Christmas controversy

"War on Christmas" and "holiday tree" redirect here. For the brief cessation of hostilities during World War I, see Christmas truce. For trees decorated around Christmas time, see Christmas tree.

Modern-day use of the term "war on Christmas" occurs mainly in countries such as the United States,[1][2] Canada,[3][4] and to a much lesser extent the United Kingdom.[5] This usually involves Christians' objections to governments' or corporations' avoidance of the day's association with Christianity in efforts to be multiculturally sensitive. In some cases, popular aspects of Christmas, such as Christmas trees, lights, and decorating are still prominently showcased, but are associated with unspecified "holidays" rather than with Christmas.[6] In other cases, the Christmas tree,[7] as well as Nativity scenes, have not been permitted to be displayed in public settings altogether.[8] Also, several US chain retailers, such as Walmart, Macy's, and Sears, have experimented with greeting their customers with "Happy Holidays" or "Season's Greetings" rather than with "Merry Christmas".[9][10] Some opponents have denounced the generic term "Holidays" and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as being politically correct.[5][6][11]

Controversies have arisen regarding the celebration or acknowledgment of the Christmas holiday (or the lack thereof) in government, media, advertising, retail, and various secular environments. The controversy also includes objections to policies that prohibit government or schools from forcing unwilling participants to take part in Christmas ceremonies. In the past, Christmas-related controversy was mainly restricted to concerns of a public focus on commercialized Christmas themes such as Santa Claus and gift-giving, rather than the birth of Jesus.

In the 17th century, the Puritans had laws forbidding the celebration of Christmas, unlike the Catholic Church or the Anglican Church, the latter of which they separated from.[12] Later, in the 20th century, Christmas celebrations were prohibited under doctrine of the state atheism in the Soviet Union.[13][14] In the USSR, the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, and encouraged them to spit on crucifixes as protest against this holiday; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.[15][16]

Julian calendar

In 708 AUC (45 BC) the Julian calendar was put into effect. The Northern Hemisphere winter solstice occurred on 25 December that year .[17][note 1] Many ancient societies observed the coming of the solstice and the increasing sun with festivals and/or religious rites. The establishment of the Julian calendar as the civil calendar of the Roman Empire had geographically widespread effects in associating the date of 25 December with the solstice in many cultures.

Pagan influence

Mosaic of Christ as Sol or Apollo-Helios in Mausoleum M in the pre-4th-century necropolis beneath[18] St. Peter's in the Vatican, which many interpret as representing Christ

There is controversy concerning the date of 25 December as the birthday of Jesus. Many customs from these holidays, particularly from the pagan Scandinavian and Germanic celebration of Yule in northern Europe, are transparently present in later Christmas customs, suggesting that the date was appropriated directly from pagan customs and given a Christian veneer rather than being the true birthday of Jesus.

The pagan Scandinavian and Germanic people of northern Europe had a celebration called Yule (also called Jul, Julblot, jólablót, midvinterblot, julofferfest) that occurred near the winter solstice. Some folklorists assert that many modern Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, the Christmas wreath, the Yule log, and others, may be descended from Yule customs. Scandinavians still call Yule "Jul". In English, the word "Yule" is often used in combination with the season "yuletide" [19] a usage first recorded in 900. It is believed that the celebration of this day was a worship of these peculiar days, interpreted as the reawakening of nature. The Yule (Jul) particular God was Jólner, which is one of Odin's many names.

Midvinterblot. Painting by Carl Larsson in the Swedish National museum's stairway.

The concept of Yule (Jul) occurs in a tribute poem to Harold Hårfager from about AD 900, where someone said "drinking Jul". Julblot is the most solemn sacrifice feast. At the julblotet, sacrifices were given to the gods to earn blessing on the forthcoming germinating crops. Julblotet was eventually integrated into the Christian Christmas. As a remainder from this Viking era, the Midsummer is still important in Scandinavia, and hence vividly celebrated.

Sol Invictus ("The Unconquered Sun") was originally a Syrian god who was later adopted as the chief god of the Roman Empire under Emperor Aurelian. His holiday is traditionally celebrated on 25 December, as are several gods associated with the winter solstice in many pagan traditions.[20]

Historical controversy

Puritan era

The first documented Christmas controversy was Christian-led, and began during the English Interregnum, when England was ruled by a Puritan Parliament.[21] Puritans sought to remove elements they viewed as pagan (because they were not biblical in origin) from Christianity (see Pre-Christianity above). In 1647, the Puritan-led English Parliament banned the celebration of Christmas, replacing it with a day of fasting and considering it "a popish festival with no biblical justification", and a time of wasteful and immoral behavior.[22] Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.[23] The book The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652) argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.[24] The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. In Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland also discouraged observance of Christmas. James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, but attendance at church was scant.[25]

In Colonial America, the Puritans of New England disapproved of Christmas, and celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681.[26][27][28] The ban by the Pilgrims was revoked by English governor Edmund Andros, however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[29] By the Declaration of Independence in 1776, it was not widely celebrated in the US.[27]

Protestantism

Prior to the Victorian era, Christmas in the United States was primarily a religious holiday observed by Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, and Lutherans. Its importance was often considered secondary to that of Epiphany and Easter.

As was the case with other Christian holidays, Christmas borrowed elements from pagan peoples, including yule logs and decorations such as candles, holly, and mistletoe. Christmas trees were seen as pagan in origin. During the various Protestant reformations, these paganizing elements were a source of controversy. Some sects, such as the Puritans, rejected Christmas as an entirely pagan holiday. Others rejected certain aspects of Christmas as paganizing, but wanted to retain the "essence" of the holiday as a celebration of the Christ's birth. This tension put in motion an ongoing debate within some Protestant denominations about the proper observance of Christmas.[30]

19th century

According to historian Ronald Hutton, the current state of observance of Christmas is largely the result of a mid-Victorian revival of the holiday, spearheaded by Charles Dickens. In A Christmas Carol, Hutton argues, Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, in contrast to the community-based and church-centered observations, the observance of which had dwindled during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.[31]

Modern celebrations of Christmas include more commercial activity, compared to the more religious celebrations of the past.

Historian Stephen Nissenbaum contends that the modern celebration in the United States was developed in New York State from defunct and imagined Dutch and English traditions in order to refocus the holiday from one where groups of young men went from house to house demanding alcohol and food into one centered on the happiness of children. He notes that there was a deliberate effort to prevent children from becoming greedy in response.[32] Christmas was not proclaimed a holiday by the United States Congress until 1870.[27]

20th century

In the early 20th century, Christian writers such as C. S. Lewis had already noted a distinct split between the religious and secular observance of Christmas. In Xmas and Christmas: A Lost Chapter from Herodotus, Lewis gives a satire of the observance of two simultaneous holidays in "Niatirb" ("Britain" spelled backwards) from the supposed view of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (484–425 BC). One of the holidays, "Exmas", is observed by a flurry of compulsory commercial activity and expensive indulgence in alcoholic beverages. The other, "Crissmas", is observed in Niatirb's temples. Lewis's narrator asks a priest why they kept Crissmas on the same day as Exmas. He receives the reply:

"It is not lawful, O Stranger, for us to change the date of Crissmas, but would that Zeus would put it into the minds of the Niatirbians to keep Exmas at some other time or not to keep it at all. For Exmas and the Rush distract the minds even of the few from sacred things. And we indeed are glad that men should make merry at Crissmas; but in Exmas there is no merriment left." And when I asked him why they endured the Rush, he replied, "It is, O Stranger, a racket. . ."[33]

The December 1957 News and Views published by the Church League of America, a conservative organization co-founded in 1937 by George Washington Robnett,[34] attacked the use of Xmas in an article titled "X=The Unknown Quantity". The claims were picked up later by Gerald L. K. Smith, who in December 1966 claimed that Xmas was a "blasphemous omission of the name of Christ" and that "'X' is referred to as being symbolical of the unknown quantity." Smith further argued that Jews introduced Santa Claus to suppress the New Testament accounts of Jesus, and that the United Nations, at the behest of "world Jewry", had "outlawed the name of Christ".[35] There is, however, a well documented history of use of Χ (actually a chi) as an abbreviation for "Christ" (Χριστός) and possibly also a symbol of the cross.[36][37] The abbreviation appears on many Orthodox Christian religious icons.

The Soviet Union, and certain other Communist regimes, banned overtly religious Christmas observances. Most customs traditionally associated with Christmas, such as decorated trees, presents, and Ded Moroz (Father Frost), were later reinstated in Soviet society, but tied to New Year's Day instead; this tradition remains as of the present day.[38] It should, however, be noted that most Russian Christians are of the Orthodox community, whose religious festivals (Christmas, Easter etc.) do not necessarily coincide precisely with those of the main western Christian churches (Catholic or Protestant), because of continued connection of the church calendar to the Julian calendar.

Present-day controversy

History

The expression "the War on Christmas" has been used in the media to denote Christmas-related controversies.[39] The term gained notability due in part to its use by conservative commentators such as Peter Brimelow and Bill O'Reilly beginning in the early 2000s.[40][41][42]

The claim of Brimelow, O'Reilly and others was that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its religious aspects was being increasingly censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and secular organizations. In the United States and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as being politically correct.[5][6][11]

Jeff Schweitzer, a commentator for The Huffington Post, addressed the position of commentators such as O'Reilly, stating that "There is no war on Christmas; the idea is absurd at every level. Those who object to being forced to celebrate another's religion are drowning in Christmas in a sea of Christianity dominating all aspects of social life. An 80 percent majority can claim victimhood only with an extraordinary flight from reality."[43]

Heather Long, an American columnist for The Guardian, addressed the "politically correct" question in America over use of the term "holidays", writing, "people who are clearly celebrating Christmas in their homes tend to be conflicted about what to say in the workplace or at school. No one wants to offend anyone or make assumptions about people's religious beliefs, especially at work."[5]

Government-related controversies

United States

Christmas Day is recognized as an official federal holiday by the United States government.[44] The American Civil Liberties Union and Americans United for Separation of Church and State argue that government-funded displays of Christmas imagery and traditions violate the U.S. Constitution—specifically the First Amendment, which prohibits the establishment by Congress of a national religion. The debate over whether religious displays should be placed within public schools, courthouses, and other government buildings has been heated in recent years.[45]

Supreme Court rulings, starting with Lynch v. Donnelly in 1984, have permitted religious themes in government-funded Christmas displays that had "legitimate secular purposes". Since these rulings have been splintered and have left governments uncertain of their limits, many such displays have included secular elements such as reindeer, snowmen and elves along with the religious elements.[46] Other recent court cases have brought up additional issues such as the inclusion of Christmas carols in public school performances, but none of these cases have reached the US Supreme Court.

A controversy regarding these issues arose in 2002, when the New York City public school system banned the display of Nativity scenes but allowed the display of less overtly religious symbols such as Christmas trees, Hanukkah menorahs, and the Muslim star and crescent.[47] The school system successfully defended its policy in Skoros v. City of New York (2006).[48]

Canada

In 2007, a controversy arose[3] when a public school in Ottawa, Ontario planned to have the children in its primary choir sing a version of the song "Silver Bells" with the word "Christmas" replaced by "festive"; the concert also included the songs "Candles of Christmas" and "It's Christmas" with the original lyrics. In 2011, in Embrun, Ontario, near Ottawa, some parents were displeased when a school replaced the Christmas concert it had held in previous years with a craft sale and winter concert scheduled for February.[49]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom there have been some controversies, one of the most famous being the temporary promotion of the phrase Winterval for a whole season of events (including Christmas festivities) by Birmingham City Council in the late 1990s. This remains a controversial example of "Christmas controversy", with critics attacking the use of the word "Winterval" as being political correctness gone mad, accusing council officials of trying to take the Christ out of Christmas.[50] The council responded to the criticism by stating that Christmas-related words and symbols were prominent in its publicity material: "...there was a banner saying Merry Christmas across the front of the council house, Christmas lights, Christmas trees in the main civil squares, regular carol-singing sessions by school choirs, and the Lord Mayor sent a Christmas card with a traditional Christmas scene wishing everyone a Merry Christmas"...[51]

In November 2009 the city council of Dundee was accused of banning Christmas because it promoted its celebrations as the Winter Night Light festival, initially with no specific references to Christianity. Local church leaders were invited to participate in the event, and they did.[52]

Due to the changing religious landscape of the UK, Christmas cards featuring religious imagery, such as the Nativity scene or the Virgin and Child, have become less common in major retailers. However, they are still readily available from smaller shops, or those linked to church groups and charities. The Church of England complained in 2004 when religious images were removed from the annual tradition of special postage stamps around Christmas.[53]

South Africa

The Christian holidays of Christmas Day and Good Friday remained in secular post-apartheid South Africa's calendar of public holidays. The Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (CRL Rights Commission), a chapter nine institution established in 2004, held countrywide consultative public hearings in June and July 2012 to assess the need for a review of public holidays following the receipt of complaints from minority groups about unfair discrimination. The CRL Rights Commission stated that they would submit their recommendations to the Department of Home Affairs, the Department of Labour, various Portfolio Committees and the Office of the Presidency by October 2012.[54][55][56] The CRL Rights Commission published its recommendations on 17 April 2013, including the scrapping of some existing public holidays to free up days for some non-Christian religious public holidays.[57][58]

Norway

The common practice of schoolchildren visiting local churches for Christmas masses in December is opposed by the Norwegian Humanist Association, the Children's Ombudsman and by the Union of Education.[59] There have been several local controversies over the issue. The political parties have mostly been in favor of this being decided by the schools themselves, but the government has underlined that schools who participate in Christmas masses must offer an alternative for pupils who don’t want to attend and that masses must not take place on the day that marks the closing of schools before the Christmas holiday. The Solberg's Cabinet says in its government declaration that it looks positively upon schools taking part in masses in churches before religious holidays.[60]

According to a 2013 poll by Norstat for Vårt Land, 68% of Norwegians support having school-arranged Christmas masses while 14% are opposed. 17% do not hold any opinion on the issue.[59]

Sweden

A school law in 2011, which explicitly stated that public schools should be non-confessional, led to debate over what this meant for the tradition that schools gather in churches in December to celebrate advent, Lucia or Christmas. 80,000 Swedes signed a protest letter (Adventsuppropet) initiated by the newspaper Dagen to Minister for Education Jan Björklund where they demanded that school visits to churches should still be allowed to include religious rituals.[61] The minister clarified that church visits before Christmas might include singing of Christmas hymns and a priest talking about the Christmas gospel while on the other side common prayers and reading a Confession of Faith would violate the law.[62]

In 2012, Sveriges Radio reported that about one of six schools had changed the way they mark Christmas traditions as a result of the new law.[63]

Christmas tree controversies

One of the most prominent Christmas tree controversies came in 2005, when the city of Boston labeled their official decorated tree as a holiday tree, and the subsequent response from the Nova Scotian tree farmer who donated the tree was that he would rather have put the tree in a wood chipper than have it named a "holiday" tree.[1]

In 2009 in Jerusalem, Israel, the Lobby for Jewish Values, with support of the Jerusalem Rabbinate, handed out fliers condemning Christmas and called for a boycott of "restaurants and hotels that sell or put up Christmas trees and other 'foolish' Christian symbols".[64]

The Brussels Christmas tree in the Belgian capital sparked controversy in December 2012, as it was part of renaming the Christmas Market as "Winter Pleasures".[65] Local opposition saw it as appeasement of the Muslim minority in the city.[66]

Reclamation of the term "Christmas tree"

Efforts have also been made to rename official public holiday trees back to Christmas trees. In 2002, a bill was introduced in the California Senate to rename the State Holiday Tree the California State Christmas Tree;[67] while this measure did not pass, at the official lighting of the tree on 4 December 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger referred to the tree as a Christmas tree in his remarks and in the press release his office issued after the ceremony.[68] Schwarzenegger had previously ended the secular practice of calling it a "holiday tree" in 2004 during the 73rd annual lighting. The name change was in honor of the late Senator William "Pete" Knight. Schwarzenegger said at Knight's funeral that he would change the name back to Christmas tree. Knight had lobbied unsuccessfully to change the name after Governor Davis decided to call it a holiday tree.[69]

The Michigan Senate had a debate in 2005 over whether the decorated tree in front of the Michigan Capitol would continue to be called a holiday tree (as it had been since the early 1990s) or named a Christmas tree. The question was revisited in 2006, when the bipartisan Michigan Capitol Committee voted unanimously to use the term Christmas tree.[70] And in 2007, Wisconsin lawmakers considered whether to rename the tree in the Wisconsin Capitol rotunda, a holiday tree since 1985, the Wisconsin State Christmas Tree.[71]

Retailer controversies

In 2007, U.S. hardware store chain Lowe's published a catalog that accidentally referred to Christmas trees as "Family trees"

Since at least 2005, religious conservative groups and media in the United States such as the American Family Association, Liberty Counsel and Fox News have called for boycotts of various prominent secular organizations, particularly retail giants, demanding that they use the term "Christmas" rather, than solely "holiday" in their print, TV, online, and in-store marketing and advertising. This was also seen by some as containing a hidden anti-Jewish message. All of the major retailers named denied the charges.[72][73]

2000s

2010s

Religious controversies

Christian sects and communities that reject the observance of Christmas for theological reasons include Jehovah's Witnesses; some adherents of Messianic Judaism; most Sabbatarian denominations, such as the True Jesus Church and the Church of God (7th-Day); the Iglesia ni Cristo; the Christian Congregation in Brazil; the Christian Congregation in the United States; and certain reformed and fundamentalist churches of various persuasions, including some Independent Baptist,[99] Holiness, Apostolic Pentecostal,[100] and Churches of Christ congregations.[101][102][103][104][105][106]

The celebration of Christmas has occasionally been criticized in countries which are predominantly Muslim. Turkey, whose population is 99.8 percent Muslim, has adopted a secular version of Christmas and a Santa Claus figure named Noel Baba (from the French Père Noël). During the 2013 holiday season, a Muslim youth group launched an anti-Santa Claus campaign, protesting against the celebration of Christmas in the country.[107] In December 2015, political and religious activists organized protests against the growing influence of Christmas and Santa Claus in Turkish society.[108]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ While the Julian calendar approximated the length of the solar year far more accurately than most of its contemporaries, slight inaccuracy caused a subsequent backward drifting of the date of the solstice over centuries of time. The Gregorian calendar we use today (instituted by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582), a derivative of the Julian calendar, reflects the solar year length much more accurately, causing a much slower drift (one day over about 900 years of time). For religious reasons, this calendar was initially calibrated in such a way that the solstice arrived around 21 December, the same as it did in the Julian calendar during the fourth century. It will remain there for quite a few centuries yet to come. As a result of modern advances in mathematics and astronomy, a precise timing of the solstice is now known (and predictable) to fractions of a second, though unpredictable perturbations in the earth's orbit can and do cause tiny variances. The exact calendar date of a solstice (or equinox) can vary year to year, in part because of calendar-cycle rules like "one leap day every four years, except century years not divisible by 400". It may also vary locally due to the consideration of time zones and the international date line.

References

  1. 1 2 Bazar, Emily (1 December 2005). "Trimming 'Christmas' from Trees Stirs Debate". USA Today. Retrieved 11 August 2008.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Bishop, Tricia (24 November 2006). "Stores Revert to 'Merry Christmas'". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
  3. 1 2 "Concert Goes Ahead Despite Controversy over Change to Christmas Lyrics". National Post. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
  4. ↑ "Premier Appeals for Tolerance in Courthouse Christmas Tree Debate". CBC News. 21 December 2006. Archived from the original on 3 February 2008. Retrieved 11 August 2008.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "The Brits Have It Right: Forget Happy Holidays, Just Wish People Merry Christmas". The Guardian (London). 16 June 2015.
  6. 1 2 3 Jankowski, Paul (16 June 2015). "Is Saying 'Merry Christmas' Politically Correct? Who Cares?". Forbes.
  7. ↑ "VA Bans Christmas Trees as Holiday Decorations in Public Areas". Spartanburg, SC: WSPA-TV. Retrieved 14 December 2015. Christmas trees will not be allowed at the Salem VA Medical Center this holiday season in public areas. 'Displays must not promote any religion. Please note that trees (regardless of the types of ornaments used) have been deemed to promote the Christian religion and will not be permitted in any public areas this year,' reads an email sent to employees.
  8. ↑ Porter, Joel. "Federal Judge Rules Against Concord High School Nativity Scene". South Bend, IN: WNDU-TV. Retrieved 14 December 2015. An Elkhart high school Christmas concert will have to scrap part of its performance following a court ruling. US district court judge Jon Deguilio granted the Freedom From Religion Foundation a preliminary injunction. That means Concord High School is not allowed to portray a live Nativity scene in its Christmas Spectacular, which opens in less than two weeks.
  9. ↑ "An Unmerried Woman". Snopes.com. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  10. ↑ O'Donnell, Jayne (8 November 2006). "Wal-Mart Wishes You a Merry Christmas". USA Today. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  11. 1 2 "If We Can't Say 'Merry Christmas' in Canada, Multiculturalism Failed". The Huffington Post. 16 June 2015.
  12. ↑ Lowe, Scott C. (2011). Christmas. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 1444341456. On the mainland, seventeenth-century Puritan New England had laws forbidding the observance of Christmas. The Christian groups who broke with the Catholic Church and the Church of England deemphasized Christmas in the early colonial period.
  13. ↑ Connelly, Mark (2000). Christmas at the Movies: Images of Christmas in American, British and European Cinema. I.B.Tauris. p. 186. ISBN 9781860643972. A chapter on representations of Christmas in Soviet cinema could, in fact be the shortest in this collection: suffice it to say that there were, at least officially, no Christmas celebrations in the atheist socialist state after its foundation in 1917.
  14. ↑ Goldberg, Carey (7 January 1991). "A Russian Christmas—Better Late Than Never : Soviet Union: Orthodox Church Celebration Is the First Under Communists. But, as with Most of Yeltsin's Pronouncements, the Holiday Stirs a Controversy". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 14 December 2015. For the first time in more than seven decades, Christmas—celebrated today by Russian Orthodox Christians—is a full state holiday across Russia's vast and snowy expanse. As part of Russian Federation President Boris N. Yeltsin's ambitious plan to revive the traditions of Old Russia, the republic's legislature declared last month that Christmas, long ignored under atheist Communist ideology, should be written back into the public calendar. 'The Bolsheviks replaced crosses with hammers and sickles,' said Vyacheslav S. Polosin, head of the Russian legislature's committee on religion. 'Now they are being changed back.'
  15. ↑ Ramet, Sabrina Petra (2005). Religious Policy in the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 9780521022309. The League sallied forth to save the day from this putative religious revival. Antireligioznik obliged with so many articles that it devoted an entire section of its annual index for 1928 to anti-religious training in the schools. More such material followed in 1929, and a flood of it the next year. It recommended what Lenin and others earlier had explicitly condemned—carnivals, farces, and games to intimidate and purge the youth of religious belief. It suggested that pupils campaign against customs associated with Christmas (including Christmas trees) and Easter. Some schools, the League approvingly reported, staged an anti-religious day on the 31st of each month. Not teachers but the League's local set the programme for this special occasion.
  16. ↑ Zugger, Christopher Lawrence (2001). Catholics of the Soviet Empire from Lenin Through Stalin. Syracuse University Press. p. 210. ISBN 9780815606796. As observed by Nicholas Brianchaninov, writing in 1929–1930, after the NEP and just as the worst of collectivization was beginning, the Soviets deemed it necessary to drive into the heads of the people the axiom that religion was the synthesis of everything most harmful to humanity. It must be presented as the enemy of man and society, of life and learning, of progress. . . . In caricatures, articles, Bezbozhnik, Antireligioznik, League of Militant Atheists propaganda and films. School courses [were give] on conducting the struggle against religion (how to profane a church, break windows, objects of piety). The young, always eager to be with the latest trend, often responded to such propaganda. In Moscow in 1929 children were brought to spit on the crucifixes at Christmas. Priests in Tiraspol diocese were sometimes betrayed by their own young parishioners, leading to their imprisonment and even death, and tearing their families apart.
  17. ↑ Dershowitz, Nachum & Reingold, Edward M. (1997). Calendrical Calculations. Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–171 et al.
  18. ↑ http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Necropolis/Scavi.htm
  19. ↑ "Yule". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Retrieved 3 December 2006.
  20. ↑ Capoccia, Kathryn (2002). "Christmas Traditions". Retrieved 27 December 2008.
  21. ↑ Patiño, Marta. "The Puritan Ban on Christmas". Archived from the original on 21 November 2006.
  22. ↑ "Why Did Cromwell Abolish Christmas?". Oliver Cromwell. The Cromwell Association. 2001. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
  23. ↑ Durston, Chris (December 1985). "Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642–60". History Today. Vol. 35 no. 12. pp. 7–14. Archived from the original on March 10, 2007.
  24. ↑ Sandys, William (1852). Christmastide: Its History, Festivities and Carols. London: John Russell Smith. pp. 119–120.
  25. ↑ Chambers, Robert (1885). Domestic Annals of Scotland. p. 211.
  26. ↑ Schnepper, Rachel N. (14 December 2012). "Yuletide's Outlaws". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 December 2012. From 1659 to 1681, anyone caught celebrating Christmas in the colony would be fined five shillings. ...
  27. 1 2 3 "Top 10 Things You Didn't Know About Christmas". Time. 24 December 2008.
  28. ↑ "When Americans Banned Christmas". The Week. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2014.
  29. ↑ "When Christmas Was Banned: The Early Colonies and Christmas".
  30. ↑ Nissenbaum, Stephen (1997). The Battle for Christmas. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-74038-4.
  31. ↑ Stations of the Sun: The Ritual Year in England. Oxford: Oxford Press. ISBN 0-19-285448-8.
  32. ↑ Nissenbaum, Stephen (1997). The Battle for Christmas. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-74038-4.
  33. ↑ Lewis, C. S. "Exmas and Christmas: A Lost Chapter from Herodotus".
  34. ↑ "Subject Guide to Conservative and Libertarian Materials, in Manuscript Collections". University of Oregon.
  35. ↑ Kominsky, Morris (1970). The Hoaxers: Plain Liars, Fancy Liars and Damned Liars. pp. 137–138. ISBN 0-8283-1288-5.
  36. ↑ "Christian Symbols and Their Descriptions". Ancient-symbols.com. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
  37. ↑ "Why Is There a Controversy Surrounding the Word 'Xmas'?". tlc.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  38. ↑ "Christmas According to Marx and Lenin, by Ronald Reagan". lc.org. 22 December 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
  39. ↑ Keck, Kristi (18 December 2009). "Heated Debate Again over 'War on Christmas' Claims". CNN. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  40. ↑ Altman, Alex (24 December 2008). "A Brief History of the War on Christmas". Time. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  41. ↑ Linkins, Jason (7 December 2008). "O'Reilly's War on Christmas Goes Retail". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
  42. ↑ Grossman, Lynn (18 December 2008). "Mandatory 'Merry Christmas' Line May Lose Its Lilt". USA Today. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
  43. ↑ Schweitzer, Jeff (3 December 2014). "A War on Reason, Not on Christmas". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
  44. ↑ "2007 Federal Holidays". United States Office of Personnel Management. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  45. ↑ Ostling, Richard (1 December 2005). "Have Yourself a Merry Little Lawsuit This Season". Buffalo Law Journal. Vol. 77 no. 96. pp. 1–4.
  46. ↑ Boston, Rob (December 2007). "Is There a 'War on Christmas'?". Americans United. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  47. ↑ Wakin, Daniel (11 December 2002). "Lawsuit Attacks Schools' Ban on Nativity Scenes". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  48. ↑ Richey, Warren (22 February 2007). "Nativity Scene Is too Religious for New York City Schools". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
  49. ↑ Pearson, Matthew (1 December 2011). "Parents' Anger as Ontario School Replaces Christmas Concert with Non-Denominational February Fest". National Post. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  50. ↑ "Winterval Gets Frosty Reception". BBC News. 9 November 1998. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
  51. ↑ Burkeman, Oliver (7 December 2006). "The Phoney War on Christmas". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  52. ↑ Mitchinson, April (29 November 2009). "Differences Set Aside for Winter Night Light Festival in Dundee". The Press and Journal (Aberdeen). Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  53. ↑ "Hark, the Herald Angels Are Back on This Year's Christmas Stamps". The Daily Mail (London). 6 November 2007.
  54. ↑ "CRL Rights Commission Continues with the Consultative Community Hearings on the Possible Review of Public Holidays". info.gov.za. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2012.
  55. ↑ "Fight over Religious Holidays". CRL Rights Commission. Retrieved 2 November 2012.
  56. ↑ "Hands off Christmas, Protesters Say". News24. 10 November 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2012.
  57. ↑ "Recommendations: Public Holidays vs Religious/Cultural Holydays" (PDF). CRL Rights Commission. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  58. ↑ "Public Holidays Scrutinised". eNCA (Video). 29 April 2013. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
  59. 1 2 Sylte, Turid & Omvik, Eirik (12 December 2013). "7 av 10 vil ha skolegudstjenester" [7 out of 10 will have school worship]. Vårt Land (in Norwegian). Retrieved 12 December 2013.
  60. ↑ "Skolegudstjenester og kirkeasyl]". Dagen (in Norwegian). Retrieved 12 December 2013.
  61. ↑ "Upprop för skolavslutningar överlämnat till utbildningsministern". Kyrkans Tidning (in Swedish). Retrieved 12 December 2013.
  62. ↑ "Ja till skolavslutning i kyrkan". Folkpartiet.se (in Swedish). 27 November 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
  63. ↑ "Var sjätte skola har bytt jultraditioner efter ny lag" (in Swedish). Sveriges Radio. 7 December 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
  64. ↑ Berthelsen, Morten (17 December 2009). "Rabbis Versus Christmas: Religious Rivalry in Jerusalem Benefits No One". Haaretz. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  65. ↑ "Brussels' Modern-Art Christmas 'Tree' Triggers Outcry, Tensions, Petition". The Globe and Mail (Toronto). 26 December 2012.
  66. ↑ "Abstract Christmas Tree Sparks Protests in Brussels". BBC News. 1 December 2012.
  67. ↑ Kong, Dave (18 June 2002). "Letter to the Committee on Governmental Organization RE: SB 1577 Redesignation of State Holiday Tree as a Christmas Tree". sfatheists.blogspot.com. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  68. ↑ "Governor and First Lady Celebrate 76th Annual Christmas Tree Lighting" (Press release). Office of the Governor of California. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  69. ↑ "Governor Plugs Christmas Back into State Tree-Lighting Ceremony". Lodl News Sentinel. Associated Press. 3 December 2004. p. 5. Retrieved 26 December 2012 – via Google News.
  70. ↑ "Mich. Capitol Conifer Re-Christened 'Christmas Tree'". FirstAmendmentCenter.org. 30 November 2006. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
  71. ↑ Bauer, Scott (12 December 2007). "Bah Humbug Bill to Rechristen Holiday Tree Fizzles on Way to Senate". The Capital Times (Madison, WI). Association Press. Retrieved 29 December 2012 – via HighBeam Research. (subscription required (help)).
  72. ↑ Cohen, Adam (7 December 2005). "Commercialize Christmas, or Else". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
  73. ↑ Popper, Nathaniel (16 December 2005). "Boycotts Bloom as Religious Conservatives Wage Battle Over Christmas". The Jewish Daily Forward (New York). Retrieved 14 November 2012.
  74. ↑ "Sears Puts 'Merry Christmas' Signs in Its Stores". NewsMax.com. 7 December 2005. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  75. ↑ Strode, Tom. "Target, Sears Say They'll Include ‘Christmas'". Silas Partners. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  76. ↑ "Wal-Mart Opts for 'Christmas' Marketing". MSNBC. 15 November 2006. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
  77. ↑ "Merry Christmas Target". Snopes.com. 9 December 2005.
  78. ↑ "Target Includes 'Christmas,' AFA Drops Boycott". NewsMax.com. 9 December 2005. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  79. ↑ "Wal-Mart Opts for 'Christmas' Marketing". MSNBC. Associated Press. 15 November 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
  80. ↑ "Best Buy Christmas Ban". Snopes.com. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  81. ↑ Birkey, Andy (19 November 2009). "War on Christmas Comes to Minnesota". The Minnesota Independent. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  82. ↑ Saltzman, Russell (22 December 2011). "Call it Christ’s Mass and Let Best Buy Keep the Holiday". FirstThings.com. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  83. ↑ "Lowe's Says 'Family Trees' a Mistake". WorldNetDaily. 14 November 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
  84. ↑ "Lowe's Listens: 'Christmas Trees'". WorldNetDaily. 29 November 2005. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
  85. ↑ Monroe, Irene. "The Right’s Bogus War on Christmas". LA Progressive. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  86. ↑ "Home Depot: Hanukkah, Yes! Holidays, Yes! Christmas, No!". TheScroogeReport. 29 October 2008. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  87. ↑ "Home Depot Christmas". Snopes.com. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
  88. ↑ "Boycott Gap, Old Navy and Banana Republic this Christmas". American Family Association. 11 November 2009. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
  89. ↑ Miller, Leslie (23 November 2009). "The Gap's 'Happy Whatever-you-Wannukah' Ad Reignites 'War on Christmas' Debate". USA Today. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
  90. ↑ "Gap Responds: Should the Boycott End or Not? You Decide". American Family Association. 17 November 2009. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
  91. ↑ "Your Actions Make a Difference! Gap Says 'Pro-Christmas' Ad to Air this Weekend". American Family Association. 24 November 2009. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
  92. ↑ Evans, Terry (3 December 2010). "Chase Orders Southlake Bank to Remove Christmas Tree". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. Retrieved 13 December 2010.
  93. ↑ Samuel, Stephanie (7 December 2010). "Wachovia Bank Allows Christmas Trees in Branch Offices". The Christian Post. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  94. ↑ Bloomquist, Sarah (2 December 2010). "'Christmas' Returns to Philly's Christmas Village". Philadelphia: WPVI-TV. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
  95. ↑ "长沙现大学生着汉服举标语"抵制圣诞节"". NetEase (CFP). 25 December 2014. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  96. ↑ "Brouhaha over Starbucks Red Cups More of a Joke than a Controversy". CBC News. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  97. ↑ "Donald Trump Suggests a Boycott of Starbucks and Its Plain Red Cups". Washington Post. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  98. ↑ "Here's Why People Are Mad About Starbucks' Red Cups". Fortune. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  99. ↑ http://libcfl.com/articles/becker2.htm
  100. ↑ http://www.prime.org/
  101. ↑ "Jehovah's Witness on Christmas". www.jw.org. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
  102. ↑ "Messianic Judaism: The Followers of Christ Who Do Not Celebrate Christmas". The Christian Post. 8 December 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
  103. ↑ "Is Christmas Biblical?". tjc.org. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
  104. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)". churchofgod-7thday.org. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
  105. ↑ "All About Iglesia ni Cristo: Frequently Asked Questions". iglesianicristowebsite.com. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
  106. ↑ "'Christ' in Christmas?: Churches of Christ and the Holiday Season". Christian Chronicle. Retrieved 2 January 2013.
  107. ↑ "Santa Not Welcomed: Turkish Campaigns". OnIslam.net. 25 December 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  108. ↑ "Turks Protest Against 'Creeping Christmas'". Middleeasteye.net. 23 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015.

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Wednesday, May 04, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.