to the Cable Act allowed females to retain their citizenship even if they married an Asian.^[79]

1933

• Frances Perkins becomes the first woman appointed to the U.S. Cabinet. She serves as Secretary of Labor until 1945.^[80]

1934

• The Equal Nationality Act of 1934 was an American law which allowed foreign-born children of American mothers and alien fathers who had entered America before age 18 and lived in America for five years to apply for American citizenship for the first time.^[81] It also made the naturalization process quicker for American women's alien husbands.^[81] This law equalized expatriation, immigration, naturalization, and repatriation between women and men.^[81][82] However, it was not applied retroactively, and was modified by later laws, such as the Nationality Act of 1940.^[81][83]

1936

• United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries, 86 F.2d 737 (2d Cir. 1936) (often just U.S. v. One Package), was an in rem United States Court of Appeals case in the Second Circuit involving birth control. In the case Margaret Sanger ordered a new type of diaphragm (a pessary) from a Japanese physician to be shipped from Tokyo to the United States. Upon arrival in the United States the shipment was seized and confiscated under the Tariff Act of 1930, which had incorporated the anti-contraceptive provisions of the Comstock Act. A lower court ruled against the government. When the government appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, the appellate court affirmed the lower court's ruling. The appellate court held that the law could not be used to intercept shipments which originated from a doctor.
• The Cable Act was repealed.

1941

• Jeanette Rankin, a Republican and a pacifist, is the only member of Congress to vote against declaring war on Japan following the attack on Peal Harbor.^[84]

1943

• The Women's Army Corps (WAC) becomes a branch of the U.S. Armed Forces on July 1. Its director is Oveta Culp Hobby.^[85]

1948

• The 1948 Women's Armed Services Integration Act establishes defined roles for women in the peacetime armed forces of the United States. They had previously only been allowed to serve as nurses in peacetime and in wider variety of roles only in time of war.^[86]

1950

• Burnita Shelton Matthews, nominated in 1949 by President Harry S. Truman, becomes the first female U.S. District Court judge.^[87]

1951

• Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall establishes the Defense Department Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, a civilian panel, to provide advice on policies relating to the recruitment and service of women in the Armed Forces.^[88]

1956

• The Presbyterian Church (USA) ordained its first female minister, Margaret Towner.^[89]

1959

• Arlene Pieper became the first woman to officially finish a marathon in the United States when she finished the Pikes Peak Marathon in Manitou Springs, Colorado, in 1959.^[90][91]

1960s

1960

• The Flemming Rule of 1960, named after Arthur Flemming, was an administrative ruling which decreed that U.S. states could not deny income assistance eligibility through the U.S. Aid to Families with Dependent Children program on the basis of a home being considered unsuitable per the woman's children being termed as illegitimate
• The FDA approved America's first commercially produced birth-control bill - Enovid-10, made by the G.D. Searle Company of Chicago, Illinois.^[92]
• The first accredited women's studies course in the United States was held in 1960 at the University of Kansas.^[93]

1961

• Poe v. Ullman, 367 U.S. 497 (1961), was a United States Supreme Court case that held that plaintiffs lacked standing to challenge a Connecticut law that banned the use of contraceptives, and banned doctors from advising their use, because the law had never been enforced. Therefore, any challenge to the law was deemed unripe, because there was no actual threat of injury to anyone who disobeyed the law. The same statute would later be challenged yet again (successfully) in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965).
• Hoyt v. Florida, 368 U.S. 57 (1961), was a United States Supreme Court case that held that the Florida jury service was not unconstitutional in not selecting women unless they were to volunteer for it, and that a jury should not be selected based on individual cases, but broadly indiscriminately.

1962

• Helen Gurley Brown publishes an advice book, Sex and the Single Girl, that encourages women to become financially independent and experience sexual relationships before or without marriage. It sells two million copies in three weeks.^[94]
• Lucille Ball becomes the first woman to run a major television studio, Desilu Productions, which she founded with her husband Desi Arnaz in 1952.^[95]

1963

• Mary McCarthy publishes her novel, The Group, the story of several highly educated women from affluent backgrounds who strive for autonomy despite societal expectation of marriage and childbirth.^[96]
• The report of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women finds discrimination against women in every aspect of American life and outlines plans to achieve equality. Specific recommendations for women in the workplace included fair hiring practices, paid maternity leave, and affordable childcare.^[97][98]
• The Equal Pay Act establishes equality of pay for men and women performing equal work. It does not cover salaries based on seniority or commissions or certain merit measures. It takes effect on June 10, 1964.^[99]
• Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique is published. A best-seller, it lays the groundwork for the second-wave feminist movement in the U.S.^[98][100]
• Alice S. Rossi presents "Equality Between the Sexes: An Immodest Proposal" at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences conference.^[98][101]
• Gerda Lerner offered the first regular college course in women's history, at the New School for Social Research.^[102][103]

1964

• Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 bars employment discrimination on account of sex and other characteristics by private employers, employment agencies, and unions.
• The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission is established. It receives 50,000 complaints of gender discrimination in its first five years.^[104]
• Haven House, the first "modern" women's shelter in the world, opens in California.^[105]
• Addie Davis became the first Southern Baptist woman to be ordained.^[106] However, the Southern Baptist Convention stopped ordaining women in 2000, although existing female pastors are allowed to continue their jobs.^[28]
• Women members of the National Association of the Deaf were first allowed to vote.^[107]

1965

• Casey Hayden and Mary King publish Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo,^[108] detailing women's inequality within the civil rights organization SNCC.
• The U.S. Supreme Court case Griswold v. Connecticut struck down the one remaining state law banning the use of contraceptives by married couples.^[109]
• Rachel Henderlite became the first woman ordained in the Presbyterian Church in the United States; she was ordained by the Hanover Presbytery in Virginia.^[110][111]
• The decision in Weeks v. Southern Bell opens many previously male-only jobs to women.^[112]
• The "Woman Question" is raised for the first time at a Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) conference.^[113]
• EEOC commissioners are appointed to enforce the Civil Rights Act, including one woman, Aileen Hernandez, a future president of the National Organization for Women.^[114]
• The term "sexism" is most likely coined on November 18, 1965, by Pauline M. Leet during a "Student-Faculty Forum" at Franklin and Marshall College.^[115]
• According to Jacqui Ceballos, "Women at a 1965 SDS conference [were] put down with she just needs a good screw; the following year SDS women [were] pelted with tomatoes when they demand[ed] a plank on women's liberation."^[116]

1966

• Twenty-eight women, among them Betty Friedan, found the National Organization for Women (NOW) to function as a civil rights organization for women. Friedan becomes its first president.^[117]
• Barbara Jordan is elected to the Texas Senate, the first African-American woman in the Texas legislature.
• Flight attendants file Title VII complaints about being forced to quit when they marry, become pregnant, or reach age 35.

1967

• American feminist Valerie Solanas publishes "SCUM Manifesto".^[118][119]
• Executive Order 11375 expands President Johnson's 1965 affirmative action policy to cover discrimination based on sex, resulting in federal agencies and contractors taking active measures to ensure that all women as well as minorities have access to educational and employment opportunities equal to white males.^[120]
• Women's liberation groups spring up all over the U.S.^[121]
• NOW begins petitioning the EEOC to end sex-segregated want ads and adopts a Bill of Rights for Women.^[122]
• Senator Eugene McCarthy introduces the Equal Rights Amendment in the U.S. Senate.^[123]
• New York Radical Women is formed by Shulamith Firestone and Pam Allen.^{[124][125][126]}
• Anne Koedt organizes "consciousness raising" groups.^[127]
• The National Welfare Rights Organization is formed.^[128]
• The first and only national convention of the National Conference for New Politics is held, which Shulamith Firestone attends; a woman's caucus is formed there, and it (led by Shulamith Firestone and Jo Freeman) tries to present its own demands to the plenary session.^[129] However, the women are told their resolution is not important enough for a floor discussion, and when through threatening to tie up the convention with procedural motions they succeed in having their statement tacked to the end of the agenda, it is never discussed.^[130] When the National Conference for New Politics Director Willam F. Pepper refuses to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead calls on someone to speak about the American Indian, five women, including Firestone, rush the podium to demand to know why.^[130] But Willam F. Pepper pats Firestone on the head and says, "Move on little girl; we have more important issues to talk about here than women's liberation," or possibly, "Cool down, little girl. We have more important things to talk about than women's problems."^[129][130]

1968

• Robin Morgan leads members of New York Radical Women in the No More Miss America protest against sexism and racism at the Miss America Pageant of 1968.^[98][131]
• The first national gathering of women's liberation activists is held in Lake Villa, Illinois.^[132]
• Coretta Scott King assumes leadership of the African-American Civil Rights Movement following the death of her husband, and expands the movement's platform to include women's rights.^[133]
• The EEOC issues revised guidelines on sex discrimination, making it clear that the widespread practice of publishing "help wanted" advertisements that use "male" and "female" column headings violates Title VII.^[134]
• New York feminists bury a dummy representing "Traditional Womanhood" at the all-women's Jeannette Rankin Brigade demonstration against the Vietnam War in Washington, D.C.^[98]
• The first public speakout against abortion laws is held in New York City.^[98]
• Notes from the First Year, a women's liberation theoretical journal, is published by New York Radical Women.^[135]
• NOW celebrates Mother's Day with the slogan "Rights, Not Roses".^[136]
• Mary Daly, professor of theology at Boston College, publishes a critique of the Catholic Church's view and treatment of women entitled The Church and the Second Sex.^[137]
• The term "sexism" appears in print for the first time in Caroline Bird's speech "On Being Born Female", published on November 15, 1968, in Vital Speeches of the Day.^[115] In this speech she said in part, "There is recognition abroad that we are in many ways a sexist country. Sexism is judging people by their sex when sex doesn’t matter. Sexism is intended to rhyme with racism."^[115]
• The American Newspaper Publishers Association and The Washington Star filed suit in federal court challenging the authority of the EEOC to issue its regulation eliminating sex-segregated classified job advertising and charging compliance with the regulation would hurt job seekers, employers, and newspapers.^[138]
• King v. Smith, 392 U.S. 309 (1968), was a decision in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that U.S. Aid to Families with Dependent Children could not be withheld because of the presence of a "substitute father" who visited a family on weekends.
• Shirley Chisholm became the first African American woman elected to Congress. ^[139]

1969

• The radical organization Redstockings is organized.^[140]
• Members of Redstockings disrupt a New York Legislature hearing on abortion laws where the panel of witnesses are 14 men and a nun.^[98]
• The National Association for the Repeal of Abortion Laws (NARAL), later NARAL Pro-Choice America, is founded.^[141]
• California becomes the first state to adopt a "no fault" divorce law, allowing couples to divorce by mutual consent. By 2010 every state has adopted a similar law. California also passes legislation regarding equal division of common property.
• The FBI began an investigation of the feminist movement for possible subversive activity.^[138]
• In 1969, the New Left is present at a Counter-Inaugural to Richard Nixon’s first inauguration, at which the antiwar leader Dave Dellinger, serving as master of ceremonies, incorrectly announces, “The women have asked all the men to leave the stage.”^[142] After that, SDS activist Marilyn Salzman Webb attempts to speak about women's oppression, and SDS men heckle her, shouting, "Take her off the stage and fuck her!" and so forth until she is drowned out.^{[142][143][144][145]} Later Webb receives a threatening phone call which she thinks is from Cathy Wilkerson, but that was not confirmed, and it may have been from a government agent.^[144]
• Weeks v. Southern Bell was an important sex discrimination case in which Lorena Weeks claimed that Southern Bell had violated her rights under the 1964 Civil Rights Act when they denied her application for promotion to a higher paying position because she was a woman. She was represented in the case by Sylvia Roberts, a National Organization for Women attorney. She lost the initial case but won in 1969 after several appeals. Weeks v. Southern Bell was an important case as it marked the first victory in which NOW used the Civil Rights Act to fight gender-based discrimination.
• Faith Seidenberg and Karen DeCrow entered McSorley's Old Ale House, then an all-male establishment, and were refused service. They sued for discrimination. The case decision made the front page of The New York Times on June 26, 1970.^[146] The suit, Seidenberg v. McSorleys' Old Ale House (1970, United States District Court, S. D. New York) established that, as a public place, the ale house could not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution.^[147]
• Rep. Charlotte Reid (R-Ill.) became the first woman to wear trousers in the U.S. Congress.^[148]

1970s

1970

• On November 22, 1970, Elizabeth Alvina Platz became the first woman ordained by the Lutheran Church in America, and as such was the first woman ordained by any Lutheran denomination in America.^[149] The first woman ordained by the American Lutheran Church, Barbara Andrews, was ordained in December 1970.^[150] On January 1, 1988 the Lutheran Church in America, the American Lutheran Church, and the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches merged to form the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, which continues to ordain women.^[151]
• American feminist Kate Millett publishes Sexual Politics.^[152]
• In Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co., a U.S. Court of Appeals rules jobs held by men and women must be "substantially equal" but not "identical" to fall under the protection of the Equal Pay Act, and that it is therefore illegal for employers to change the job titles of women workers in order to pay them less than men.^[153]
• Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement edited by U.S. feminist Robin Morgan, is published.
• The American women's health book Our Bodies is first published as a newsprint booklet priced at 35 cents.^[154]
• A sit-in at the offices of the Ladies' Home Journal protests "women's magazines" as sexist.^[155]
• Chicana feminists founded Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional.^[156]
• American feminist Toni Cade Bambara publishes The Black Woman.^[157]
• On August 26, the 50th anniversary of women's suffrage in the U.S., tens of thousands of women across the nation participate in the Women's Strike for Equality, organized by Betty Friedan, to demand equal rights.^[158]
• Feminist leader Bella Abzug is elected to the U.S. Congress, declaring "A woman's place is in the House".^[159]
• The AFL-CIO meets to discuss the status of women in unions. It endorses the ERA and opposed state protective legislation.^[98]
• The Lutheran Church in America and the American Lutheran Church allow women to be ordained priests.^[160]
• The U.S. Congress enacts Title X of the Public Health Service Act, the only federal program devoted to the provision of family planning services nationwide.^[161]
• The first women's studies program in the United States was established in 1970 at San Diego State College (now San Diego State University) after a year of intense organizing of women's consciousness raising groups, rallies, petition circulating, and operating unofficial or experimental classes and presentations before seven committees and assemblies.^[162][163]
• President Richard Nixon vetoed the Comprehensive Child Development Act, which would have established federally funded childcare centers throughout the U.S.^[164]
• The anti-feminist group Happiness of Womanhood (HOW) was organized at Kingman, AZ, by Jacquie Davison and three friends.^[165]
• The National Coalition of 100 Black Women was formed.^[139]

1971

• The U.S. Supreme Court rules for the first time in Reed v Reed that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits differential treatment based on sex.^[166] The pliantiffs' brief is authored by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, later an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.^[167]
• The Westbeth Playwrights Feminist Collective is founded in New York, one of the first feminist theater groups formed to write and produce plays about women's issues and to provide work experience in theatrical professions dominated by men.^{[168][169][170]}
• The first annual Women's Equality Day is celebrated on August 26.^[171][172]
• United States v. Vuitch, 402 U.S. 62 (1971) was a United States Supreme Court abortion rights case, which held that the District of Columbia's abortion law banning the practice except when necessary for the health or life of the woman was not unconstitutionally vague.
• The National Chicana Conference in Houston, Texas.^[139]

1972

• Freda Smith became the first female minister to be ordained by the Metropolitan Community Church.^[173]
• Sally Priesand became the first female rabbi to be ordained in Reform Judaism, and also the first female rabbi in the world to be ordained by any theological seminary.^[73]
• American feminists Gloria Steinem and Letty Cottin Pogrebin co-found Ms. magazine.^[174][175]
• Congress sends the Equal Rights Amendment to the states for ratification. The amendment reads: "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." ^[176]
• Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 becomes law, prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sex in federally funded education programs, including public schools and public colleges.^[177] The Amendments also expand the Equal Pay Act to cover executives, administrators, outside salespeople, and professionals.^[178]
• The National Women's Political Caucus is founded.^[179]
• Gloria Steinem delivers her Address to the Women of America.^[180]
• New York Radical Feminists hold a series of speakouts and a conference on rape and women's treatment by the criminal justice system.^[98]
• The Feminist Women's Health Center is founded in Los Angeles by Carol Downer and Lorraine Rothman.^[98]
• In San Francisco, Margo St. James organizes Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics (COYOTE) to improve the working conditions of prostitutes.^[98]
• The song "I Am Woman" performed by Helen Reddy is released as a single and sells more than a million copies.^[181]
• STOP ERA, now known as Eagle Forum, was founded in the U.S. by Phyllis Schlafly in October 1972, and lobbied successfully to block the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment in the USA.^[182]
• Midge Decter, an influential neo-conservative, published The New Chastity and Other Arguments Against Women's Liberation. ^[183]
• Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972), is a United States Supreme Court case that established the right of unmarried people to possess contraception on the same basis as married couples and, by implication, the right of unmarried couples to engage in potentially nonprocreative sexual intercourse (though not the right of unmarried people to engage in any type of sexual intercourse). The Court struck down a Massachusetts law prohibiting the distribution of contraceptives to unmarried people, ruling that it violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution.
• The Women's Rights Project at the American Civil Liberties Union was founded.
• The first scholarly journal in interdisciplinary women's studies in the United States, Feminist Studies, began publishing in 1972.^[184]
• Sarah Lawrence College began offering a Master of Arts Program in Women’s History, founded by Gerda Lerner, that was the first American graduate degree in the field.^[185]
• Asian American Women's Center, Los Angeles^[139]

1973

• American tennis player Billie Jean King defeats Bobby Riggs in the "Battle of the Sexes" tennis match in 1973.^[186]
• The Supreme Court of the United States rules in Roe v. Wade that laws prohibiting abortion are unconstitutional. States are allowed to place regulations on abortion which fall short of prohibition after the first trimester.^[187]
• The U.S. Supreme Court holds that sex-segregated help wanted ads are illegal in Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations.^[188]
• AT&T agrees to end discrimination in women's salaries and to pay retroactive compensation to women employees.^[98]
• The National Black Feminist Organization is formed.^[98]
• Mary Rowe, Affirmative Action Officer at MIT, uses the term sexual harassment in "Saturn's Rings", her report about various gender issues for the school's President and Chancellor.^[189]
• At the annual meeting of the Southern Baptist Church, delegates passed a resolution espousing male superiority. It read in part: "Man was not made for woman, but the woman for the man. Woman is the glory of man. Woman would not have existed without man." ^[190]
• Since 1973, USAID has followed the Helms Amendment ruling, banning use of U.S. government funds to provide abortion as a method of family planning anywhere in the world.^[191]
• Frontiero v. Richardson 411 U.S. 677 (1973), is a landmark United States Supreme Court case ^[192] which decided that benefits given by the United States military to the family of service members cannot be given out differently because of gender.
• Doe v. Bolton, 410 U.S. 179 (1973), was a decision of the United States Supreme Court overturning the abortion law of Georgia. The Supreme Court's decision was released on January 22, 1973, the same day as the decision in the better-known case of Roe v. Wade.

1974

• The Women's Campaign Fund was formed for the purpose of "electing qualified progressive women of both parties to public office at every level." It was the first national political action committee with the specific goal of funding women's campaigns.
• The Equal Credit Opportunity Act becomes law. It prohibits discrimination in consumer credit practices on the basis of sex, race, marital status, religion, national origin, age, or receipt of public assistance.^[193]
• In Corning Glass Works v. Brennan, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that employers cannot justify paying women lower wages because that is what they traditionally received under the "going market rate." A wage differential occurring "simply because men would not work at the low rates paid women" is unacceptable.^[194]
• First Lady Betty Ford announces her pro-choice position.^{[195][195][196]}
• The Mexican-American Women's National Association is founded.^[197]
• The American Coalition of Labor Union Women is founded.^[198]
• The Women's Educational Equity Act (WEEA) of 1974 is enacted to promote educational equity for girls and women, including those who suffer multiple discrimination based on gender and on race, ethnicity, national origin, disability, or age, and to provide funds to help education agencies and institutions meet the requirements of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972.^[199]
• Dell Williams founds the first feminist sex toy business in the United States, Eve's Garden, in New York City,^{[200][201][201]} the first woman-owned and woman-operated sex toy business in the U.S.^[200]
• The anti-abortion "March for Life" was organized for the first time by Nellie Gray.^[202]
• At the Michigan House of Representatives anti-feminists attacked the legislators in protest of a committee's refusal to rescind the Equal Rights Amendment. Sergeants-at-arms were called into the chamber to disperse the women and protect the legislators.^[202]
• Sandy Eisenberg Sasso became the first female rabbi to be ordained in Reconstructionist Judaism.^[203]
• The Philadelphia Eleven were ordained into the Priesthood of the Episcopal Church of the U.S.A.^[204]

1975

• Barbara Ostfeld-Horowitz was ordained as the first female cantor in Reform Judaism.^[205]
• In Taylor v. Louisiana, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that women can not be excluded from a jury pool on the basis of having to register for jury duty, overturning Hoyt v. Florida, the 1961 case that had allowed such a practice.^[206]
• U.S. federal employees' salaries can be garnished for child support and alimony.^[207]
• Tish Sommers, chairwoman of NOW's Older Women Task Force, coins the phrase "displaced homemaker".^[208]
• American feminist Susan Brownmiller publishes Against Our Will, her book about rape.^[209]
• NOW sponsors "Alice Doesn't" Day, asking women across the country to go on strike for one day.^[210]
• Joan Little, who was raped by a guard while in jail, is acquitted of murdering her offender. The case established a precedent for rape as self-defense against the charge of murder.^[211]
• In New York City, the First Women's Bank opens in April. It is modestly profitable for several years.^[212]
• The United States Armed Forces opens its military academies to women.^[206]
• Time names American Women as its Time Person of the Year for 1975. It says: "[F]eminism has transcended the feminist movement. In 1975 the women's drive penetrated every layer of society, matured beyond ideology to a new status of general–and sometimes unconscious–acceptance."^[213]
• The first "Take Back the Night" march is held in Philadelphia in October, following the murder of a microbiologist, Susan Alexander Speeth, who was stabbed to death while walking home alone.^[214]
• Ella T. Grasso becomes Governor of Connecticut, the first female governor who does not succeed her husband in office.^[215]
• The National Right to Life PAC was organized.^[216]

1976

• Planned Parenthood v. Danforth, 428 U.S. 52 (1976) is a United States Supreme Court case on abortion. The plaintiffs challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri statute regulating abortion. The Court upheld the right to have an abortion, declaring unconstitutional the statute's requirement of prior written consent from a parent (in the case of a minor) or a spouse (in the case of a married woman).
• Venerable Karuna Dharma became the first fully ordained female member of the Buddhist monastic community in the U.S.^[217]
• Nebraska enacts the first marital rape law, making it illegal for a husband to rape his wife.^[218]
• Congresswoman Barbara Charline Jordan of Texas, the first African-American congresswoman to come from the Deep South, delivers the keynote address to the Democratic National Convention.^[219][220]
• The Organization of Pan Asian American Women is formed for women of Asian and Pacific American Islander descent.^[221]
• Wisconsin establishes Susan B. Anthony Day as a state holiday.^[222] It is also a state holiday in West Virginia and Florida.
• Maurine Startup and her mother launched a petition drive to rescind California's ratification of the ERA. Both agreed that the 19th amendment was "unnecessary" and took the same attitude toward the ERA.^[223]
• The First Presidency of the LDS Church issued its first formal anti-ERA statement, stating that while women were entitled to additional rights, "the Equal Rights Amendment is not the answer."^[223]
• Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976), was the first case in the United States Supreme Court which determined that statutory or administrative sex-based classifications were subject to an intermediate standard of judicial review.^[224]
• Bellotti v. Baird (1976), 428 U.S. 132 (1976), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld a Massachusetts law requiring parental consent to a minor's abortion, which provided that "if one or both of the [minor]'s parents refuse ... consent, consent may be obtained by order of a judge ... for good cause shown
• Lilith, Sinister Wisdom, and Conditions founded.^[139]

1977

• On January 1, 1977, Jacqueline Means became the first woman ordained to the priesthood in the Episcopal Church.^[225] 11 women were "irregularly" ordained to the priesthood in Philadelphia on July 29, 1974, before church laws were changed to permit women's ordination.^[204] They are often called the "Philadelphia 11". Church laws were changed on September 16, 1976.^[204]
• Pauli Murray became the first African American woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest in 1977.^[226]
• The first National Women's Conference is held in Houston. Some 20,000 women from all over the country pass a National Plan of Action.^[227]
• The National Association of Cuban-American Women is established.^[228]
• The first women pilots of the United States Air Force graduate.^[229]
• The Washington Supreme Court declares that Yvonne Wanrow, on trial for murder, is entitled to have a jury consider her actions in the light of her "perceptions of the situation, including those perceptions which were the product of our nation's long and unfortunate history of sex discrimination."^[230] The ruling was the first to recognize the legal problems of women who defend themselves or their children from male attackers.^[230][231]
• Beal v. Doe, 432 U.S. 438 (1977), was a United States Supreme Court case that concerned the disbursement of federal funds in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania statute restricted federal funding to abortion clinics. The Supreme Court ruled states are not required to treat abortion in the same manner as potential motherhood. The opinion of the Court left the central holding of the Roe v. Wade decision – abortion as a right – intact.
• The National Women's Studies Association (of the United States) was established in 1977.^[232]
• The Combahee River Collective Statement hosted the first black feminist retreats to mobilize black autonomy and call for basic human rights in incorporating the of black lives in society. However, due to the inability for everyone to identify with one certain feminist stance and the lack of a clear political focal approach, they decided to become a study group that shared feminist writing that demonstrates the power of writing to develop a clear voice against oppression.^[233]

1978

• Stump v. Sparkman, 435 U.S. 349 (1978), is the leading United States Supreme Court decision on judicial immunity. It involved an Indiana judge who was sued by a young woman who had been sterilized without her knowledge as a minor in accordance with the judge's order. The Supreme Court held that the judge was immune from being sued for issuing the order because it was issued as a judicial function.
• Lauma Lagzdins Zusevics, an American, was ordained as the first woman to serve as a full-time minister for the Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.^[234]
• Mindy Jacobsen became the first blind woman to be ordained as a cantor in the history of Judaism.^[235]
• The Pregnancy Discrimination Act bans employment discrimination against pregnant women in the U.S. It prohibits requiring a woman to take pregnancy leave if she is willing and able to work.^[236]
• In the marital rape case Oregon v. Rideout, Rideout was acquitted of raping his wife.^[237]
• The Equal Rights Amendment fell three states short of ratification.^[238]
• Madrigal v. Quilligan was a federal class action lawsuit from Los Angeles County, California involving sterilization of Latina women without informed consent, or through coercion. The judge ruled in favor of the doctors, but the case led to better informed consent for patients, especially those who are not native English speakers.
• Women Against Pornography (WAP) formed in New York City.^[139]
• During 1978 the U.S. Secretary of Commerce Juanita Kreps ordered NOAA administrator Robert White to cease the sole usage of female names for hurricanes.^[239] Robert White subsequently passed the order on to the Director of NHC Neil Frank, who attended the first meeting of the hurricane committee and requested that both men’s and women’s names be used for the Atlantic.^[239] The committee subsequently decided to accept the proposal and adopted five new lists of male and female names to be used the following year.^[240]
• Judge John Sirica ruled the law banning U.S. Navy women from ships to be unconstitutional in the case Owens v. Brown. Congress approved a change to Title 10 USC Section 6015 to permit the Navy to assign women to fill sea duty billets on support and noncombatant ships. The USS Vulcan, a repair ship, received the first of many Navy women to be assigned shipboard under the amended law.^[241][242]

1979

• Bellotti v. Baird (1979), 443 U.S. 622 (1979) is a United States Supreme Court case that ruled that teenagers do not have to secure parental consent to obtain an abortion.
• Judy Chicago's art piece The Dinner Party is displayed for the first time at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.^[243]
• Concerned Women for America (CWA), an anti-feminist organization, was founded by Beverly LaHaye.^[244]
• The Reformed Church in America started ordaining women as ministers.^[245] Women had been admitted to the offices of deacon and elder in 1972.^[28]
• Colautti v. Franklin, 439 U.S. 379 (1979) was a United States Supreme Court abortion rights case, which held void for vagueness part of Pennsylvania's 1974 Abortion Control Act. The section in question was the following:

(a) Every person who performs or induces an abortion shall prior thereto have made a determination based on his experience, judgment or professional competence that the fetus is not viable, and if the determination is that the fetus is viable or if there is sufficient reason to believe that the fetus may be viable, shall exercise that degree of professional skill, care and diligence to preserve the life and health of the fetus which such person would be required to exercise in order to preserve the life and health of any fetus intended to be born and not aborted and the abortion technique employed shall be that which would provide the best opportunity for the fetus to be aborted alive so long as a different technique would not be necessary in order to preserve the life or health of the mother.

• Duren v. Missouri, 439 U.S. 357 (1979), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the court ruled that the exemption on request of women from jury service under Missouri law, resulting in an average of less than 15% women on jury venires in the forum county, violated the "fair-cross-section" requirement of the Sixth Amendment as made applicable to the States by the Fourteenth.
• March Against Pornography in New York City. ^[139]

1980s

In the U.S., the early 1980s were marked by the end of the second wave and the beginning of the feminist sex wars. Many historians view the second-wave feminist era in America as ending in the early 1980s with the intra-feminism disputes of the feminist sex wars over issues such as sexuality and pornography, which ushered in the era of third-wave feminism in the early 1990s.

1980

• Harris v. McRae, 448 U.S. 297 (1980), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that States that participated in Medicaid were not required to fund medically necessary abortions for which federal reimbursement was unavailable as a result of the Hyde Amendment, which restricted the use of federal funds for abortion. The Court also held that the funding restrictions of the Hyde Amendment did not violate either the Fifth Amendment or the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
• The Older Women's League was founded by Tish Sommers and Laurie Shields.
• Gerda Lerner created America's first Ph.D. program in women's history, at the University of Wisconsin at Madison.
• Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press launched.^[139]

1981

• H. L. v. Matheson, 450 U.S. 398 (1981) was a United States Supreme Court abortion rights case, according to which a state may require a doctor to inform a teenaged girl's parents before performing an abortion or face criminal penalty.
• Sandra Day O'Connor became the first woman to serve as a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.^[246]
• Lynn Gottlieb became the first female rabbi to be ordained in the Jewish Renewal movement.^[247]
• Poe v. Lynchburg Training School and Hospital, Civ. A. No. 80-0172, 518 F. Supp. 789 (W.D. Va 1981) concerned whether or not patients who had been involuntarily sterilized in a state mental institution in Virginia as part of a program of eugenics in the early and mid-20th century had their constitutional rights violated. The case had been filed in 1980 by the American Civil Liberties Union's Reproductive Freedom Project on behalf of 8,000 women who had been sterilized under the program. The court ruled that the sterilization did not violate constitutional rights, and that though the statute on involuntary sterilization of "mental defectives" had since been repealed, it had previously been upheld as constitutional (in Buck v. Bell, 1927). However, the fact that state officials did not notify or provide subsequent medical services to the sterilized individuals was found to merit further consideration by the court. In a settlement reached in 1985, the state agreed to inform the women about what had been done to them and to help them get counseling and medical treatment.
• In January 1981 Christine Craft became co-anchor with Scott Feldman on the 6 p.m. and 10 p.m. newscast on KMBC-TV. Eight months into her two-year contract, Craft was removed from the anchor position in August, 1981 after a focus group had determined she was "too old, too unattractive and wouldn't defer to men." She left KMBC and returned to doing television in Santa Barbara. While working in Santa Barbara, Craft filed a Title VII lawsuit against Metromedia, and in 1983, a federal jury in Kansas City awarded her $500,000 in damages. A federal judge overturned the award and ordered a second trial, this time in Joplin, Missouri. The second jury also awarded her $500,000. Metromedia appealed and the 8th Circuit Court subsequently overturned the decision. Craft's appeal of that decision to the United States Supreme Court was denied, although Supreme Court Judge Sandra Day O'Connor did write in favor of hearing the case.^[248] Several employment-law references^[248] include her case as an example of Title VII discrimination lawsuits.^[249]
• Byllye Avery founds the National Black Women's Health Project^[250]

1982

• In Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan in 1982, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the burden is on the proponent of the discrimination to establish an "exceedingly persuasive justification" for sex-based classification to be valid.^[251] As such, the Court applied intermediate scrutiny in a way that is closer to strict scrutiny.^[252]
• In A Different Voice by Carol Gilligan is published. ^[139]

1983

• On June 18, Sally Ride becomes the first American woman in space as a crew member on space shuttle Challenger. She made another space flight in 1984.^[253]
• City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health, 462 U.S. 416 (1983),[1] was a case in which the United States Supreme Court affirmed its abortion rights jurisprudence. The case, decided June 15, 1983, struck down an Ohio abortion law with several provisions.

1984

• In the first recorded use of the phrase glass ceiling, magazine editor Gay Bryant, a woman, tells an interviewer for AdWeek that "Women have reached a certain point—I call it the glass ceiling. They're in the top of middle management and they're stopping and getting stuck."^[254]
• Geraldine Ferraro is nominated as a Democratic vice presidential candidate, the first female candidate of a major American political party.^[255][256]
• The headquarters of the National Abortion Federation (NAF) in Washington, D.C., was bombed.^[257]
• The Mexico City Policy, a United States government policy that required all non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that receive federal funding to refrain from performing or promoting abortion services as a method of family planning with non-US government funds in other countries, was enacted by President Reagan.

1985

• The anti-abortion video "The Silent Scream" was released.^[258]
• Amy Eilberg became the first female rabbi to be ordained in Conservative Judaism.^[259]

1986

• Diamond v. Charles, 476 U.S. 54 (1986), was a United States Supreme Court case that determined that citizens do not have Article III standing to challenge the constitutionality of a state statute in federal court unless they possess a "direct stake" in the outcome. This specific case was in regard to four physicians who provided abortion services in Illinois and had filed a class action lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois to challenge a 1979 amendment to the Illinois Abortion Law of 1975 which required doctors to provide a "parental consultation" before performing an abortion.
• Sexual harassment that creates a hostile environment is outlawed.^[260]
• A Lesser Life, The Myth of Women's Liberation in America, Sylvia Hewlett's antifeminist book, was published.^[261]
• Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 476 U.S. 747 (1986) was a United States Supreme Court case involving a challenge to Pennsylvania's Abortion Control Act of 1982. In the case the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists sought an injunction to all enforcement of the Pennsylvania law. Although the law in question was similar to the one in City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health, in Thornburgh the Reagan administration asked the justices to overrule Roe v. Wade, but they did not.

1987

• In re A.C. was a 1987 D.C. Circuit reproductive rights case. It was the first appellate court decision to "take a stand against" forced caesarean sections. Angela Carder (née Stoner) was forced to undergo a life-threatening Caesarean section in an unsuccessful attempt to save the life of her fetus. The case stands as a landmark in United States case law establishing the rights of pregnant women to determine their own health care. On April 26, 1990, the court issued the ruling In re A.C., which vacated the previous decisions and ruled that Angela Carder had the right to make health-care decisions for herself and her fetus. At the same time as the Court of Appeals case, the ACLU and Carder’s parents, Daniel and Nettie Stoner, instituted a civil action, Stoners v. George Washington University Hospital, et al., suing the hospital for deprivation of human rights, discrimination, wrongful death and malpractice, among other charges. In November 1990, days before the scheduled trial was to begin, the hospital settled out of court for an undisclosed amount of money and a promise of new hospital policies protecting the rights of pregnant women.
• Erica Lippitz and Marla Rosenfeld Barugel were ordained as the first female cantors in Conservative Judaism.^[262]
• California Federal S. & L. Assn. v. Guerra, 479 U.S. 272 (1987), was a United States Supreme Court case about whether a U.S. state may require employers to provide greater pregnancy benefits than required by federal law, as well as the ability to require pregnancy benefits to women without similar benefits to men. The ruling in the case was that the California Fair Employment and Housing Act in 12945(b)(2), which requires employers to provide leave and reinstatement to employees disabled by pregnancy, is consistent with federal law.
• President Ronald Reagan proclaimed March 1987 as America's first Women's History Month.^[263]

1988

• Frisby v. Schultz, 487 U.S. 474 (1988), was a United States Supreme Court case that upheld the ordinance by the town of Brookfield, Wisconsin, preventing protest outside of a residential home. In a 6–3 decision, the Court ruled that the First Amendment right to freedom of assembly and protest was not violated, stating that the government had "[legitimate reason to protect] the homes of its residents." This specific case was in regards to people who protested abortion by picketing outside the residential home of Victoria, a doctor who performed abortions.

1989

• Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992) was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in which the constitutionality of several Pennsylvania state regulations regarding abortion were challenged. The Court's plurality opinion upheld the constitutional right to have an abortion and altered the standards for analyzing restrictions of that right, invalidating one regulation but upholding the other four.
• Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, 492 U.S. 490 (1989), was a United States Supreme Court decision on July 3, 1989 upholding a Missouri law that imposed restrictions on the use of state funds, facilities, and employees in performing, assisting with, or counseling on abortions. The Supreme Court in Webster allowed for states to legislate in an area that had previously been thought to be forbidden under Roe v. Wade.
• Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989), was an important decision by the United States Supreme Court on the issue of employer liability for sex discrimination. The Court held that the employer, the accounting firm Price Waterhouse, must prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the decision regarding employment would have been the same if sex discrimination had not occurred. The accounting firm failed to prove that the same decision to postpone Ann Hopkins's promotion to partnership would have still been made in the absence of sex discrimination, and therefore, the employment decision constituted sex discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The significance of the Supreme Court's ruling was twofold. First, it established that gender stereotyping is actionable as sex discrimination. Second, it established the mixed-motive framework as an evidentiary framework for proving discrimination under a disparate treatment theory even when lawful reasons for the adverse employment action are also present.^[264]
• California state senator Rebecca Morgan became the first woman to wear trousers in a U.S. state senate.^[265]

1990s

In the early 1990s, the Riot grrrl movement begins in Olympia, Washington, and Washington, D.C. It sought to give women the power to control their voices and artistic expressions.

1990

• Hodgson v. Minnesota, 497 U.S. 417 (1990), was a United States Supreme Court abortion rights case that dealt with whether a state law may require notification of both parents before a minor can obtain an abortion. The law in question provided a judicial alternative. The conclusory ruling struck down the two-parent notification requirement; the rest of the statute, though, was voted constitutional because of its allowance for judicial bypass.
• The first Ph.D. program in women's studies in the United States was established at Emory University in 1990.^[266]

1991

• Anita Hill accused U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, her supervisor at the U.S. Department of Education and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, of sexual harassment; he was confirmed to the Supreme Court.
• In response to the Anita Hill sexual harassment case, feminist Rebecca Walker publishes an article in Ms. Magazine entitled "Becoming the Third Wave".
• In response to the Anita Hill hearings, the African American Women in Defense of Ourselves was published.^[267]
• In Automobile Workers vs. Johnson Controls, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that employers can not exclude women from jobs in which exposure to toxic substances could harm a developing fetus.^[268]
• The U.S. Senate votes overwhelmingly to open combat positions to women aviators.^[269]
• American feminist Susan Faludi publishes Backlash, about the backlash to feminism in the 1980s.^[270]
• Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173 (1991), was a United States Supreme Court case decided in 1991 that found restrictions on funding with regard to abortion counseling to be constitutional.
• Tailhook scandal, U.S. Navy and Marine Corps officers were engaged in "improper and indecent" behavior in Las Vegas, Nevada.^[139]

1992

• The November elections in what is popularly termed the "Year of the Woman" produce victories for four women in races for U.S. Senate seats, who in 1993 join the two already there.
• Third Wave Direct Action Corporation is founded by feminists Rebecca Walker and Shannon Liss as a multiracial, multicultural, multi-issue organization to support young activists.^[271]
• On November, an 8 to 7 majority of the Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces recommended that women in the armed forces not be allowed to fly combat missions or engage in ground combat.^[272]
• On May 19, 1992, Vice President Dan Quayle criticized the decision of Murphy Brown, a fictional television character portrayed by Candice Bergen, for "mocking the importance of fathers, by bearing a child alone, and calling it just another 'life style choice.'"^[273]

1993

• The Mexico City Policy, a United States government policy that required all non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that receive federal funding to refrain from performing or promoting abortion services as a method of family planning with non-US government funds in other countries, was rescinded by President Clinton.
• Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic was a United States Supreme Court case in which the court held that 42 U.S.C. 1985(3) does not provide a federal cause of action against persons obstructing access to abortion clinics. Several abortion clinics (most known was the Alexandria Health Clinic) sued to prevent Jayne Bray and other anti-abortion protesters from voicing their freedom of speech in front of the clinics in Washington D.C
• Rebecca Dubowe became the first Deaf woman to be ordained as a rabbi in the United States.^[274]
• Leslie Friedlander became the first female cantor ordained by the Academy for Jewish Religion (New York).^[275][276]
• The Family and Medical Leave Act becomes law.^[277]
• Janet Reno becomes the first female U.S. Attorney General, after it is learned that both of President Bill Clinton's previous choices, Zoe Baird and Kimba Wood, had employed illegal immigrants as nannies.
• Take Our Daughters to Work Day, later known as Take Our Daughters and Sons to Work Day, debuts, designed to build American girls' self-esteem and open their eyes to a variety of career possibilities for women.^[278]
• Marital rape is outlawed nationwide.^[279]
• Elaine Donnelly established the Center for Military Readiness, to provide research in opposition to increased roles for women in the military and any combat role for women.^[280]
• Women were not allowed to wear trousers on the U.S. Senate floor until 1993.^[281][282] In 1993, Senators Barbara Mikulski and Carol Moseley Braun wore trousers onto the floor in defiance of the rule, and female support staff followed soon after, with the rule being amended later that year by Senate Sergeant-at-Arms Martha Pope to allow women to wear trousers on the floor so long as they also wore a jacket.^[281][282]

1994

• Madsen v. Women's Health Center, Inc., 512 U.S. 753 (1994), is a United States Supreme Court case where Petitioners challenge the constitutionality of an injunction entered by a Florida state court which prohibits antiabortion protesters from demonstrating in certain places and in various ways outside of a health clinic that performs abortions. The Madsen majority sustained the constitutionality of the Clinic's thirty-six foot buffer zone and the noise-level provision, finding that they burdened no more speech than necessary to serve the injunction's goals. However, the Court struck down the thirty-six foot buffer zone as applied to the private property north and west of the Clinic, .the 'images observable' provision, the three hundred foot no-approach zone around the Clinic, and the three hundred foot buffer zone around residences. The Court found that these provisions " [swept] more broadly than necessary" to protect the state's interests.
• The Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act (FACE or the Access Act, Pub. L. No. 103-259, 108 Stat. 694) (May 26, 1994, 18 U.S.C. § 248) is a United States law that was signed by President Bill Clinton in May 1994, which prohibits the following three things: (1) the use of physical force, threat of physical force, or physical obstruction to intentionally injure, intimidate, interfere with or attempt to injure, intimidate or interfere with any person who is obtaining reproductive health services or providing reproductive health services (this portion of the law typically refers to abortion clinics), (2) the use of physical force, threat of physical force, or physical obstruction to intentionally injure, intimidate, interfere with or attempt to injure, intimidate or interfere with any person who is exercising or trying to exercise their First Amendment right of religious freedom at a place of religious worship, (3) the intentional damage or destruction of a reproductive health care facility or a place of worship.
• Lia Bass was ordained by the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, thus becoming the first Latin-American female rabbi in the world as well as the first woman from Brazil to be ordained as a rabbi.^{[283][284][285][286]}
• The Gender Equity in Education Act becomes law in the U.S. It bans sex-role stereotyping and gender discrimination in the classroom.^[287]
• The Violence Against Women Act becomes law.^[288]
• National Organization for Women v. Scheidler, 510 U.S. 249 (1994), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) could apply to enterprises without economic motives; pro-life protesters could thus be prosecuted under it. An organization without an economic motive can still affect interstate or foreign commerce and thus satisfy the Act's definition of a racketeering enterprise.
• Black Women in the Academy Conference held at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ^[139]

1995

• The Sligo Seventh-day Adventist Church in Takoma Park, Maryland, ordained three women in violation of the denomination's rules - Kendra Haloviak, Norma Osborn, and Penny Shell.^[289]
• Since 1995, U.S. presidents have issued annual proclamations designating the month of March as Women's History Month.^[290]
• U.N Fourth World Conference on Women is held in Beijing. ^[139]

1996

• The feminist play The Vagina Monologues, written by American playwright Eve Ensler, premieres in New York.^[291]
• In United States v. Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that the male-only admissions policy of the state-supported Virginia Military Institute violates the Fourteenth Amendment.^[292]
• Fauziya Kasinga, a 19-year-old member of the Tchamba-Kunsuntu tribe of Togo, is granted asylum after leaving an arranged marriage to escape female genital mutilation; this sets a precedent in US immigration law because it is the first time female genital mutilation is accepted as a form of persecution.^[293]

1997

• Schenck v. Pro-Choice Network of Western New York, 519 U.S. 357 (1997), was a case heard before the United States Supreme Court related to legal protection of access to abortion. It ruled in an 8-1 decision that "floating buffer zones" preventing protesters approaching people entering or leaving abortion clinics were unconstitutional, though "fixed buffer zones" around the clinics themselves remained constitutional.
• Madeleine Albright becomes the first woman to serve as U.S. Secretary of State.^[294]
• Layli Miller-Muro founds the Tahirih Justice Center following an asylum case dealing with female genital mutilation.^[295]
• Performing female genital mutilation on girls in the United States is outlawed.^{[296][297][298]}

1999

• The book Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women by Elizabeth Wurtzel is published.
• Beth Lockard was ordained as the first Deaf pastor in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.^[299][300]
• Tamara Kolton was ordained as the first rabbi of either sex (and therefore, because she was female, the first female rabbi) in Humanistic Judaism.^[247]
• Angela Warnick Buchdahl, born in Seoul, Korea,^[301] became the first Asian-American person to be ordained as a cantor in the world when she was ordained by HUC-JIR, an American seminary for Reform Judaism.^[302]
• Pemberton v. Tallahassee Memorial Regional Center (U.S. District Court, N.D. Florida, Tallahassee Division., October 13, 1999) is a case in the United States regarding reproductive rights. In particular, the case explored the limits of a woman's right to choose her medical treatment in light of fetal rights at the end of pregnancy. Pemberton had a previous c-section (vertical incision), and with her second child attempted to have a VBAC (vaginal birth after c-section). However, since she could not find any doctor to assist her in this endeavor, she labored at home, with a midwife. When a doctor she had approached about a related issue at the Tallahassee Memorial Regional Center found out, he and the hospital sued to force her to get a c-section. The court held that the rights of the fetus at or near birth outweighed the rights of Pemberton to determine her own medical care. She was physically forced to stop laboring, and taken to the hospital, where a c-section was performed. Her suit against the hospital was dismissed. The court held that a cesarean section at the end of a full-term pregnancy was here deemed to be medically necessary by doctors to avoid a substantial risk that the fetus would die during delivery due to uterine rupture, a risk of 4-6% according to the hospital's doctors and 2% according to Pemberton's doctors. Furthermore, the court held that a state's interest in preserving the life of an unborn child outweighed the mother's constitutional interest of bodily integrity. The court held that Roe v. Wade was not applicable, because bearing an unwanted child is a greater intrusion on the mother’s constitutional interests than undergoing a cesarean section to deliver a child that the mother affirmatively desires to deliver. The court further distinguished In re A.C. by stating that it left open the possibility that a non-consenting patient's interest would yield to a more compelling countervailing interest in an "extremely rare and truly exceptional case." The court then held this case to be such.
• A United States House of Representatives appropriations bill (HR 2490) that contained an amendment specifically permitting breastfeeding^[303] was signed into law on September 29, 1999; it stipulated that no government funds may be used to enforce any prohibition on women breastfeeding their children in federal buildings or on federal property.
• A federal law enacted in 1999 specifically provides that "a woman may breastfeed her child at any location in a federal building or on federal property, if the woman and her child are otherwise authorized to be present at the location."^[304]

2000s

2000

• Stenberg v. Carhart, 530 U.S. 914 (2000), is a case heard by the Supreme Court of the United States dealing with a Nebraska law which made performing "partial-birth abortion" illegal, without regard for the health of the mother. Nebraska physicians who performed the procedure contrary to the law were subject to having their medical licenses revoked. The Court struck down the law, finding the Nebraska statute criminalizing "partial birth abortion[s]" violated the Due Process Clause of the United States Constitution, as interpreted in Planned Parenthood v. Casey and Roe v. Wade.
• CBS agrees to pay $8 million to settle a sex discrimination lawsuit on behalf of 200 women.^[305]
• Helga Newmark, born in Germany, became the first female Holocaust survivor ordained as a rabbi. She was ordained in America.^[306][307]
• RU-486 became available in the United States in 2000.^[308]

2001

• The Mexico City Policy, a United States government policy that required all non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that receive federal funding to refrain from performing or promoting abortion services as a method of family planning with non-US government funds in other countries, was re-instituted by President Bush.
• Angela Warnick Buchdahl, born in Seoul, Korea,^[301] became the first Asian-American person to be ordained as a rabbi in the world; she was ordained by HUC-JIR, an American seminary for Reform Judaism.^[302]
• Deborah Davis was ordained as the first cantor of either sex (and therefore, since she was female, the first female cantor) in Humanistic Judaism; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped graduating cantors.^[309]

2002

• Center for Reproductive Law and Policy v. Bush, 304 F.3d 183 (2d Cir. 2002), was a case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit upheld the Bush Administration's re-imposition of the Mexico City Policy, which states that "the United States will no longer contribute to separate nongovernmental organizations which perform or actively promote abortion as a method of family planning in other nations."
• Sharon Hordes was ordained as the very first cantor in Reconstructionist Judaism. Therefore, since she was a woman, she became their first female cantor.^[310]

2003

• Scheidler v. National Organization for Women, 537 U.S. 393 (2003), is a United States Supreme Court case involving whether abortion providers could receive damages from protesters under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act. National Organization for Women (NOW) obtained class status for women seeking the use of women's health clinics and began its court battle against Joseph Scheidler and PLAN et al. in 1986. In this particular case, the court's opinion was that extortion did not apply to the defendants' actions because they did not obtain any property from the respondents (NOW and the class of women).
• The Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 (Pub.L. 108–105, 117 Stat. 1201, enacted November 5, 2003, 18 U.S.C. § 1531,^[311] PBA Ban) is enacted; it is a United States law prohibiting a form of late-term abortion that the Act calls "partial-birth abortion", referred to in medical literature as intact dilation and extraction.^[312]

2004

• The March for Women's Lives is held in Washington, D.C., to support the right to abortion, access to birth control, scientifically accurate sex education, and prevention and treatment of sexually transmitted infections, and to show public support for mothers and children.^[313]
• McCorvey v. Hill, 385 F.3d 846 (5th Cir. 2004), was a case in which the principal original litigant in Roe v. Wade, (1973) Norma McCorvey, also known as 'Jane Roe', requested the overturning of Roe. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that McCorvey could not do this; the United States Supreme Court denied certiorari on February 22, 2005, rendering the opinion of the Fifth Circuit final.

2006

• In Scheidler v. National Organization for Women (2006), the Supreme Court ruled that the Hobbs Act did not apply to the use of violence to block access to abortion clinics, because physical violence unrelated to robbery or extortion falls outside the Act's scope.
• Susan Wehle was ordained as the first American female cantor in Jewish Renewal in 2006; however, she died in 2009.^[314]
• For the first time in American history, a Buddhist ordination was held where an American woman (Sister Khanti-Khema) took the Samaneri (novice) vows with an American monk (Bhante Vimalaramsi) presiding. This was done for the Buddhist American Forest Tradition at the Dhamma Sukha Meditation Center in Missouri.
• Katharine Jefferts Schori becomes the first woman to serve as Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church.^[315]
• The Baltimore Symphony Orchestra appoints Marin Alsop its music director over the objection of many members of the orchestra, making her the first woman to lead an orchestra of its size.^[316]
• The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. that employees cannot challenge ongoing pay discrimination if the employer’s original discriminatory pay decision occurred more than 180 days earlier, even when the employee continues to receive paychecks that have been discriminatorily reduced.^[317]
• Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England, 546 U.S. 320 (2006), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States involving a facial challenge to New Hampshire's parental notification abortion law. The First Circuit had ruled that the law was unconstitutional and an injunction against its enforcement was proper. The Supreme Court vacated this judgment and remanded the case, but avoided a substantive ruling on the challenged law or a reconsideration of prior Supreme Court abortion precedent. Instead, the Court only addressed the issue of remedy, holding that invalidating a statute in its entirety "is not always necessary or justified, for lower courts may be able to render narrower declaratory and injunctive relief."

2007

• Gonzales v. Carhart, 550 U.S. 124 (2007), is a United States Supreme Court case that upheld the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003.
• The Matt Dubay child support case was a legal case between Matt Dubay and his ex-girlfriend, both of Saginaw Township, Michigan. The case was dubbed "Roe v. Wade for Men" by the National Center for Men. The case concerned whether the Michigan Paternity Act violates the United States Constitution's Equal Protection Clause, in that the Act allegedly applies to men but not to women. On March 9, 2006, the National Center for Men challenged the child support order in District Court. Michigan's Attorney General made a motion to have the case dismissed, and on July 17, 2006, District Court Judge David M. Lawson agreed and dismissed Dubay's lawsuit. The National Center for Men appealed the case to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit on May 14, 2007. Oral arguments began September 10, 2007, and in November the appeals court affirmed the District court decision, noting precedent stating that "the Fourteenth Amendment does not deny to [the] State the power to treat different classes of persons in different ways."

2008

• Diana Bijon's husband takes her last name upon marriage, taking advantage of a law enacted in California allowing spouses and registered domestic partners to take either's last name. The law was passed after the couple had sued for the right to so.^[318]
• Sarah Palin is the first female vice presidential nominee of the Republican Party.^[319]

2009

• The Mexico City Policy, a United States government policy that required all non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that receive federal funding to refrain from performing or promoting abortion services as a method of family planning with non-US government funds in other countries, was rescinded by President Obama.
• Alysa Stanton, born in Cleveland and ordained by a Reform Jewish seminary in Cincinnati, became the world's first black female rabbi.^[320]
• On July 19, 2009, 11 women received smicha (ordination) as kohanot from the Kohenet Institute, based at the Isabella Freedman Jewish Retreat Center, becoming their first priestess ordainees.^[321]
• Federal hate-crime law includes crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender.^[322]
• The White House Council on Women and Girls, a council which forms part of the Office of Intergovernmental Affairs, is established by Executive Order 13506 on March 11, 2009 with a broad mandate to advise the United States President on issues relating to the welfare of women and girls.^[323]
• The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 (Pub.L. 111–2, S. 181) is enacted; it is a federal statute in the United States that amends the Civil Rights Act of 1964.^[324] The new act states that the 180-day statute of limitations for filing an equal-pay lawsuit regarding pay discrimination resets with each new paycheck affected by that discriminatory action.^[324]

2010

• Sex discrimination was outlawed in health insurance.^[325]
• Section 4207 of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act amended the Fair Labor Standards Act and required employers to provide a reasonable break time for an employee to breastfeed her child if it was less than one year old.^[326] The employee must be allowed to breastfeed in a private place, other than a bathroom. The employer is not required to pay the employee during the break time.^[326] Employers with fewer than 50 employees are not required to comply with the law if doing so would impose an undue hardship to the employer based on its size, finances, nature, or structure of its business.^[327]
• The first American women to be ordained as cantors in Jewish Renewal after Susan Wehle's ordination were Michal Rubin and Abbe Lyons, both ordained on January 10, 2010.
• Sara Hurwitz, an Orthodox Jewish woman born in South Africa, was given the title of "rabbah" (sometimes spelled "rabba"), the feminine form of rabbi. As such, she is considered by some to be the first female Orthodox rabbi.^[328][329]
• In Northern California, 4 novice nuns were given the full bhikkhuni ordination in the Thai Therevada tradition, which included the double ordination ceremony. Bhante Gunaratana and other monks and nuns were in attendance. It was the first such ordination ever in the Western hemisphere.^[330] The following month, more full ordinations were completed in Southern California, led by Walpola Piyananda and other monks and nuns. The bhikkhunis ordained in Southern California were Lakshapathiye Samadhi (born in Sri Lanka), Cariyapanna, Susila, Sammasati (all three born in Vietnam), and Uttamanyana (born in Myanmar).
• With the October 16, 2010, ordination of Margaret Lee, in the Peoria-based Diocese of Quincy, Illinois, women have been ordained as priests in all 110 dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States.^[331]
• Burton v. Florida, Samantha Burton, a mother of two, was twenty-five weeks pregnant in March 2009 when she experienced a premature rupture of membranes and displayed signs of premature labor. At the urging of her obstetrician, she sought care at Tallahassee Memorial Hospital. She found not to be in labor, but ordered to remain on bed rest. Her obstetrician, Jana Bures-Forsthoefel, refused to allow her to leave the hospital to garner a second opinion and then obtained a court order from the Circuit Court of Leon County which required Burton to undergo "any and all medical treatments" that her physician, acting in the interests of the fetus, deemed necessary. The Court held the hearing by telephone with Burton being required to argue her case from her hospital bed without the assistance of an attorney or independent medical opinion. Three days into her court-ordered confinement, Burton underwent an emergency C-section, at which time the fetus was found to be dead.David H. Abrams, a nurse attorney, appealed the Leon County Circuit Court ruling and the Florida chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union joined as Amicus. On August 12, 2010, the Florida Circuit Court of Appeals for the 2nd Circuit issued its ruling, written by the Honorable Nikki Clark, in favor of Burton and against the State. The Court rejected the State of Florida's argument that the best interest of the child standard applied. The Court ruled that Ms. Burton had fundamental rights to privacy and liberty under the Florida Constitution and that those rights were subject to strict scrutiny review. While the Court did not hold that the State could never intervene in a woman's pregnancy it limited such intervention to instances where fetal viability was proven by the state and rejected the argument that viability is set by gestational age of the fetus. The Court further held that once the State had proven viability it must then show that the proposed intervention is the least intrusive and least restrictive means possible of protecting the State's interest in the fetus.

2011

• The Evangelical Presbyterian Church's 31st General Assembly voted to allow congregations to call women to ordained ministry, even if their presbytery (governing body) objects for theological or doctrinal reasons. Such congregations will be allowed to leave the objecting presbytery (such as the Central South, which includes Memphis) and join an adjacent one that permits the ordination of women.^[332]
• The American Catholic Church in the United States, ACCUS, ordained their first woman priest, Kathleen Maria MacPherson, on June 12, 2011. She is now the pastor of the St. Oscar Romero Pastoral and Outreach Center in El Paso, Texas / Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico.^[333]
• There was a 2011 decision by Health and Human Services Secretary Kathleen Sebelius to require a prescription for the morning-after birth control pill for girls under 17.^[334]

2012

• Ilana Mills was ordained, thus making her, Jordana Chernow-Reader, and Mari Chernow the first three female siblings in America to become rabbis.^[335]
• Christine Lee was ordained as the Episcopal Church's first female Korean-American priest.^[336]
• Planned Parenthood v. Rounds (686 F.3d 889 (8th Cir. 2012) (en banc)) was a decision by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit that upheld a provision of a South Dakota law that requires a doctor to inform a patient, prior to providing an abortion, that one of the "known medical risks of the procedure and statistically significant risk factors" is an "increased risk of suicide ideation and suicide."
• A new provision in the Affordable Care Act made insured women enrolling in new health care plans or renewing their existing policies on or after August 1, 2012 available to receive the following without a copay or any cost sharing: Well-woman visits, gestational diabetes screening, HPV DNA testing, STI counseling, HIV screening and counseling, contraception and contraceptive counseling, breast-feeding support, supplies and counseling, and interpersonal and domestic violence screening and counseling.^[337]

2013

• Knowingly transporting girls out of the United States for the purpose of female genital mutilation is outlawed.^[298]
• On April 5, 2013, Judge Edward R. Korman in Brooklyn, New York, ordered the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to make the morning-after birth control pill available to people of any age without a prescription. Korman ordered the F.D.A. to lift any age and sale restrictions on Plan B One-Step, and its generic versions, within 30 days.^[334]
• In 2013, Daniel Swalm, the grandson of a Minnesota woman who had lost U.S. citizenship under Section 3 of the Expatriation Act of 1907 for marrying a Swedish immigrant and died without regaining her citizenship, began lobbying Congress to posthumously restore citizenship to women like his grandmother.^[338] He contacted his senator Al Franken, who in 2014 sponsored a resolution (S.Res. 402) expressing regret for the passage of the 1907 Act.^[339][340] The resolution passed the Senate on May 14.^[341]

2014

• Fanny Sohet Belanger, born in France, was ordained in America and thus became the first French female priest in the Episcopal Church.^[342]
• Heather Cook was the first woman elected as a bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Maryland.^[343]
• It was announced that Lauma Lagzdins Zusevics, an American, was the first woman elected Archbishop of the Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church Abroad.^[234][344]
• Burwell v. Hobby Lobby, 573 U.S. ___ (2014), is a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court allowing closely held for-profit corporations to be exempt from a law its owners religiously object to if there is a less restrictive means of furthering the law's interest. It is the first time that the court has recognized a for-profit corporation's claim of religious belief, but it is limited to closely held corporations. The decision is an interpretation of the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) and does not address whether such corporations are protected by the free-exercise of religion clause of the First Amendment of the Constitution. For such companies, the Court's majority directly struck down the contraceptive mandate, a regulation adopted by the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) under the Affordable Care Act (ACA) requiring employers to cover certain contraceptives for their female employees, by a 5-4 vote.
• McCullen v. Coakley, 573 U.S. ___ (2014), was a United States Supreme Court case. The Court unanimously held that Massachusetts' 35-feet fixed abortion buffer zones, established via amendments to that state's Reproductive Health Care Facilities Act, violated the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution because it limited free speech too broadly.

2015

• In the U.S. Supreme Court case Young v. United Parcel Service, the Court rules, according to the Washington Post, that, "[a] worker making a claim that her company intentionally treated her differently due to her pregnancy must show that she sought an accommodation, her company refused and then granted accommodations to others suffering from similar restrictions. The company, in turn, can try to show that its reasons were legitimate — but not because it is more expensive or less convenient to add pregnant women to the categories of workers who are accommodated."^[345]
• The Women's Mosque of America, which claims to be America's first female-only mosque, opened in Los Angeles.^[346][347]
• In the U.S. Supreme Court case Texas Dept. of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, Inc., 576 U.S. ___ (2015), the Court held that Congress specifically intended to include disparate impact claims in the Fair Housing Act, but that such claims require a plaintiff to prove it is the defendant's policies that cause a disparity.^[348] The Fair Housing Act prohibits discrimination based on sex and familial status (including pregnant women), with limited exceptions in certain circumstances.^[349][350]
• The Obama administration issued a new rule stating that a closely held for-profit company that objects to covering contraception in its health plan can write a letter to the Department of Health and Human Services stating its objection, and that the Department will then notify a third-party insurer of the company's objection, and the insurer will provide birth control coverage to the company's female employees at no additional cost to the company.^[351]
• A policy update required all Indian Health Services-run pharmacies, clinics, and emergency departments to have Plan B One-Step in stock, to distribute it to any woman (or her representative) who asked for it without a prescription, age verification, registration or any other requirement, to provide orientation training to all staff regarding the medication, to provide unbiased and medically accurate information about emergency contraception, and to make someone available at all times to distribute the pill in case the primary staffer objected to providing it on religious or moral grounds.^[352]
• Defense Secretary Ash Carter stated that starting in 2016 all combat jobs would open to women.^[353]
• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints appointed women to its executive councils for the first time that the public noticed. The church appointed Linda K. Burton, president of the Relief Society, Rosemary Wixom, president of the Primary, and Bonnie L. Oscarson, president of the Young Women’s organization, to three high-level church councils (3 woman to each role ).^[354][355]
• Yaffa Epstein was ordained as Rabba by the Orthodox Jewish institution Yeshivat Maharat.^[356][357]
• Lila Kagedan was ordained as Rabbi by the Yeshivat Maharat, making her their first graduate to take the title Rabbi.^[358]
• The Rabbinical Council of America passed a resolution which states, "RCA members with positions in Orthodox institutions may not ordain women into the Orthodox rabbinate, regardless of the title used; or hire or ratify the hiring of a woman into a rabbinic position at an Orthodox institution; or allow a title implying rabbinic ordination to be used by a teacher of Limudei Kodesh in an Orthodox institution."^[359]
• The Agudath Israel of America denounced moves to ordain women, and went even further, declaring Yeshivat Maharat, Yeshivat Chovevei Torah, Open Orthodoxy, and other affiliated entities to be similar to other dissident movements throughout Jewish history in having rejected basic tenets of Judaism.^{[360][361][362]}
• In December 2015, Defense Secretary Ash Carter stated that starting in 2016 all combat jobs would open to women.^[363]

2016

• The United States Food and Drug Administration announced it had relaxed its official requirements regarding the use of the abortion drug Mifeprex (RU-486). The previous guidelines were based on 1990s medical evidence. Changes include reducing the number of physician visits required by abortion-seeking women, reducing drug dosage, and allowing women to take the drug for three weeks longer -- for a total of 70 days.^[364]
• It was announced that the Roman Missal had been revised to permit women to have their feet washed on Holy Thursday; previously it permitted only males to do so.^[365]

See also

• Married Women's Property Acts in the United States
• Timeline of feminism
• Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States

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