Flint water crisis

Flint water crisis

Flint River in Downtown Flint, circa 1979
Time	April 2014 – present
Duration	Ongoing
Location	Flint, Michigan, United States
Coordinates	43°0′36″N 83°41′24″W / 43.01000°N 83.69000°WCoordinates: 43°0′36″N 83°41′24″W / 43.01000°N 83.69000°W
Type	Water contamination: Coliform bacteria THMs Lead Possible Legionnaires' disease outbreak
Outcome	6,000–12,000 children exposed to lead[1] Public health state of emergency Several lawsuits Several investigations Four resignations One firing One suspension Three criminal indictments

The Flint water crisis is a drinking water contamination issue in Flint, Michigan, United States that started in April 2014. After Flint changed its water source from treated Detroit Water and Sewerage Department water (which was sourced from Lake Huron as well as the Detroit River) to the Flint River (to which officials had failed to apply corrosion inhibitors), its drinking water had a series of problems that culminated with lead contamination, creating a serious public health danger. The corrosive Flint River water caused lead from aging pipes to leach into the water supply, causing extremely elevated levels of the heavy metal. In Flint, between 6,000 and 12,000 children have been exposed to drinking water with high levels of lead and they may experience a range of serious health problems.^[1] Due to the change in water source, the percentage of Flint children with elevated blood-lead levels may have risen from about 2.5% in 2013 to as much as 5% in 2015.^[2] The water change is also a possible cause of an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in the county that has killed 10 people and affected another 77.^[3]

Several lawsuits have been filed against government officials on the issue, and several investigations have been opened. On January 5, 2016, the city was declared to be in a state of emergency by the Governor of Michigan, Rick Snyder, before President Barack Obama declared it as a federal state of emergency, authorizing additional help from the Federal Emergency Management Agency and the Department of Homeland Security less than two weeks later.^[4]

Four government officials—one from the City of Flint, two from the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, and one from the Environmental Protection Agency—resigned over the mishandling of the crisis, and one additional MDEQ staff member was fired and another has a termination hearing pending. Governor Snyder issued an apology to citizens and promised to fix the problem, and then sent $28 million to Flint for supplies, medical care and infrastructure upgrades,^[5] and later budgeted an additional $30 million to Flint that will give water bill credits of 65% for residents and 20% for businesses.^[6]

On April 20, 2016, criminal charges were filed against three people in regards to the crisis by Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette. Former MDEQ employees Michael Prysby and Stephen Busch are charged with misconduct in office, conspiracy to tamper with evidence, tampering with evidence, a treatment violation of the Michigan Safe Drinking Water Act and a monitoring violation of the Safe Drinking Water Act,^[7] and former city water plant operator Michael Glasgow was charged with willful neglect of office, a misdemeanor, and felony tampering with evidence.^[8] On May 4, Glasgow accepted a plea deal with prosecutors, admitting to filing false information about lead in Flint water and agreeing to cooperate in other in prosecutions.^[9]

Background

Some water service lines in Flint were installed between 1901 and 1920.^[10] As with many other municipalities at the time, all of the service lines from the cast iron water mains to end users homes were constructed of lead, because it is relatively inexpensive, and easy to work. Lead pipes can leach lead into the water, especially if certain contaminants are present. However the water from the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, where Flint had gotten its water from since 1967, had been treated well enough that the leaching from the lead pipes was at levels considered acceptable by state and federal environmental protection agencies.^[11]

Lead exposure across the U.S. has fallen dramatically since the 1980s; however, no blood-lead level is considered completely safe. Children under age five, and especially infants and unborn children, bear the greatest risk of deleterious and irreversible health outcomes.^[2] From 2012 to the present (2016), the CDC sets a "reference level" of 5 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL), in order to target for case management the 2.5% of young American children with the highest blood-lead levels. At 45 µg/dL, chelation therapy is considered.^[12] Among the many ways lead can enter a modern American's bloodstream is through lead plumbing. Acidic water makes it easier for the lead found in pipes, leaded solder, and brass faucets to be dissolved and to enter a home's drinking water. Therefore, public water treatment systems are legally required to use control measures to make water less acidic. Plumbing that contains lead is often found in buildings built in the 1980s and earlier.^[13]

Financial emergency

Between 2011 and 2015, Flint was in receivership, with city finances controlled by a series of four emergency managers appointed by Governor Snyder.^[14] The city continued in receivership, but under the lesser oversight of a Receivership Transition Advisory Board.^[15]

Switching water source

Starting in 2011, Genesee County had spearheaded the development of the Karegnondi Water Authority (KWA) to supply it and Lapeer and Sanilac counties—plus the cities of Lapeer and Flint—with water.^[16] On March 25, 2013, Flint City Council voted 7-1 to approve the purchase of 16 million gallons per day from the KWA rather than go with Flint River water as a permanent supply.^[17] Flint emergency manager (EM) Ed Kurtz and Mayor Dayne Walling approved the action on March 29 and forwarded the action for the State Treasurer to approve.^[18]

On April 1, the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department (DWSD) sent out a press release demanding the state should block Flint's request as it would hurt DWSD and start a water war. The release also put out several options for Flint, including sale of raw untreated water. Genesee County Drain commissioner Wright, after accusing the DWSD of negotiating through the media, replied, "It would be unprecedented for the state to force one community to enter into an agreement with another, simply to artificially help one community at the other's expense...This is exactly what the (Detroit Water and Sewerage Department) is arguing should be done."^[19]

On April 15, 2013, State Treasurer Andy Dillon gave approval to Kurtz to enter into a water purchase contract with the KWA.^[20] EM Kurtz signed the KWA water purchase agreement on April 16.^[21] On April 17, the Detroit Water and Sewer Department gave its one-year termination notice to the city just days after the County and City rejected the DWSD's last offer. The DWSD also expected that Flint pay them for past investments in the water system that benefited regional customers; Flint and Genesee County rejected such responsibility, although they indicated willingness to purchase some pipeline. Governor Rick Snyder called a meeting of the three parties for April 19 to discuss those and other issues related to the KWA project.^[20]

In late April 2014, in an effort to save about $5 million over less than two years,^[21][22][23] the city switched from purchasing treated Lake Huron water from Detroit, as it had done for 50 years, to treating water from the Flint River. The Flint River had been the designated back-up water source for years.^[24][25] Flint emergency manager Darnell Earley finalized the sale in June 2014 of an Eastern Genesee County nine-mile section of water pipeline to Genesee County for $3.9 million. This pipeline feeds Detroit water to the county and after the Huron pipeline is active would service the eastern part of the county.^[26] By December 2014, the city had invested $4 million into its water plant.^[27] On July 1, 2014, Mayor Dayne Walling was given operating authority over two city departments including Public Works by Flint emergency manager Darnell Earley.^[28]

Early water contamination

After the April 25, 2014 switch to Flint River water from its back-up to temporary primary source, residents began complaining about water’s color, taste and odor. Boil-water advisories were issued by the city due to coliform bacteria detection in August and September 2014. Cold weather, aging pipes and a population decline were considered the cause by the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality in an October 2014 statement. A DEQ district supervisor Stephen Busch indicated that the city took appropriate action to limit a re-occurrence. The first indication of any corrosion was with a General Motors plant in Flint complaining that the water was corroding car parts. It stopped using Flint water in October 2014.^[29]

On August 21, 2014 test showed the city's water tested high for THMs, a chlorine byproduct of disinfecting water, with which long term exposure has been linked to cancer and other diseases. THM testing on November 20 showed only one location out of eight with unsafe levels. Based on the August test, the city was placed on violation notice by the DEQ and mailed on January 2, 2015 the requisite notice to city residents. Additional chlorine was added to eliminate the bacteria detected in August and September 2014 which is the likely cause of the spike in THMs.^[30]

Though the city stated that the water was safe, the employees of the Flint Public Library declared the water undrinkable after noticing that the water from the faucets and toilets was discolored. The library contracted with a company called Absopure to bring in water coolers for both the public and staff areas and have been providing clean drinking water there at the library since August of 2014. ^[31]

January and February 2015 testing showed the city water meeting all health and safety standards.^[32] While also in January, the Detroit water system offered to reconnect Flint including waiving a $4 million connection fee, which was declined by emergency manager Jerry Ambrose. Officials indicated in a February memo to the governor that there is no "imminent threat to public health" with the nature of the problem being "communicated poorly."^[29]

Return to Detroit water

In March 2015, the Flint city council voted to "do all things necessary" to return to purchasing water from the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department. This vote followed complaints and a report by Veolia North America on recommendation to keep the city from further violation of THMs level of the Safe Drinking Water Act. Jerry Ambrose, the state appointed Flint emergency manager who controlled Flint finances, disagreed with the idea of again sourcing Flint water from Detroit. Ambrose issued a statement "Flint water today is safe by all Environmental Protection Agency and Michigan Department of Environmental Quality standards, and the city is working daily to improve its quality."^[32]

On March 2, 2016, it was reported that the state of Michigan blocked Flint from returning to Lake Huron water from the Detroit water system when it agreed to grant the city an emergency loan of $7 million in April 2015.^[33]

In August 2015, three organizations, citing high lead levels, orange water and other problems, "delivered more than 26,000 online petition signatures to Mayor Dayne Walling, demanding the city end its use of the Flint River and reconnect the city to the Detroit water system".^[34]

It was discovered that the high levels of lead were due to orthophosphate being omitted from the water treatment process, while using a pH of 7.4 and that the orange water was due to the high concentration of chloride in the Flint River water, which caused excessive corrosion of the cast iron mains pipes. In October 2015, the water supply was switched back to Detroit.^[35][36] Flint started adding additional orthophosphate to the Detroit water in December 2015 to facilitate the buildup of the phosphate scale.^[37] How long this process takes to lower lead levels remains unclear.

On October 8, Snyder asked the Michigan Legislature to contribute $6 million of the $12 million in costs for Flint to return to Lake Huron water (from the newly created Great Lakes Water Authority), with the City of Flint paying $2 million and the Flint-based Charles Stewart Mott Foundation paying $4 million.^[38][39] State Senator Jim Ananich, who represents Flint, called for the state to refund the $2 million to the city; Ananich also requested further emergency funding from the state and a commitment to long-term funding to address the effects of the lead contamination.^[40]

Lead exposure findings

In January 2015, a public meeting was held, where citizens complained about the "bad water."^[41] Residents complained about the taste, smell and appearance of the water for 18 months before a Flint physician found highly elevated blood lead levels in the children of Flint while the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality insisted the water was safe to drink.^[42] It was determined that the river water, which, due to higher chloride concentration, is more corrosive than the lake water, was leaching lead from aging pipes.^[34] Dr. Mozhgan Savabieasfahani, an environmental toxicologist based in Ann Arbor, Michigan said this level of lead exposure is comparable with what Iraqi people are experiencing after the U.S. occupation in 2003. Savabieasfahani noted that lead is directly tied to weapons manufacturing, and a crisis of this magnitude is almost the equivalent of officials bombing the people of Flint since 2014.^[43]

While the local outcry about Flint water quality was growing in early 2015, Flint water officials filed papers with state regulators purporting to show that "tests at Flint's water treatment plant had detected no lead and testing in homes had registered lead at acceptable levels."^[44] The documents falsely claimed that the city had tested tap water from homes with lead service lines, and therefore the highest lead-poisoning risks; in reality; the city does not know the locations of lead service lines, which city officials acknowledged in November 2015 after the Flint Journal/MLive published an article revealing the practice after obtaining documents through the Michigan Freedom of Information Act.^[45] The Journal/MLive reported that the city had "disregarded federal rules requiring it to seek out homes with lead plumbing for testing, potentially leading the city and state to underestimate for months the extent of toxic lead leaching into Flint's tap water."^[45]

In a new report released March 1, 2016, 37 of the 423 recently tested sentinel sites had results above the 15 ppb limit. Eight of the samples exceeded 100 ppb.^[46]

Studies

Hurley Medical Center study

On September 24, 2015, Hurley Medical Center in Flint released a study, led by Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha, the MPH program director for pediatric residency at Hurley Children's Hospital, confirming that the proportion of infants and children with elevated levels of lead in their blood had nearly doubled since the city switched from the Detroit water system to using the Flint River as its water source.^[44][47] Using hospital records, Hanna-Attisha found that a steep rise in blood-lead levels corresponded to the city's switch in water sources.^[44] The study was initially dismissed by Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) spokesman Brad Wurfel, who repeated a familiar refrain: "Repeated testing indicated the water tested within acceptable levels."^[44] Later, Wurfel apologized to Hanna-Attisha.^[44] The team's study appears in the February 2016 issue of American Journal of Public Health.^[2]

Hanna-Attisha's research found that the average proportion of Flint children with elevated blood-lead levels (above five micrograms per deciliter, or 5 × 10^–6 grams per 100 milliliters of blood) rose from 2.4% (2013, before the change in water source) to 4.9% (2015, after the change in water source), and in some hotspot areas rose from 4% to 10.6%. Michigan Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program data agree an increase occurred, suggesting an increase from 2.2% of children (May 2013-April 2014) to 3.0% (May 2014-April 2015). Hanna-Attisha's data were taken from hospital laboratory records for children less than five years old. Hanna-Attisha's sample numbers were large, both for the pre-switch and post-switch time periods and for Flint children (1,473) and for children not exposed to Flint water (2,202). Elevated lead levels in children's blood was shown to be correlated with elevated lead levels in Flint water. Because lead screening is not completed for all children, such data may be skewed toward higher-risk children and thus overestimate lead exposure, especially in non–high-risk areas.^[2]

Dr. Hanna-Attisha and Flint resident LeeAnne Walters will be awarded PEN America's Freedom of Expression Courage Award on May 16.^[48]

Virginia Tech study

Virginia Tech engineering professor Marc Edwards, an expert on water quality, was sent to Flint to study the water supply. His team found extremely high levels of lead, and Edwards said that authorities' actions "exposes a new level of arrogance and uncaring that I have never encountered."

In September 2015, a team working under Dr. Marc Edwards, an engineering professor at Virginia Tech, and an expert on municipal water quality who had been sent to study the water supply under a National Science Foundation grant, published a report finding that Flint water was "very corrosive" and "causing lead contamination in homes" and concluding that "Flint River water leaches more lead from plumbing than does Detroit water. This is creating a public health threat in some Flint homes that have lead pipe or lead solder."^[34][49][50] Edwards was shocked by the extent of the contamination and by authorities' inaction in the face of their knowledge of the contamination.^[50] Volunteer teams led by Edwards found that at least a quarter of Flint households have levels of lead above the federal level of 15 parts per billion (ppb) and that in some homes, lead levels were at 13,200 ppb.^[50] Edwards said: "It was the injustice of it all and that the very agencies that are paid to protect these residents from lead in water, knew or should've known after June at the very very latest of this year, that federal law was not being followed in Flint, and that these children and residents were not being protected. And the extent to which they went to cover this up exposes a new level of arrogance and uncaring that I have never encountered."^[50] Edwards' team decided to start the study in Flint after being contacted by Flint resident Lee-Anne Walters, whose family suffered from strange health problems after using the Flint River water but was ignored by city and state officials.^[51]

On January 11, 2016, the Virginia Tech research team led by Edwards announced that it had completed its work.^[52] Edwards said "We now feel that Flint's kids are finally on their way to being protected and decisive actions are under way to ameliorate the harm that was done."^[53] Edwards credited the Michigan ACLU and the group Water You Fighting For with doing the "critical work of collecting and coordinating" many water samples analyzed by the Virginia Tech team.^[53] Although the labor of the team (composed of scientists, investigators, graduate students, and undergraduates) was free, the investigation still spent more than $180,000 for such expenses as water testing and payment of Michigan Freedom of Information Act costs. A GoFundMe campaign has raised almost $96,010 of the $150,000 needed for the team to recover its costs.^[52][53]

On January 27, the city of Flint retained Dr. Edwards to monitor the city's water testing efforts.^[54]

On March 1, the Virginia Tech team was given $80,000 from an EPA grant to re-test the lead levels in 271 Flint homes.^[55]

Possible link to Legionnaires' disease spike

On January 13, 2016, Snyder said 87 cases of Legionnaires' disease, a waterborne disease, were reported in Genesee County from June 2014 – November 2015, resulting in 10 deaths. Although the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) said that there is no evidence of a clear link between the spike in cases and the water system change,^[3] Edwards stated the contaminated Flint water could be linked to the spike, telling reporters, "It's very possible that, the conditions in the Flint River water contributed. We've actually predicted earlier this year, that the conditions present in Flint would increase the likelihood of Legionnaires' disease. We wrote a proposal on that to the National Science Foundation that was funded and we visited Flint and did two sampling events. The first one, which was focused on single family homes or smaller businesses. We did not find detectable levels of Legionella bacteria that causes disease, in those buildings. But, during our second trip, we looked at large buildings and we found very high levels of Legionella that tends to cause the disease."^[56] In a second report released January 21, state researchers had still not pin-pointed the source of the outbreak.^[57] The next day, an official at McLaren Regional Medical Center in Flint put out a press release that said, "After the City of Flint switched to the Flint River as its water source in April of 2014, we noticed an increase in the number of Legionella cases that were coming to McLaren for treatment, as well as those being reported across the county and at other hospitals. Because of that concern, and concern over the quality of water that we were receiving from the city, we began aggressively testing our water supply. An early test result indicated the presence of a low level Legionella. All Legionella and lead testing continues to show that the McLaren Flint water supply is well within safety and quality standards. It is important to note that no test have ever determined that McLaren is the source of exposure for any patients testing positive for the Legionella antigen, and that there is no definitive data to support that McLaren Flint is the source of exposure for any patient testing positive for the Legionella antigen."^[58] The family of one of the people who died of Legionnaires has filed a $100 million lawsuit against McLaren.^[59]

The Flint Journal obtained documents via the Michigan Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) on the Legionnaires' outbreak and published an article on them on January 16, 2016. The documents indicated that on October 17, 2014, employees of the Genesee County Health Department and the Flint water treatment plant met to discuss the county's "concerns regarding the increase in Legionella cases and possible association with the municipal water system."^[60] By early October 2014, the Michigan DEQ were aware of a possible link between the water in Flint and the Legionnaires' outbreak, but the public was never informed, and the agency gave assurances about water safety in public statements and at public forums.^[60] An internal January 27, 2015 email from a supervisor at the health department said that the Flint water treatment plant had not responded in months to "multiple written and verbal requests" for information.^[60] In January 2015, following the complete breakdown in communication between the city and the county on the Legionnaires' investigation, the county filed a FOIA request with the city, seeking "specific water testing locations and laboratory results ... for coliform, E-coli, Heterotropic Bacteria and trihalomethanes" and other information.^[60] In April 2015, the county health department contacted the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and in April 2015 a CDC employee wrote in an email that the Legionnaire's outbreak was "very large, one of the largest we know of in the past decade and community-wide, and in our opinion and experience it needs a comprehensive investigation."^[60] However, MDHHS told the county health department at the time that federal assistance was not necessary.^[60]

Emails obtained by Progress Michigan in February 2016 indicate Snyder's office knew about the outbreak since March 2015, despite Snyder's claim he was only informed in January 2016.^[61]

On March 11, Governor Snyder ordered an investigation of the MDHHS regarding the outbreak.^[62]

Inquiries, investigations, resignations, and release of documents

One focus of inquiry is when Snyder became aware of the issue, and how much he knew about it.^[63] In a July 2015 email, Dennis Muchmore (then Snyder's chief of staff) wrote to a Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) official: "I'm frustrated by the water issue in Flint. I really don't think people are getting the benefit of the doubt. These folks are scared and worried about the health impacts and they are basically getting blown off by us (as a state we're just not sympathizing with their plight)."^[63][64] In a separate email sent on July 22, 2015, MDHHS local health services director Mark Miller wrote to colleagues that it "Sounds like the issue is old lead service lines."^[64] These emails were obtained under the Michigan Freedom of Information Act by Virginia Tech researchers studying the crisis, and were released to the public in the first week of January 2016.^[64]

In October 2015, it was reported that the city government's data on lead water lines in the city was stored on 45,000 index cards (some dating back a century) located in filing cabinets in Flint’s public utility building.^[65][66] The Department of Public Works said that it was trying to transition the data into an electronic spreadsheet program, but as of October 1, 2015, only about 25% of the index card information had been digitized.^[65]

On October 21, 2015, Snyder announced the creation of a five-member Flint Water Advisory Task Force, consisting of Ken Sikkema of Public Sector Consultants and Chris Kolb of the Michigan Environmental Council (co-chairs) and Dr. Matthew Davis of the University of Michigan Health System, Eric Rothstein of the Galardi Rothstein Group and Dr. Lawrence Reynolds of Mott Children's Health Center in Flint.^[67] In December 29, 2015, the Task Force released its preliminary report, saying that the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) bore ultimate blame for the Flint water crisis.^[68][69] The task force wrote that the DEQ's Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance (ODWMA) adopted a "minimalist technical compliance approach" to water safety, which was "unacceptable and simply insufficient to the task of public protection."^[68] The task force also found that "Throughout 2015, as the public raised concerns and as independent studies and testing were conducted and brought to the attention of MDEQ, the agency's response was often one of aggressive dismissal, belittlement, and attempts to discredit these efforts and the individuals involved. We find both the tone and substance of many MDEQ public statements to be completely unacceptable."^[68] The task force also found that the Michigan DEQ has failed to follow the federal Lead and Copper Rule (LCR).^[68] That rule requires "optimized corrosion control treatment," but DEQ staff instructed City of Flint water treatment staff that corrosion control treatment (CCT) would not be necessary for a year.^[68] The task force found that "the decision not to require CCT, made at the direction of the MDEQ, led directly to the contamination of the Flint water system."^[68]

The task force's findings prompted the resignation of DEQ director Dan Wyant and communications director Brad Wurfel.^[70][71] Flint Department of Public Works director Howard Croft also resigned.^[72]

The Flint Water Advisory Task Force's final report, released March 21, 2016, found the MDEQ, MDHHS, Governor's office, and the state-appointed emergency managers "fundamentally accountable" for the crisis, saying the people of Flint were "needlessly and tragically" exposed to toxic levels of lead and other hazards.^[73][74][75]

On January 8, 2016, the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Eastern District of Michigan said that it was investigating.^[23] A month later, they said they're working with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the EPA's Office of Inspector General, the EPA's Criminal Investigation Division, and the Postal Inspection Service on the investigation.^[76]

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) "battled Michigan's Department of Environmental Quality behind the scenes for at least six months over whether Flint needed to use chemical treatments to keep lead lines and plumbing connections from leaching into drinking water" and "did not publicize its concern that Flint residents' health was jeopardized by the state's insistence that such controls were not required by law".^[77] In 2015, EPA water expert Miguel A. Del Toral "identified potential problems with Flint's drinking water in February, confirmed the suspicions in April and summarized the looming problem" in an internal memo^[78] circulated on June 24, 2015.^[77]

Despite these "dire warnings" from Del Toral,^[79] the memo was not publicly released until November 2015, after a revision and vetting process.^[77] In the interim, the EPA and the Michigan DEQ engaged in a dispute on how to interpret the Lead and Copper Rule. According to EPA Region 5 Administrator Susan Hedman, the EPA pushed to immediately implement corrosion controls in the interests of public health, while the Michigan DEQ sought to delay a decision on corrosion control until two six-month periods of sampling had been completed.^[77] Meanwhile, MDEQ spokesman Brad Wurfel called Del Toral a "rogue employee" for his whistle-blowing efforts.^[80] Dr. Marc Edwards, who investigated the lead contamination, wrote that Del Toral had made a "heroic effort" that was stymied by the EPA and MDEQ spending months "wrangling over jurisdiction, technicalities and legalities."^[81]

In an interview with the Detroit News published on January 12, Hedman said: that "the recommendation to DEQ (regarding the need for corrosion controls) occurred at higher and higher levels during this time period. And the answer kept coming back from DEQ that 'no, we are not going to make a decision until after we see more testing results.'"^[77] Hedman said the EPA did not go public with its concerns earlier because (1) state and local governments have primary responsibility for drinking water quality and safety; (2) there was insufficient evidence at that point of the extent of the danger; and (3) the EPA's legal authority to compel the state to take action was unclear, and the EPA discussed the issue with its legal counsel, who only rendered an opinion in November.^[77] Hedman said the EPA discussed the issue with its legal counsel and urged the state to have MDHHS warn residents about the danger.^[77] On January 21, Hedman's resignation (effective February 1) was accepted.^[82]

Assessments of the EPA's action varied. Edwards said that the assessment in Del Toral's original June memo was "100 percent accurate" and criticized the EPA for failing to take more immediate action.^[77] State Senate Minority Leader Jim Ananich, Democrat of Flint, said, "There's been a failure at all levels to accurately assess the scale of the public health crisis in Flint, and that problem is ongoing. However, the EPA's Miguel Del Toral did excellent work in trying to expose this disaster. Anyone who read his memo and failed to act should be held accountable to the fullest extent of the law."^[77] Del Toral later told The Flint Journal, "I was stunned when I found out they did not have corrosion control in place. In my head, I didn't believe that. I thought: That can't be true...that's so basic." He also confirmed that unfiltered Flint water is still unsafe to drink, and doesn't know when that will change.^[83]

On January 15, Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette announced that his office would open an investigation into the crisis, saying the situation in Flint "is a human tragedy in which families are struggling with even the most basic parts of daily life."^[84][85] To oversee the AG Office's probe, Schuette appointed Todd Flood as special prosecutor and Andrew Arena as chief investigator, who lead a team of nine full-time investigators.^[86] At a media roundtable in February 2016, Flood said that the investigation could result in involuntary manslaughter charges, if there was gross negligence leading to a death.^[86] Critics have questioned the objectivity of the investigation.^[86]

In his annual State of the State address on January 19, Snyder announced that he would release all of his emails from 2014 and 2015 regarding the crisis.^[87] The following day, the governor's office released 274 pages of emails.^[14] The New York Times summarized: "the documents provide a glimpse of state leaders who were at times dismissive of the concerns of residents, seemed eager to place responsibility with local government and, even as the scientific testing was hinting at a larger problem, were reluctant to acknowledge it."^[14] Later that month in a class action lawsuit related to the crisis, Snyder and the MDEQ were served subpoenas for the release of additional emails dating back to the beginning of 2011.^[88] Emails highlighted by Progress Michigan in January 2016 indicate that Michigan state officials were trucking in bottled water to some of their own employees stationed in Flint as early as January 2015 in regards to the unsafe levels of trihalomethanes, or THMs, a by-product of chlorine that had been added to the water to kill Coliform bacteria.^[89] On February 12, 2015, Governor Snyder released additional emails between his office and the MDEQ which about the Legionnaires' outbreak.^[90] On February 26, Snyder's office released several thousand more emails regarding the crisis that date back to 2011.^[91] An additional batch of emails was released on March 10.^[92]

On January 22, two MDEQ employees (Liane Shekter Smith, former chief of the department's Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance, and Steve Busch, former district supervisor in the division) were suspended, pending an investigation, as a result of questions regarding actions related to water testing in Flint. In response, Snyder said, "Michiganders need to be able to depend on state government to do what's best for them and in the case of the DEQ that means ensuring their drinking water is safe. Some DEQ actions lacked common sense and that resulted in this terrible tragedy in Flint. I look forward to the results of the investigation to ensure these mistakes don't happen again."^[79][93] Smith was fired on February 5.^[94]

On January 25, 2016, the Genesee County Commission approved a request from Genesee County Prosecuting Attorney David Leyton for $25,000 to conduct an investigation into the crisis. The money will be used to hire two special prosecutors.^[95][96]

On March 4, 2016, a report released by the Michigan Auditor General's office called the MDEQ's Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance "not sufficient" in its oversight of the state's Community Water Supply Program.^[97]

Congressional hearings

Federal

On January 14, 2016 U.S. Representative Brenda Lawrence, Democrat of Southfield formally requested congressional hearings on the crisis, saying: "We trust our government to protect the health and safety of our communities, and this includes the promise of clean water to drink."^[98] The House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform began their hearings on the crisis on February 3. Democratic U.S. Representative Dan Kildee from Flint gave an opening statement. The first witnesses were EPA acting deputy assistant administrator Joel Beauvais, Dr. Marc Edwards, new MDEQ Director Keith Creagh, and Flint resident LeeAnne Walters (who alerted EPA water expert Miguel A. Del Toral to the problem).^[99][100] On March 15, the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee examining the Flint water crisis reveals the EPA, state, and municipal officials attempted to fix the situation behind the scenes according to hearing witness and former EPA regional administrator, Susan Hedman, who cited legal and enforcement challenges as the causes for her actions. Ex-Emergency Financial Manager Darnell Earley, Former Fint Mayor Dayne Walling, and Professor Marc Edwards also testified on that date's hearing.^[101] Governor Snyder and EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy testified before that committee on March 17.^[102]

On February 10, 2016 a separate committee, the U.S. House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee, held a hearing on the crisis in which Hurley Medical Center pediatrician Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha; Yanna Lambrinidou, president of Parents for Nontoxic Alternatives, an environmental health group; Flint schools Superintendent Bilal Kareem Tawwab; Eric Scorsone, an expert in local government finances from Michigan State University, and Flint Mayor Karen Weaver testified.^[103]

On April 13, 2016, the U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Environment and the Economy and Energy Subcommittee on Health held a joint hearing on the crisis in which Keith Creagh of the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, Nick Lyon from the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, and Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha of Hurley Medical Center testified.^[104][105]

State

On February 23, the Michigan State Legislature started a committee to investigate the crisis.^[106] On March 1, one of its members, Senator Jim Ananich of Flint, introduced a resolution that would grant state lawmakers probing the Flint water crisis subpoena power over the Governor's office, which is immune to the state Freedom of Information Act.^[107] The committee's first hearing is scheduled for March 15.^[108]

On March 29, the state's Joint Committee on the Flint Water Public Health Emergency held a hearing on the crisis in Flint during which residents and local experts testified.^[109]

State of emergency and emergency responses

Local

On December 15, 2015, Mayor Weaver declared the water issue as a citywide public health state of emergency to prompt help from state and federal officials.^[47] Weaver's declaration said that additional funding will be needed for special education, mental health, juvenile justice, and social services because of the behavioral and cognitive impacts of high blood lead levels.^[23] It was subsequently declared a countywide emergency by the Genesee County Board of Commissioners.^[110]

Starting on January 7, 2016, Genesee County Sheriff Robert Pickell had work crews of offenders sentenced to community service begin delivering bottled water, water filters and replacement cartridges, primarily to residents living in homes built between 1901 and 1920, whose plumbing systems are most likely leaching lead into the water. The next week, he ordered his department to begin using reverse 911 to advise homebound residents on how to get help.^[10]

On January 10, Mayor Weaver stressed to residents that it was important to also pick up the testing kits, as the city would like to receive at least 500 water test samples per week.^[111]

On January 12, officers from the Michigan State Police and Genesee County Sheriff's Department started delivering cases of water, water filters, lead testing kits and replacement cartridges to residents who needed them.^[112] The American Red Cross has also been deployed to Flint to deliver bottled water and filters to residents.^[113]

On January 14, it was announced Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha will lead a Flint Pediatric Public Health Initiative that includes experts from the Michigan State University College of Human Medicine, Hurley Children's Hospital, the Genesee County Health Department, and the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services to help Flint children diagnosed with lead poisoning.^[114]

State

On January 5, 2016, Michigan Governor Rick Snyder declared Genesee County to be in a state of emergency.^[115] Snyder also apologized for the incident.^[116]

On January 6, Snyder ordered the Michigan Emergency Operations Center, operated by the Michigan State Police Emergency Management and Homeland Security Division, to open a Joint Information Center to coordinate public outreach and field questions from the residents about the problems caused by the crisis.^[117] The State Emergency Operations Center recommended that all Flint children under six years old get tested for lead levels as soon as possible, either by a primary care physician or the Genesee County Health Department.^[118] The state has set up water resource sites at several public buildings around Flint where residents can pick up bottled water, water filters, replacement cartridges, and home water testing kits. They also advised residents to call the United Way to receive additional help if needed.^[119]

On January 11, Snyder signed an executive order creating a new committee to "work on long-term solutions to the Flint water situation and ongoing public health concerns affecting residents."^[120]

On January 13, Snyder activated the Michigan Army National Guard to assist the American Red Cross, starting the next day,^[121] with thirty soldiers planned to be in Flint by January 15.^[122] The National Guard doubled their number of soldiers deployed to Flint by January 18.^[123] On January 19, Snyder ordered more soldiers to Flint by the next day, for a total of 200.^[87]

On January 27, Snyder announced the establishment of the new 17-member Flint Water Interagency Coordinating Committee to "make recommendations regarding the health and welfare of people exposed to lead, study Flint's water infrastructure and determine potential upgrades, review Flint Water Task Force recommendations, and establish ways to improve communication between local and state government."^[124]

On March 2, Snyder announced the state will partner with the employment agency Michigan Works! Association to hire 81 Flint residents to work at water distribution sites throughout the city.^[125]

On March 21, Governor Snyder released a 75-point relief plan for addressing the crisis, which includes programs in the fields of health and human services, education, water supply and infrastructure replacements, and jobs and economic development.^[126]

On April 6, 2016, the state began offering up to $100,000 in grant money from the Disaster and Emergency Contingency Fund to local governments affected by the water crisis.^[127]

Federal

On January 9, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) sent two liaison officers to the Michigan Emergency Operations Center to work with the state to monitor the situation.^[128][129]

On January 15, Snyder asked President Obama to grant a federal emergency/major disaster designation for Genesee County, seeking federal financial aid for emergency assistance and infrastructure repair in order to "protect the health, safety and welfare of Flint residents."^{[122][130][131]} The following day, Obama signed an emergency declaration giving Flint up to $5 million in federal aid to handle the crisis.^[132] FEMA released a statement that said, "The President's action authorizes the Department of Homeland Security, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), to coordinate all disaster relief efforts which have the purpose of alleviating the hardship and suffering caused by the emergency on the local population, and to provide appropriate assistance for required emergency measures, authorized under Title V of the Stafford Act, to save lives and to protect property and public health and safety, and to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe in Genesee County. FEMA is authorized to provide equipment and resources to alleviate the impacts of the emergency. Emergency protective measures, limited to direct federal assistance, will be provided at 75 percent federal funding. This emergency assistance is to provide water, water filters, water filter cartridges, water test kits, and other necessary related items for a period of no more than 90 days."^[133]

After Snyder's request for a "Major Disaster Declaration" status was turned down, FEMA Administrator W. Craig Fugate wrote a letter to Snyder saying that the water contamination "does not meet the legal definition of a 'major disaster'" under federal law because "[t]he incident was not the result of a natural catastrophe, nor was it created by a fire, flood or explosion."^[134] In response, Snyder asked Obama for emergency funding under FEMA's Individuals and Households Program, which provides housing assistance and replacement of personal property. He will also ask for money and emergency protective measures, according to the release.^[135]

On March 3, 2016, Governor Snyder filed a second appeal for federal help to replace lead pipes and provide medical support and supplies for affected residents which said the estimated economic impact of the Flint water crisis is beginning to exceed $140 million.^[136] FEMA rejected his request again on March 16.^[137]

The federal response is being led by the Department of Health and Human Services, with assistance from FEMA, the Small Business Administration, the EPA, the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Department of Agriculture, the Office of Preparedness and Response, and the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps.^[138] Dr. Nicole Lurie, Assistant Secretary of Health and Human Services for Preparedness and Response, was appointed to coordinate the federal response.^[139][140]

The EPA issued a Safe Drinking Water Act Emergency Order and took over collecting and testing of water samples, while ordering state agencies to send them previously collected data, on January 21.^[141] A week later they advised residents to continue using water filters and drink only bottled water.^[142]

On February 12, the USDA extended their nutrition programs for Flint children diagnosed with high blood lead levels.^[143] On the next day, Governor Snyder asked for additional help from Medicaid and the State Children's Health Insurance Program for affected Flint children.^[144] The Department of Health and Human Services granted his request on February 18, providing an additional $500,000 in Medicaid expansion for affected Flint children and pregnant women.^[145] On March 3, a waiver request to include pregnant women and people up to 21 years of age was approved.^[146]

On March 1, the US Department of Health and Human Services announced plans to expand its Head Start Program to more Flint children affected by the crisis.^[147]

On March 23, 2016, the U.S. Department of Labor announced up to $15 million in National Dislocated Worker Grants will help provide temporary jobs to assist with Flint's water crisis recovery. About 400 temporary jobs at water distribution centers throughout the city will be created through the grant. The workers will take the place of the Michigan National Guard soldiers who have been in place since January.^[148]

On March 25, the EPA and FEMA extended the federal emergency until August 14, 2016.^[149]

Lawsuits

On November 13, 2015, four families filed a federal class-action lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan in Detroit against Governor Rick Snyder and thirteen other city and state officials, including former Flint Mayor Dayne Walling and ex-emergency financial manager Darnell Earley, who was in charge of the city when the switch to the Flint River was made. The complaint alleges that the officials acted recklessly and negligently, leading to serious injuries from lead poisoning, including autoimmune disorders, skin lesions, and "brain fog."^{[150][151][152]} The complaint says that the officials' conduct was "reckless and outrageous" and "shocks the conscience and was deliberately indifferent to ... constitutional rights."^[152]

The legal doctrines of sovereign immunity (which protects the state from suit) and official immunity (which in Michigan shields top government officials from personal liability, even in cases of gross negligence) resulted in comparatively few lawsuits being filed in the Flint case, and caused large national plaintiffs' law firms to be reluctant to become involved with the case.^[153]

On January 14, 2016, a separate class-action lawsuit against Snyder, the State of Michigan, the City of Flint, Earley, Walling, and Croft was filed by three Flint residents in Michigan Circuit Court in Genesee County.^[154][155] This suit targets lower-level officials who (under Michigan law) do not have immunity from claims arising from gross negligence.^[153]

A separate suit was filed in January 2016 in the Michigan Court of Claims against the governor and state agencies; that suit alleges violations of the state constitution.^[153] In Michigan, the Court of Claims is the only court with subject-matter jurisdiction over claims against the state and its subdivisions.^[156]

A new federal lawsuit filed on January 27, 2016, seeks the replacement of all lead service lines in Flint at no cost to residents following claims city and state leaders violated federal laws designed to protect drinking water. It is also asking the court to force city and state officials to provide safe drinking water to Flint residents and require them to follow federal regulations for testing and treating water to control for lead.^[157]

On February 2, 2016, a class action lawsuit in U.S. District Court was filed on behalf of Beatrice Boler, a Flint mother of two, Flint pastor Edwin Anderson with his wife, Alline Anderson, and a company, Epco Sales LLC. against Snyder, the MDEQ, two former state appointed emergency managers and former Flint Mayor Dayne Walling that seeks more than $150 million in refunds and compensation for damages for "water that was extraordinarily dangerous, undrinkable and unusable."^[158] It was dismissed on April 19, 2016 after the judge ruled the allegations fall under the federal Safe Drinking Water Act, which prevents challenges to the law to be ruled on in U.S. District Court and must be addressed by the Environmental Protection Agency, and the case should be re-filed in the Michigan Court of Claims.^[159]

Also on February 2, a lawsuit was filed in Michigan Circuit Court behalf of four Genesee County residents who contracted Legionnaires' disease during the Flint water crisis, including one woman who died seven days after entering the emergency room with a headache. The suit names McLaren Regional Medical Center and several Michigan DEQ officials as defendants. Lawyer Geoffrey Fieger represents the plaintiffs.^[160]

On February 8, 2016 the parents of a two-year-old girl diagnosed with high blood lead levels filed a lawsuit in federal court, naming as defendants the City of Flint, the State of Michigan, Snyder, Earley and Walling.^[161][162]

On March 3, 2016, a new lawsuit was filed in state court by LeeAnne Walters, the Flint mother who informed the EPA water expert Miguel Del Toral of the health problems her family experienced after the water switch, against multiple corporate entities and three current and former government employees for their role in the city's water crisis.^[163]

On March 7, 2016, another class action lawsuit was filed on behalf of seven residents alleges that tens of thousands of residents have suffered physical and economic injuries and damages. It argues officials failed to take action over "dangerous levels of lead" in drinking water and "downplayed the severity of the contamination."^[164]

On March 8, 2016, a federal class action lawsuit was filed on behalf of 500 county inmates against the Genesee County Sheriff's Department in regards to the water quality at the Genesee County Jail. The suit seeks only an injunction that will order the sheriff's department to continue to serve inmates only bottled water and dry food that doesn't require water to prepare.^[165]

On March 24, the City of Flint filed a notice of intent sue in the Court of Claims against the State of Michigan, the MDEQ and four MDEQ employees for their mishandling of the crisis.^[166] A week later, Mayor Weaver said she has no intentions to proceed with a lawsuit, and the move is to "protect the future interest of the city."^[167]

On March 25, a federal lawsuit filed by the ACLU asked for an order requiring water to be delivered to homes of people without access to transportation or who are physically disabled.^[168]

On April 6, 2016, a class action lawsuit brought by 15 Flint residents accused Governor Snyder and several state agencies and government officials of being in violation of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act in regards to the crisis.^[169]

Costs of infrastructure repairs and medical treatment

On January 7, 2016, Flint Mayor Karen Weaver said that estimates of the cost of fixing water infrastructure in Flint, such as aging pipes, range from millions up to $1.5 billion. These figures encompass infrastructure alone, excluding any public health costs of the disaster. DEQ interim director Keith Creagh said that estimation of total costs would be premature.^[170][171] However, in a September 2015 email released by Snyder in January 2016, the state estimated the replacement cost to be $60 million, and said it could take up to 15 years to do.^[172]

On January 18, the United Way of Genesee County estimated 6,000–12,000 children have been exposed to lead poisoning and kicked off a fundraising campaign to raise $100 million over a 10–15 year span for their medical treatment.^[1] On January 27, Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha started a fundraiser for the $80,000 needed for the medical treatment of Flint children affected by lead poisoning. Meridian Health Plan of Detroit has agreed to donate up to $40,000 in matching funds to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint for long-term needs Dr. Hanna-Attisha expects to arise from the lead issue.^[173]

At his annual State of the State address on January 19, Snyder apologized again, and asked the Michigan Legislature to give Flint an additional $28 million in funding for filters, replacement cartridges, bottled water, more school nurses and additional intervention specialists. It also will fund lab testing, corrosion control procedures, a study of water-system infrastructure, potentially help Flint deal with unpaid water bills, case management of people with elevated lead-blood levels, assessment of potential linkages to other diseases, crisis counseling and mental health services, and the replacement of plumbing fixtures in schools, child care centers, nursing homes and medical facilities.^[87] The Michigan House Appropriations Committee passed the bill the next day, while the Senate approved it on January 28.^[174][175] Snyder signed it the next day.^[5]

On January 21, President Obama gave an $80 million loan to Michigan for infrastructure repairs, but the amount going to Flint is uncertain.^[176][177]

On January 28, Democratic U.S. Senators Debbie Stabenow and Gary Peters and Representative Dan Kildee proposed an amendment to pending federal energy legislation to add the special appropriation of up to $400 million to replace and repair the lead service lines in Flint and $200 million more to create a center for lead research in Flint. They also said the state could choose to match up to $400 million for its share of infrastructure repairs in Flint.^[178] The newly amended bill was rejected by the Senate on February 4.^[179] A new $220 million bill to address the crisis was proposed in the U.S. Senate on February 24.^[180]

At a news conference on February 9, 2016, Flint mayor Karen Weaver said that the city would remove and replace all of the city's 15,000 water service lines containing lead piping. Work was expected to begin in March 2016. The project will receive technical advice from the Lansing Board of Water and Light, which removed over 13,000 lead pipes in Lansing, Michigan. Lansing mayor Virg Bernero volunteered to provide the assistance. Weaver appointed Michael C.H. McDaniel, a retired National Guard brigadier general, to oversee the group leading the project, the Flint Action and Sustainability Team (FAST). The city government hopes to complete the project within a year, using 32 work crews, with priority given to the most at-risk households.^{[181][182][183]} The project is expected to cost $55 million, and the funding sources are not yet secured, but the city plans to seek it from local, state, and federal sources.^[183][184] The crews began working on March 4.^[185]

On February 16, the state hired Flint-based engineering firm Rowe Professional Services to begin the process of locating, removing, and eventually replacing lead pipes in the highest risk areas of Flint.^[186]

On February 18, the state gave Flint a $2 million grant that will go towards replacing lead service lines.^[187]

On March 6, Union Labor Life Insurance Company donated $25 million for lead pipe replacements in the city.^[188]

Long term costs and lifelong problems associated with lead poisoning

Childhood lead exposure causes a reduction in intellectual functioning and IQ, academic performance, and problem-solving skills, and an increased risk of attention deficit disorder, aggression, and hyperactivity. According to studies, children with elevated levels of lead in the blood are more likely as adults to commit crimes, be imprisoned, be unemployed or underemployed, or be dependent on government services.^{[189][190][191]} A 2014 study by researchers at Risk Science Center at the University of Michigan, completed before the Flint water crisis came to light, estimated the annual cost of childhood lead exposure in Michigan at $330 million ($205 million in decreases in lifetime earnings, $105 million in additional criminal justice system expenditures, $18 million in health expenditures to diagnose and lead positioning and lead-linked attention deficit disorder), and $2.5 million in additional special education expenditures.^[189]

Because the developmental effects of lead exposure appear over a series of years,^[192] the total long-term cost of the Flint water crisis "will not be apparent in the short term."^[193] However, the cost is expected to be high. Philippe Grandjean of the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, an expert in the effects of environmental pollution on brain development, said that "when calculated from the loss of lifetime income, the societal costs from lead exposure (across the United States) reach billion dollar amounts."^[193]

Political responses

White House

President Barack Obama said of the crisis, "What is inexplicable and inexcusable is once people figured out that there was a problem there, and that there was lead in the water, the notion that immediately families weren't notified, things weren't shut down. That shouldn't happen anywhere."^[194]

Michigan congressional delegation

On January 20, Senator Debbie Stabenow, a Democrat, faulted the state for having "no sense of urgency whatsoever" despite warnings from the EPA about the contaminated water.^[195] Senator Gary Peters, also a Democrat, said that: "The water crisis in Flint is an immense failure on the part of the State of Michigan to protect the health and safety of the City's residents, and the State must accept full responsibility for its actions that led to this catastrophe." Peters, along with Stabenow and Representative Dan Kildee, called upon the state to make a "sustained financial commitment" to assist Flint "by establishing a 'Future Fund' to meet the cognitive, behavioral and health challenges" of children affected by lead poisoning. Peters also called upon the state to reimburse Flint residents for the money that was paid for contaminated water, to pay the city's legal fees in connection with the water crisis, and to pay for the costs of reconnecting to the Detroit water system.^[196]

On January 12, Dan Kildee, Democrat of Flint, said of Snyder: "It's beyond my comprehension that he continues to treat this as a public relations problem rather than as a public health emergency. Meanwhile, kids in Flint are still being exposed to high levels of lead in the water." Kildee called upon Snyder to request federal assistance (which Snyder subsequently did).^[197] Kildee, along with fellow Michigan Representative Fred Upton, also sponsored H.R. 4470, the Safe Drinking Water Act Improved Compliance Awareness Act, which will ensure that the public promptly learns of excessive lead levels in their drinking water by setting forth how and when states, EPA, and public utilities communicate their findings. It has passed the House but has yet to be passed by the Senate.^[104]

Among the Michigan congressional delegation, only Representative Justin Amash, Republican of Cascade Township, opposed federal aid for Flint. Amash opined that "the U.S. Constitution does not authorize the federal government to intervene in an intrastate matter like this one."^[198]

State legislature

On January 4, 2016, citing the Flint water crisis, Michigan Representative Phil Phelps, Democrat of Flushing, announced plans to introduce a bill to the Michigan House of Representatives that would make it a felony for state officials to intentionally manipulate or falsify information in official reports, punishable by up to five years' imprisonment and a $5,000 fine.^[199]

On March 2, House Democratic leader Tim Greimel called on Governor Snyder to resign, due to his "negligence and indifference" in his handling of the Flint water crisis.^[200] Also on that date, State Democratic Party Chairman Brandon Dillon called for Michigan Treasurer Nick Khouri to resign due to his role in a loan agreement from April 2015 that blocked Flint from switching back to the Detroit system.^[201]

Presidential candidates

Democratic

Among the Democratic Presidential candidates, former Secretary of State and U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton said of the crisis: "The people of Flint deserve to know the truth about how this happened and what Governor Snyder and other leaders knew about it. And they deserve a solution, fast. Thousands of children may have been exposed to lead, which could irreversibly harm their health and brain functioning. Plus, this catastrophe—which was caused by a zeal to save money at all costs—could actually cost $1.5 billion in infrastructure repairs."^[202] In a subsequent interview, Clinton referred to her work on lead abatement in housing in upstate New York and called for further funding for healthcare and education for children who will suffer the negative effects of lead exposure on behavior and educational attainment.^[203]

Independent U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, another candidate for the Democratic nomination for president, called for Snyder to resign from office, stating he has "no excuses" for the disaster.^[204] He noted the event was "one of the worst public health crises in the modern history of this country."^[205] Both Clinton and Sanders referenced the issue and condemned Snyder in a televised primary debate on January 17. Clinton stated that if the water crisis had occurred in a wealthier Detroit suburb rather than poor, majority African American Flint, "there would have been action," while Sanders reiterated his call for Snyder's resignation.^{[206][207][208]} The issue was brought up by both candidates again in a debate on February 4,^[209] and at a later debate at the Whiting Auditorium in Flint on March 6.^[210]

Republican

Among Republican candidates, Donald Trump said, "It’s a shame what's happening in Flint, Michigan. A thing like that shouldn't happen."^[211] Senator Ted Cruz of Texas said of the crisis that government is to blame and should be held accountable for exposing residents to "poisoned water." He also said the situation was a travesty and a failure of government at every level.^[211] Governor John Kasich of Ohio said that a solution needed to be found and that "I think the governor has moved the National Guard in and, you know, I'm sure he will manage this appropriately."^[211]

Other responses

The water disaster called attention to the problem of aging and seriously neglected water infrastructure nationwide.^[212][213] The Flint crisis recalled recent lead contamination crises in the tap water in various cities, such as the lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water (2001), Columbia, South Carolina (2005); Durham and Greenville, North Carolina (2006); Jackson, Mississippi (2015), and Sebring, Ohio (2015).^[213] The New York Times notes that "Although Congress banned lead water pipes 30 years ago, between 3.3 million and 10 million older ones remain, primed to leach lead into tap water by forces as simple as jostling during repairs or a change in water chemistry."^[213] Inadequate regulation was cited as one reason for unsafe lead levels in tap water and "efforts to address shortcomings often encounter push-back from industries like agriculture and mining that fear cost increases, and from politicians ideologically opposed to regulation."^[213] The crisis called attention to a "resource gap" for water regulators. The annual budget of the EPA's drinking water office declined 15% from 2006 to 2015, with the office losing over 10% of employees, and the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators reported in 2013 that "federal officials had slashed drinking-water grants, 17 states had cut drinking-water budgets by more than a fifth, and 27 had cut spending on full-time employees," with "serious implications for states’ ability to protect public health."^[213]

The crisis highlighted a lack of transparency in Michigan government; the state is one of just two states that exempts the governor's office from state freedom-of-information legislation.^[214] A number of commentators framed the crisis in terms of human rights, writing that authorities' handling of the issue denied residents their right to clean water.^[63][215] Some have framed it as the end result of austerity measures and given priority over human life.^{[216][217][218]} Jacob Lederman, for example, contends that Flint's poisoned water supply, in addition to high crime rates, devastated schools and crumbling infrastructure, can be attributed to neoliberal economic reforms.^[219]

Civil rights advocates characterized the crisis as a result of environmental racism, a term primarily referring to the disproportionate exposure of ethnic minorities to pollution as a result of "poverty and segregation that has relegated many blacks and other racial minorities to some of the most industrialized or dilapidated environments."^[220] Columnist Shaun King, for example, wrote that the crisis was "a horrific clash of race, class, politics and public health."^[221]

Robby Soave, writing in Reason magazine, said that administrative bloat in public-sector trade unions was to blame for the crisis: "Let's not forget the reason why local authorities felt the need to find a cheaper water source: Flint is broke and its desperately poor citizens can’t afford higher taxes to pay the pensions of city government retirees. As recently as 2011, it would have cost every person in Flint $10,000 each to cover the unfunded legacy costs of the city's public employees."^[222] "Flint was a government-made disaster from top to bottom. Private companies didn’t run the system or profit from it," writes Shikha Dalmia in Reason Magazine (11 Feb 2015)^[223]

In the aftermath of the water crisis, it was noted that elevated blood-lead levels in children are found in many cities across Michigan, including Detroit, Grand Rapids, Muskegon, and Adrian. Although statewide childhood lead-poisoning rates have dramatically declined since the removal of lead from gasoline, certain areas of the state (particularly low-income areas with older housing stock) continue to experience lead poisoning, mostly from lead paint in homes built before 1978 and lead residue in dust and soil. Lead abatement efforts are slow.^[224]

News

On October 8, 2015, the editorial board of the Detroit Free Press wrote that the crisis was "an obscene failure of government" and criticized Snyder.^[225]

On December 31, 2015, the editorial board of the MLive group of Michigan newspapers (including The Flint Journal) called upon Snyder to "drop executive privilege and release all of his communications on Flint water," establish a procedure for compensating families with children suffering from elevated lead blood levels, and return Flint to local control.^[226]

Some of the most important reporting on the Flint water crisis was conducted by investigative reporter Curt Guyette, who works not for a news organization but for the American Civil Liberties Union's Michigan Democracy Watch Project. The work of Guyette and the ACLU was credited with bringing the water contamination to public light.^[227][228]

MSNBC host Rachel Maddow has extensively reported on the water crisis on her show since December 2015, keeping it in the national spotlight.^[229][230] She has condemned Snyder's use of emergency managers (which she termed a "very, very radical" change "to the way we govern ourselves as Americans, something that nobody else has done") and stated that "The kids of Flint, Michigan have been poisoned by a policy decision."^[230] Maddow visited Flint and hosted a town hall with government officials and other involved experts on her show on January 27.^[231]

Groups

In January 2016, the watchdog group Common Cause called upon Snyder to release all documents related to the Flint water crisis. The governor's office is not subject to the Michigan Freedom of Information Act.^[232]

The hacktivist group Anonymous released a YouTube video calling for the arrest of Snyder.^[233]

Prominent figures

The filmmaker Michael Moore, a Genesee County native, called for Snyder's arrest for mishandling the water crisis in an open letter to the governor, writing: "The facts are all there, Mr. Snyder. Every agency involved in this scheme reported directly to you. The children of Flint didn't have a choice as to whether or not they were going to get to drink clean water." A spokesman for the governor called Moore's call "inflammatory."^[234][235] Later, after hearing of the Legionnaires' outbreak, Moore termed the state's actions "murder."^[236] Speaking to reporters in Flint, he emphasized that "this was not a mistake . . . Ten people have been killed here because of a political decision. They did this. They knew."^[237]

In a post on her Facebook page, environmental activist Erin Brockovich called the water crisis a "growing national concern" and said that the crisis was "likely" connected to the Legionnaires' disease outbreak. Brockovich called for the U.S. Environment Protection Agency to become involved in the investigation, saying that the EPA's "continued silence has proven deadly."^[236]

On January 16, the Reverend Jesse Jackson met with Mayor Weaver in Flint and said of the crisis, "The issue of water and air and housing and education and violence are all combined. The problem here obviously is more than just lack of drinkable water. We know the problems here and they will be addressed."^[238] Jackson called Flint "a disaster zone" and a "crime scene" during a rally at a Flint church the next day.^[239] Jackson, in conjunction with the group Concerned Pastors for Social Action, held a major national march in Flint on February 19 to address the water issue, as well as inner city violence and urban reconstruction.^[240]

On January 18, Nontombi Naomi Tutu, daughter of Desmond Tutu, said in a speech at the University of Michigan–Flint, "We actually needed the people of Flint to remind the people of this country what happens when political expediency, when financial concerns, overshadow justice and humanity."^[241]

On January 24, actor and clean drinking water advocate Matt Damon has also called for Snyder's resignation.^[242]

On January 28, rapper Jon Connor from Flint released a song titled "Fresh Water for Flint" about the crisis and how it has affected his family.^[243]

On March 7, actor Mark Ruffalo and a group of environmental activists visited Flint and called for more federal aid in the emergency and Snyder's resignation while saying, "It's an absolute outrage, it's a moral indecency."^[244]

Education and research

During its winter 2016 semester, the University of Michigan–Flint offered a one-credit, eight-session series of public forums dedicated to educating Flint residents and students on the crisis.^[245]

The University of Michigan committed to spending $100,000 to research the crisis and possible ways to address it.^[246]

Wayne State University in Detroit will lead a separate study focusing on the Legionnaires' outbreak called the Flint Area Community Health and Environment Partnership. It will include researchers from Flint's Kettering University and Detroit's Henry Ford Hospital.^[247]

Celebrity and corporate donations

The United Auto Workers union donated drinking water to Flint via a caravan of trucks to local food banks, and an AmeriCorps team announced that it would deploy to Flint to assist in response efforts.^[248]

Singer Cher donated 181,000 bottles of water to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan,^[249] while the Legacy Group Water Project coordinated with the Red Cross and the City of Flint as well as Bottles for the Babies to initiate the largest volunteer action to distribute water and filters into the city in a single day since the citywide emergency was declared a month earlier.^[250] Operation Flint, another volunteer group, also began accepting water donations the same day.^[251]

Rapper Meek Mill donated $50,000 and 60,000 bottles of water to Flint to aid in the crisis,^{[252][253][254]} while Oskar Blues Brewery and Ball Corporation donated 50,000 cans of water to Flint.^[255]

Rapper Big Sean, a Detroit native, donated $10,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint,^[254] the Flint Firebirds' rivals in the Ontario Hockey League made donations: the Windsor Spitfires donated 40,000 bottles of water, and the Sarnia Sting donated 15,000 bottles of water,^[256] and Faygo teamed with United Way of America to begin a fund for Flint, where $2 will give someone a full case of free water.^[257]

Singer Aretha Franklin said she will provide hotel rooms and food for 25-50 Flint residents.^[258]

Jimmy Fallon donated $10,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint^[259] while a group made up of actor Mark Wahlberg and rappers Sean Combs, Eminem, and Wiz Khalifa donated 1 million bottles of water to Flint.^[260]

Comedians George Lopez, Eddie Griffin, Cedric the Entertainer, Charlie Murphy, and D. L. Hughley performed stand up comedy in Flint's Dort Federal Credit Union Event Center as part of The Comedy Get Down Tour, with the proceeds to go to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.^[261]

The Little River Band of Ottawa Indians donated $10,000 to the Genesee County Sheriff's Department.^[262]

Detroit Lions defensive end Ziggy Ansah donated 94,000 bottles to Flint,^[263] and Terrance Knighton and his Washington Redskins teammates donated 3,600 bottles of water to Flint's Catholic Charities USA.^[264] On the same day, rock band Pearl Jam and a large group of musicians donated $300,000 to the United Way of Genesee County, and started a CrowdRise fundraiser for donations from its fans.^[265] Additionally, fundraising website GoFundMe promised to donate an additional $10,000 to the fund of the winner of a week-long contest that ended on January 29 between a large number of groups trying to raise money for Flint,^[266] while Anheuser-Busch donated 51,744 cans of water to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan.^[267]

The Detroit Pistons donated $500,000 to the United Way of Genesee County from their FlintNOW fundraising campaign from the previous night's game.^[268]

A group of retired NBA players lead by Derrick Coleman donated 30,000 cases of water to Flint.^[269]

$50,000 raised at the Meridian Winter Festival in Detroit was donated to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.^[270]

Walmart, The Coca-Cola Company, Nestlé and PepsiCo announced that they would collectively donate a total of 176 truckloads of water (up to 6.5 million bottles) through the end of 2016.^[271][272] On the same day, singer Madonna donated $10,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint,^[273] and singer Kem donated $10,000 to the Salvation Army of Genesee County.^[274] Also, rapper The Game donated $1,000,000 in water bottles to Flint,^[275] while FedEx, along with the city of Memphis, Tennessee donated 12,000 bottles of water to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan.^[276]

Detroit Pistons forward Marcus Morris, in conjunction with Philadelphia organizations F.O.E. and the Nehemiah Davis Foundation donated 60,000 cases of water to Flint.^[277]

The company ShowerPill, which includes several NFL players, donated $100,000 in anti-microbial body wipes, baby wipes and water to the United Way of Genesee County for distribution focused on high schools and senior centers.^[278] On the same day, actor Jussie Smollett visited Flint and donated $10,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.^[279]

Meijer announced it is donating $500,000 to three non-profit organizations. $250,000 of this donation will go to the Flint Child Health and Development Fund, and the United Way of Genesee County's Flint Water Fund and the American Red Cross will receive $125,000 each.^[280]

A group of nine banks collectively donated $600,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.^[281]

AT&T Mobility set up a fund which allows customers to donate $10 to aid in the crisis by texting a certain number.^[282]

Craigslist founder Craig Newmark donated $50,000 and 25,000 cases of water to the United Way of Southeastern Michigan.^[283]

Platinum Equity chairman and CEO and Detroit Pistons owner Tom Gores, a Flint native, launched a campaign to raise $10 million for Flint.^[284][285] On the same day, rapper Pusha T donated 2,000 cases of bottled water to Flint,^[286] and the city of Evanston, Illinois donated $5,000 to the United Way of Genesee County.^[287]

The Michigan State Medical Society donated $10,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.^[288]

The LaPorte County, Indiana Sheriff's Office donated 2,300 cases of water to a church in Flint,^[289] the Northwest Indiana Truck Club donated 3,500 cases of water to Flint,^[290] and NFL player and Flint native Brandon Carr donated $100,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint and $10,000 to the Safe Water Safe Homes Fund.^[291]

The police fraternity Brothers Before Others donated 330 cases of water bottles, 361 one-gallon water jugs and $1,000 to the Flint Police Department.^[292] The charity Resources Unite of Dubuque, Iowa collected 300,000 bottles of water for Flint.^[293]

A telethon led by WDIV and simulcast on Michigan's other NBC affiliates raised $566,982 for the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.^[294] Detroit Pistons owner and Flint native Tom Gores matched the amount, doubling the amount raised to $1,133,964.^[295]

A group of students from Ohio State University donated 10,000 pounds of water to Flint's Catholic Charities USA.^[296]

Amtrak donated 30,000 bottles of water to Flint.^[297]

Tabernacle Baptist Church in Knoxville, Tennessee donated 70,000 pounds of water to Flint.^[298]

Consumers Energy, the area's gas and electricity provider, has donated $50,000 during the crisis ($25,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint and $25,000 to the United Way of Genesee County), and its employees are delivering water to Flint homes. It is also matching donations from employees and retirees, up to $25,000.^[299]

The Michigan Masonic Charitable Foundation donated $100,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint.^[300]

The Waukegan, Illinois Community School District donated 650 cases of bottled water to Flint.^[301]

The United Food and Commercial Workers, in partnership with Cargill, ConAgra Foods, Hormel Foods, JBS USA, Pinnacle Foods, Downs Food Group and Ryder Logistics donated 125,000 pounds of food to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan in response to the crisis.^[302]

The Dow Chemical Company of nearby Midland donated $100,000 to the Community Foundation of Greater Flint, and its Water and Process Solutions division donated and will install 150 reverse osmosis water filtration systems in Flint homes.^[303]

The Dr Pepper Snapple Group donated 41,000 bottles of water to the Food Bank of Eastern Michigan.^[304]

Platinum Equity's FlintNOW Foundation, in conjunction with Huntington Bank, started a $25 million economic development program that will loan aid money to Flint businesses affected by the water crisis.^[305]

Two prisons in Northern Michigan donated 29,000 bottles of water to the Genesee Intermediate School District.^[306]

A benefit concert to support children affected by the crisis presented by Flint country music station Nash FM 95.1 featuring Granger Smith and Tegan Marie will be held at the Dort Federal Center in Flint on April 7 will donate its proceeds to Hurley's Children Hospital.^[307]

#JusticeForFlint charity event

On February 28, coinciding with the 88th Academy Awards ceremony, Creed director Ryan Coogler and Selma director Ava DuVernay held a charity event at the Whiting Auditorium in Flint. The event, titled #JusticeForFlint, was live-streamed by Sean Combs' Revolt.tv network. Hosted by comedian Hannibal Buress, it featured singers Janelle Monáe and Ledisi, as well as actor-activists Jesse Williams and Jussie Smollett, amongst others.^[308] So far, the fund has raised $156,000.^[309]

See also

• Drinking water quality in the United States
• Lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water
• Hinkley groundwater contamination
• 1993 Milwaukee Cryptosporidiosis outbreak
• Toxic hotspots
• Water treatment

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58. Officials confirm Legionella bacteria found in Flint's McLaren Hospital's water supply in 2014 The Flint Journal via MLive, January 22, 2016
59. Attorney Geoffrey Fieger seeks $100 million in Flint Legionnaires' lawsuit The Flint Journal via MLive, February 2, 2016
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61. Officials were warned of Flint water, Legionnaires' link months before public Associated Press/MLive, February 4, 2016
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72. Ron Fonger, Howard Croft, Flint official responsible for water oversight, resigns, The Flint Journal via MLive (November 16, 2015).
73. Inquiry: State "fundamentally accountable" for Flint crisis WJRT-TV, March 23, 2016
74. Flint Water Advisory Task Force Final Report, March 21, 2016
75. Flint Water Advisory Task Force (Final Report) March 23, 2016
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99. Former EM removed from witness list for Congressional hearing on Flint water The Flint Journal via MLive, February 2, 2016
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111. Roberto Acosta, Flint water resource teams to cover city, mayor stresses test kit importance, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 10, 2016).
112. Roberto Acosta, Crisis teams hit Flint streets with filters and water for frustrated residents, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 12, 2016).
113. Natalie Zarowny, Red Cross volunteers come to help Flint from across the state, country, WJRT-TV (January 12, 2016).
114. Flint organizations announce Pediatric Public Health Initiative, WJRT-TV (January 14, 2016).
115. Governor declares state of emergency over lead in Flint water, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 5, 2016).
116. Felton, Ryan. "Governor Rick Snyder 'very sorry' about Flint water lead levels debacle". The Guardian. London. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
117. Amanda Emery, State launches information center for Flint following emergency declaration, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 6, 2016).
118. Emily Lawler, 43 Flint residents identified with elevated lead levels so far, urged to take precautions, MLive (January 7, 2016).
119. New water resource sites now open in Flint, WJRT-TV (January 10, 2016).
120. Ron Fonger, Gov. Snyder signs executive order to create new Flint water committee, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 11, 2016).
121. Ron Fonger, Governor activates National Guard to deal with Flint water crisis, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 12, 2016).
122. Matthew Dolan, Snyder seeks federal emergency status over Flint water, Detroit Free Press (January 15, 2016).
123. National Guard doubles troops handing out water in Flint WJRT-TV, January 18, 2016
124. Snyder taps mayor, crusading doctor, professor for Flint water committee The Flint Journal via MLive, January 27, 2016
125. State partners with Michigan Works! to hire Flint residents at water sites The Flint Journal via MLive, March 2, 2016
126. State unveils big plans for Flint recovery after water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 21, 2016
127. Grants up to $100,000 offered to communities affected by Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, April 6, 2016
128. Amanda Emery, Federal Emergency Management Agency to monitor Flint's water crisis, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 9, 2016).
129. Paul Egan, Federal disaster agency monitoring Flint water crisis, Detroit Free Press (January 9, 2016).
130. Gary Ridley, Snyder asks Obama to declare federal emergency for Flint water, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 14, 2016).
131. Chad Livengood, Jonathan Oosting & Melissa Nann Burke, White House to decide soon on Flint emergency request, Detroit News (January 15, 2016).
132. Ashley Southall, [State of Emergency Declared Over Man-Made Water Disaster in Michigan City], New York Times (January 17, 2016).
133. Roberto Acosta, President Obama signs emergency declaration over Flint's water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive (January 16, 2016)
134. Chad Livengood & Jonathan Oosting, Snyder to appeal Obama's denial of Flint disaster zone, Detroit News (January 18, 2016).
135. Snyder seeking additional federal aid in Flint water crisis after appeal rejected, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 22, 2016).
136. Snyder launches 2nd appeal for federal money to replace Flint water pipes The Flint Journal via MLive, March 3, 2016
137. FEMA denies request for federal aid for Flint for a second time WJRT-TV, March 16, 2016
138. U.S. Health and Human Services to lead federal response of Flint water crisis, WEYI-TV (January 19, 2016).
139. Mary K. Wakefield, On the Ground This Week: HHS to Lead Federal Response in Flint, United States Department of Health and Human Services (January 19, 2016).
140. Dr. Nicole Lurie leading federal response in Flint, WNEM.
141. EPA orders state action, takes over testing of Flint water The Flint Journal via MLive, January 21, 2016
142. EPA says Flint residents should use filters, continue drinking bottled water The Flint Journal via MLive, January 28, 2016
143. Feds to expand nutrition programs in Flint to fight lead poison damage The Flint Journal via MLive, February 12, 2016
144. Snyder seeks expanded health coverage, lead abatement in Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, February 14, 2016
145. Additional $500,000 in federal money to fight lead damage in Flint children The Flint Journal via MLive, February 18, 2016
146. Pregnant women, kids affected by Flint water crisis covered under Medicaid waiver The Flint Journal via MLive, March 3, 2016
147. Feds to expand Flint's Head Start program to help fight lead damage in kids The Flint Journal via MLive, March 2, 2016
148. Flint water crisis could net city $15M in fed labor grants The Flint Journal via MLive, March 23, 2016
149. EPA extends federal emergency declaration for Flint WJRT-TV, March 25, 2016
150. Pitt, Michael L.; McGehee, Cary S.; Rivers, Beth M. (November 13, 2015). "Melisa Mays, et. al. vs. Governor Rick Snyder, et. al." (PDF). Pitt Law PC. 2:15-cv-14002-JCO-MKM. Retrieved November 16, 2015. Defendants’ conduct in exposing Flint residents to toxic water was so egregious and so outrageous that it shocks the conscience.
151. "4 families sue over lead in Flint water". The Detroit News. November 15, 2015. Retrieved November 15, 2015.
152. Daniel Bethencourt, After Flint water crisis, families file lawsuit, Detroit Free Press (November 13, 2015).
153. Brendan Pierson, Plaintiffs' lawyers wary of taking on Flint water scandal, Reuters (January 25, 2016).
154. 3 people file class action lawsuit against Gov. Snyder, Flint, WJRT-TV (January 14, 2016).
155. State of Michigan, Gov. Snyder sued in class action lawsuit over Flint water crisis, WDIV-TV (January 14, 2016).
156. Why is Court of Claims handling DPS, Flint water crisis lawsuits?, Michigan Radio (January 25, 2016).
157. New Flint water lawsuit seeks replacement of lead service lines The Flint Journal via MLive, January 27, 2016
158. Lawsuit seeks water bill refunds for Flint residents, Detroit Free Press (February 2, 2016).
159. $150 million Flint water class-action lawsuit dismissed The Flint Journal via MLive, April 19, 2016
160. John Wisely & Jennifer Dixon, Fieger files $100-million suit over Flint Legionnaires' disease cases, Detroit Free Press (February 2, 2016).
161. Tracy Connor, Parents of 'Tragic' 2-Year-Old With Lead Poisoning Sue Flint, NBC News (February 8, 2016).
162. Katrease Stafford, Family of lead-poisoned Flint girl, 2, files suit, Detroit Free Press (February 8, 2016).
163. Flint mother at center of lead water crisis files lawsuit The Flint Journal via MLive, March 3, 2016
164. Class action suit filed over Flint water crisis WNEM-TV, March 7, 2016
165. Inmates suing over water quality at Flint jail The Flint Journal via MLive, March 9, 2016
166. Flint to sue state, DEQ over water source switch The Flint Journal via MLive, April 1, 2016
167. Flint mayor says she has no plans to sue state but keeping option open The Flint Journal via MLive, April 1, 2016
168. Groups ask federal judge to order city, state to deliver bottled water to homes WJRT-TV, March 25, 2016
169. Gov. Rick Snyder target of RICO lawsuit over Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, April 6, 2016
170. Emily Lawler, Flint infrastructure fix could cost up to $1.5B, mayor Karen Weaver says, MLive (January 7, 2016, updated January 8, 2016).
171. Cost to fix Flint water infrastructure could reach $1.5 billion: reports, Reuters (January 7, 2016).
172. 15 years and $60M needed to replace Flint's lead water lines, emails show The Flint Journal via MLive, January 20, 2016
173. Gus Burns, Doctor says lead testing data underestimates long-term damage to Flint kids, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 27, 2016).
174. David Eggert, Michigan lawmakers approve $28M more for Flint water crisis, Associated Press (January 28, 2016).
175. Jonathan Oosting, $28M Flint supplemental bill heads to Snyder, Detroit News (January 28, 2016).
176. Obama gives $80 million to Michigan for Flint, Detroit News (January 21, 2016).
177. $80 million announced in connection with Flint water is revolving loan fund, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 23, 2016).
178. State, feds should share $800 million Flint water-fix bill, lawmakers say, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 28, 2016).
179. Demanding Flint money, Senate Dems stop energy bill The Detroit Free Press, February 4, 2016
180. U.S. Senate plan could send $100 million, loans to Flint The Detroit Free Press, February 24, 2016
181. Katrease Stafford, Flint mayor: Pipe replacement to begin next month, Detroit Free Press (February 9, 2016).
182. Jacob Carah & Chad Livengood, Flint mayor announces lead pipe removal plan, Detroit News (February 9, 2016).
183. Roberto Acosta, Funding still needed for new $55M plan to replace lead service lines, The Flint Journal via MLive (February 9, 2016).
184. Ashley Fantz & Kristina Sgueglia, Flint mayor says $55 million needed to replace lead pipes, CNN (February 9, 2016).
185. Flint to begin first lead service line replacement amid water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 3, 2016
186. Process under way to locate, replace lead pipes in Flint water crisis The Flint Journal, February 16, 2016
187. Flint gets $2 million from state to start lead service water replacements The Flint Journal via MLive, February 18, 2016
188. Flint Mayor Weaver announces $25 million committed to help remove lead pipes WJRT-TV, March 7, 2016
189. Julie Mack, Lead levels elevated for thousands of Michigan children outside of Flint, MLive (February 1, 2015).
190. Kathryn M. Barker & Farah Qureshi, Lead poisoning: Sources of exposure, health effects and policy implications, Journalist's Resource (Harvard Kennedy School Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy/Carnegie-Knight Initiative on the Future of Journalism (February 4, 2016).
191. Aaron E. Carroll, What the Science Says About Long-Term Damage From Lead, New York Times (February 8, 2016).
192. Abby Goodnough, Flint Weighs Scope of Harm to Children Caused by Lead in Water, New York Times (January 29, 2016).
193. Karen Feldscher, Flint's water crisis 'infuriating' given knowledge about lead poisoning, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health (January 26, 2016).
194. Obama Calls Flint Water Crisis 'Inexplicable And Inexcusable', The Huffington Post (January 20, 2016).
195. Stabenow tells CNN 'no sense of urgency' by state in Flint water crisis, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 20, 2016).
196. Wil Hunter, U.S. Senator Gary Peters' statement on Governor Snyder's State of the State (Jabnuary 20, 2016).
197. Congressman Kildee on Amir Hekmati, Snyder's response to Flint water crisis, Michigan Radio (January 11, 2016).
198. Nate Reens, Justin Amash stood alone opposing Flint water federal aid bid, MLive (January 19, 2016).
199. Emily Lawler, Bill inspired by Flint water crisis would make data manipulation by Michigan officials a felony, MLive (January 4, 2016).
200. Michigan lawmaker calls on Gov. Rick Snyder to resign over 'indifference' to Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 2, 2016
201. Democrats call for state treasurer to resign for role in Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 2, 2016
202. Hillary Clinton speaks out on Flint's water emergency, WJRT-TV (January 11, 2016).
203. Amanda Emery, Hillary Clinton infuriated by Flint water crisis, outraged by Gov. Snyder The Flint Journal via MLive (January 14, 2016).
204. Martin Pengelly, Obama declares Flint water emergency as Sanders blames Michigan governor, The Guardian (January 16, 2016).
205. Chad Livengood, Sanders: Snyder should resign over Flint water crisis, The Detroit News (January 16, 2016).
206. Roberto Acosta, Hillary Clinton addresses Flint water crisis during presidential debate, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 17, 2016).
207. Jason Linkins, Flint's Water Problem Finally Gets Attention During A Debate, Huffington Post (January 17, 2015).
208. Daniel White, Michigan Governor Upset About Democratic Debate Mention, Time (January 18, 2016).
209. Hillary Clinton, Bernie Sanders talk Flint water crisis during debate The Flint Journal via MLive, February 5, 2016
210. Democratic debate: Clinton, Sanders call for Gov. Snyder's resignation over Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 6, 2016
211. Donald Trump, Rubio Try to Stay Clear of Flint Water Crisis, The Wall Street Journal (January 19, 2016).
212. Lead Poisoning In Michigan Highlights Aging Water Systems Nationwide, NPR Weekend Edition Saturday (January 2, 2016) (interview with Robert Puentes, director of the Metropolitan Infrastructure Initiative at the Brookings Institution).
213. Michael Wines & John Schwartz, Unsafe Lead Levels in Tap Water Not Limited to Flint, New York Times (February 8, 2016).
214. Flint water crisis highlights lack of transparency with Michigan government, Michigan Radio (January 25, 2016).
215. Benjamin Spoer, Flint's water crisis is a human rights violation, Al Jazeera (January 9, 2016).
216. Elias Isquith, When money matters more than lives: The poisonous cost of austerity in Flint, Michigan, Salon (January 9, 2016).
217. John Nichols, Outcry Over the Austerity Crisis in Flint Grows, The Nation (January 17, 2015).
218. Austerity Man by Mark Fiore, Truthdig. January 21, 2016.
219. Flint's Water Crisis Is No Accident. It's the Result of Years of Devastating Free-Market Reforms, In These Times (January 22, 2016).
220. John Eligon, A Question of Environmental Racism in Flint, New York Times (January 21, 2016).
221. Shaun King, King: Michigan Gov. Rick Snyder did nothing as Flint's water crisis became one of the worst cases of environmental racism in modern American history, Daily News (New York) (January 11, 2016).
222. Robby Soave, The Government Poisoned Flint’s Water—So Stop Blaming Everyone Else, Reason (January 21, 2016).
223. "What To Do About Flint? Evacuate The Residents And Turn it Into a Landfill for Liberal Good Intentions". Reason.com.
224. Mike Wilkinson, Kids' lead levels high in many Michigan cities, Bridge Magazine (January 28, 2016).
225. Flint water crisis: An obscene failure of government, Detroit Free Press (October 8, 2015).
226. Gov. Rick Snyder needs to do more than just apologize for Flint water crisis, MLive (December 31, 2015).
227. Margaret Sullivan, Should The Times Have Been a Tougher Watchdog in Flint?, New York Times (January 27, 2016).
228. Ann Clark, How an investigative journalist helped prove a city was being poisoned with its own water, Columbia Journalism Review (November 3, 2015).
229. Ron Fonger, MSNBC's Rachel Maddow keeps national spotlight on water crisis in Michigan, MLive (December 23, 2015).
230. Rachel Maddow Slams Rick Snyder For 'Poisoning Flint's Children' With Water Crisis, CBS Detroit (December 19, 2015).
231. Rachel Maddow bringing MSNBC town hall to Flint to discuss water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, January 22, 2016
232. Steve Carmody, Watchdog group asks Gov. Snyder to release all Flint water crisis documents, Michigan Radio (January 6, 2016).
233. US: Anonymous vows politicians linked to toxic Flint Michigan water 'won't go unpunished' IBN Times January 22, 2016
234. Michael Moore calls for arrest of Gov. Snyder, Detroit News (January 7, 2016).
235. Chris Fleszar, Michael Moore calls for Snyder's arrest for Flint water, WZZM 13 (republished by the Detroit Free Press) (January 7, 2016).
236. Erin Brockovich, Michael Moore join outcry about Flint area Legionnaires' spike The Flint Journal via MLive (January 14, 2016).
237. Daniel Bethencourt, Michael Moore, in Flint, says crisis 'not a mistake', Detroit Free Press (January 16, 2016).
238. Mayor Weaver and Rev. Jesse Jackson discuss emergency declaration and water emergency, WJRT-TV (January 16, 2016).
239. Roberto Acosta, Rev. Jesse Jackson calls Flint a "disaster zone," asks for federal help The Flint Journal via MLive (January 17, 2016).
240. Rev. Jesse Jackson planning 'major national march' in Flint The Flint Journal via MLive, February 2, 2016
241. Daughter of Desmond Tutu speaks on Flint water crisis at MLK Day event, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 18, 2016).
242. Matt Damon Calls on Michigan Governor Rick Snyder to Resign Over Flint Water Crisis The Daily Beast, January 24, 2016
243. Rapper Jon Connor releases 'Fresh Water For Flint' in XXL Magazine article The Flint Journal via MLive, January 28, 2016
244. Mark Ruffalo urges President Obama to act on Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 7, 2016
245. UM-Flint kicks off first of 8 forums dedicated to the Flint Water Crisis, WJRT-TV (January 22, 2016).
246. UM to spend $100K researching solutions to Flint water crisis, Michigan Radio (January 25, 2016).
247. Wayne State University researchers plan Flint water study WJRT-TV, March 1, 2016
248. Associated Press, UAW members donate drinking water to Flint residents; Americorps to begin effort (January 9, 2016).
249. Cher to donate 181,000 bottles of water to help out Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive (January 16, 2016).
250. Truckloads of water to be delivered to Flint senior centers, WJRT-TV (January 15, 2016).
251. 'Operation Flint' underway in Taylor WJBK, January 16, 2016
252. Meek Mill Promises to Donate Money to Flint Water Crisis, Asks 50 Cent to Help, XXL Magazine (January 18, 2016).
253. Rappers Big Sean, Meek Mill pledge aid to Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive (January 19, 2016)
254. Big Sean Launches #HealFlintKids Campaign In Response To Water Crisis Vibe, January 21, 2016
255. Oskar Blues sent 50,000 cans of water to Flint, Mich., more on the way The Denver Post, January 18, 2016
256. Support for Flint goes International as Ontario Hockey League teams pitch in, WEYI-TV (January 21, 2016)
257. Faygo teams with The United Way to bring Flint clean water, Faygo Beverages Facebook (January 21, 2016).
258. Aretha Franklin donating hotel stays, food to Flint residents, CBS News (January 27, 2016).
259. Jimmy Fallon donates $10,000 to Flint water cause, calls on others to donate The Flint Journal via MLive, January 24, 2016
260. Diddy, Mark Wahlberg, Eminem and Wiz Khalifa to send 1M bottles of water to Flint WEYI-TV, January 24, 2016
261. Flint water crisis no laughing matter for comedian George Lopez The Flint Journal via MLive, February 17, 2016
262. Little River Band tribe offers $10,000 donation to help Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive (January 19, 2016).
263. Lions’ Ziggy Ansah delivers 94,000 bottles of drinking water to Flint Sports Illustrated, January 22, 2016
264. Washington Redskins players jump in for help with Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive (January 20, 2016).
265. Adam Graham, Pearl Jam donates $300,000 to Flint water crisis, Detroit News (January 22, 2016).
266. GoFundMe to give $10,000 to highest earning Flint water crisis campaign The Flint Journal via MLive, January 22, 2016
267. Anheuser-Busch sending 51,744 cans of water to aid in Flint's water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, January 23, 2016
268. Detroit Pistons legend recalls 'bustling town' before Flint water crisis, The Flint Journal via MLive (February 5, 2015).
269. Retired NBA players visit Flint to deliver water, toiletries WJRT-TV, February 18, 2016
270. Winter festival raises $50,000 for Flint water crisis Associated Press/WJRT-TV, February 18, 2016
271. Matthew Dolan, Walmart, others promise Flint up to 6.5M water bottles, Detroit Free Press (January 26, 2016)
272. Lindsey Bever, Amid Flint crisis, Walmart, Coca-Cola, Nestlé and PepsiCo to donate millions of water bottles, Washington Post (January 26, 2016).
273. Madonna donates $10,000 to help with Flint water emergency WJRT-TV, January 26, 2016
274. Recording artist, Detroit native Kem donates to Flint water emergency WJRT-TV, January 26, 2016
275. UPDATE: The Game Pledges To Donate $1,000,000 To Flint, Michigan Amid Current Water Crisis; Rapper Shares Photo Of Bank Wire The Urban Daily, January 26, 2016
276. Memphis, FedEx Team Up To Donate Water To Flint WWJ, January 26, 2016
277. Detroit Pistons' Marcus Morris joins Philly groups to distribute water in Flint The Flint Journal via MLive (January 26, 2016).
278. NFL players backing $100,000 donation of body wipes, water headed to Flint The Flint Journal via MLive, January 30, 2016
279. 'Empire' star Jussie Smollett makes $10,000 donation during Flint visit, The Flint Journal via MLive (February 2, 2016).
280. Meijer Inc. donating $500,000 for Flint water crisis relief, WNDU (February 4, 2016).
281. Financial institutions offer $600,000 to Flint water crisis relief efforts The Flint Journal via MLive, February 16, 2016
282. AT&T sets up texting hotline for Flint donations WTVG, February 25, 2016
283. Craigslist founder launches Flint water match campaign The Detroit News, January 25, 2016
284. Detroit Pistons owner Tom Gores pledges $10 million to Flint water relief efforts, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 28, 2016).
285. Vince Ellis, [Pistons owner Gores to raise $10M for Flint crisis], Detroit Free Press (January 28, 2016).
286. Eric Woodyard, Rapper Pusha T sends semi-trucks full of water to Flint, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 28, 2016)
287. Chicago suburb donates $5,000 towards Flint water fund in relief efforts, The Flint Journal via MLive (January 31, 2016).
288. MSMS donates $10,000 to help children affected by Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, February 6, 2016
289. Indiana sheriff's office delivers semi-truck load of water to Flint The Flint Journal via MLive, February 15, 2016
290. Indiana truck club delivers 80 tons of bottled water to Flint WJRT-TV, February 15, 2016
291. Flint native, Dallas Cowboys star announces donations for Flint water emergency WJRT-TV, February 15, 2016
292. Law enforcement organization donating water to Flint police in water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 3, 2016
293. Dubuque to Send Almost 300, 000 Water Bottles to Flint, MI KCRG, February 26, 2016
294. Multi-city telethon raises over $1M for families affected by Flint's water crisis WEYI-TV, March 15, 2016
295. Flint water crisis telethon raises $1.1M with match from Pistons owner The Flint Journal via MLive, March 17, 2016
296. Group from Ohio State University delivers water to Flint WJRT-TV, March 16, 2016
297. Amtrak makes special water delivery donation to Flint WJRT-TV, March 21, 2016
298. 70,000 pounds of water donated to Flint from Knoxville, Tennessee WJRT-TV, March 22, 2016
299. Consumers Energy employees volunteer amid Flint water crisis WNEM-TV, March 22, 2016
300. Michigan Masonic Charitable Foundation donates $100,000 to Community Foundation of Greater Flint WJRT-TV, March 22, 2016
301. District 60 collects 1,700 pounds of water for Flint residents Chicago Tribune, March 22, 2016
302. Flint water crisis spurs 125,000 pound food donation by Hormel, ConAgra The Flint Journal via MLive, March 24, 2016
303. Dow Chemical helping with Flint water relief effort The Flint Journal via MLive, March 24, 2016
304. Dearborn woman trades Twitter handle for donation in Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 30, 2016
305. Details of $25 million program to help businesses impacted by Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, March 30, 2016
306. Inmates give back to those in Flint WPBN/WTOM, March 23, 2016
307. Benefit concert to help children affected by Flint water crisis The Flint Journal via MLive, April 1, 2016
308. Victoria M. Massie (February 28, 2016). "Ava DuVernay and Ryan Coogler are hosting #JusticeForFlint benefit concert. Here’s why it matters.". Vox. Retrieved February 28, 2016.
309. Justice for Flint benefit show raises $156,000 for water crisis relief Justice for Flint benefit show raises $156,000 for water crisis relief The Flint Journal via MLive, March 1, 2016

External links

External media

Audio
"Figuring Flint Out", On the Media, January 22, 2016
Video
Water crisis in Flint, Michigan, draws federal investigation, CNN, Greg Botelho, Sarah Jorgensen and Joseph Netto, January 9, 2016
How Flint, Michigan, Saved Money and Poisoned Its Children: City Declares Water Emergency, Democracy Now, December 17, 2015
Flint Water Crisis: Who Is To Blame? The Young Turks, January 27, 2016
The House Oversight and Governmental Reform Committee's first hearing on the contaminated drinking water in Flint, MI (February 3, 2016) Full video from C-SPAN
The House Oversight and Governmental Reform Committee's second hearing on the contaminated drinking water in Flint, MI (March 15, 2016) Full video from C-SPAN
The House Oversight and Governmental Reform Committee's third hearing on the contaminated drinking water in Flint, MI (March 17, 2016) Full video from C-SPAN

• Taking Action on Flint Water – official Michigan Department of Environmental Quality website on the crisis
• EPA documents related to Flint drinking water – from the official EPA website
• Flintwaterstudy.org – official website of Dr. Marc Edwards' Virginia Tech Research Team, which investigated the lead contamination
• Articles on the Flint water crisis from MLive
• Articles on the Flint water crisis from Detroit Free Press