Skanderbeg

George Castriot Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu
Dominus Albaniae (Lord of Albania)
Portrait of Skanderbeg in the Uffizi, Florence
Prince of Kastrioti
Reign	28 November 1443 – 17 January 1468
Born	1405 Principality of Kastrioti,^[A] part of modern-day Albania and Macedonia
Died	17 January 1468 Lezhë, Republic of Venice, modern-day Albania
Burial	Saint Nicholas Church of Lezhë, Albania
Spouse	Donika Arianiti
Issue	Gjon Kastrioti II
House	Kastrioti
Father	Gjon Kastrioti
Mother	Voisava
Religion	Christianity →Islam (converted in 1423) →Christianity (converted in 1443)

George Castriot (Albanian: Gjergj Kastrioti); 1405–17 January 1468), known as Skanderbeg (Albanian: Skënderbej/Skënderbeu from Turkish: İskender Bey), was a 15th-century Albanian warrior and nobleman.^[D]

A member of the noble Kastrioti family, he was sent as a political hostage to the Ottoman court, where he was educated and entered the service of the Ottoman sultan for the next twenty years. He rose through the ranks, culminating in the appointment as sanjakbey (governor) of the Sanjak of Dibra in 1440. In 1443, he deserted the Ottomans during the Battle of Niš and became the ruler of Krujë, Svetigrad, and Modrič. In 1444, he was appointed the chief commander of the short-lived League of Lezhë that consolidated nobility throughout what is today Albania. Despite his military valor he was not able to do more than to hold his own possessions within the very small area in northern Albania where almost all of his victories against the Ottomans took place.^[1] Skanderbeg's rebellion was not a general uprising of Albanians, due to the fact that he did not gain support in the Ottoman-controlled south or Venetian-controlled north. His followers included, apart from Albanians, also Slavs, Vlachs, and Greeks.^[2] For 25 years, from 1443 to 1468, Skanderbeg's 10,000 man army marched through Ottoman territory winning against consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces,^[3] for which he was admired.^[4]

In 1451, he recognized de jure the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Naples through the Treaty of Gaeta, to ensure a protective alliance, although he remained a de facto independent ruler.^[5] In 1460–1461, he participated in Italy's civil wars in support of Ferdinand I of Naples. In 1463, he became the chief commander of the crusading forces of Pope Pius II, but the Pope died while the armies were still gathering. Together with Venetians he fought against the Ottomans during the Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–79) until his death in January 1468.

Skanderbeg's military skills presented a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion, and he was considered by many in western Europe to be a model of Christian resistance against the Ottoman Muslims.

Name

Skanderbeg's name appears in various Latin sources as Georgius Castriotus Scanderbegus^[6] or Zorzi Castrioti.^[7] Gjergj is the Albanian equivalent of the name George. The form of his last name was given variously as Kastrioti,^[8] Castriota,^[9] Castriottis,^[10] or Castriot.^[11] The last name Kastrioti refers both to the Kastrioti family and to a municipality in northeastern Albania called Kastriot, in the modern Dibër District, from which the family's surname derives,^[12][13][14] having its origin in the Latin castrum via the Greek word Κάστρο (English: castle).^[15][16][17]

The Ottoman Turks gave him the name Iskender bey, meaning "Lord Alexander", or "Leader Alexander", which has been rendered as Scanderbeg or Skanderbeg in the English versions of his biographies, and Skënderbeu (or Skënderbej) is the Albanian version.^[18] Latinized in Barleti's version as Scanderbegi and translated into English as Skanderbeg, the combined appellative is assumed to have been a comparison of Skanderbeg's military skill to that of Alexander the Great.^[19]

Early life

Coat of arms of the Kastrioti family^[20] According to records, Skanderbeg raised a red flag with the black eagle over Krujë.^[21]

Kastrioti was born in one of the two villages owned by his grandfather Pal Kastrioti.^[A] Fan Noli's placement of the year of birth in 1405 is now largely agreed upon, after earlier disagreements, and lack of birth documents for him and his siblings.^[22] Skanderbeg's father was Gjon Kastrioti, lord of Middle Albania, which included Mat, Mirditë and Dibër.^[23] His mother was Voisava, from the Polog valley, north-western part of present-day Republic of Macedonia. There was a total of nine children, of whom Gjergj was the youngest son, his older brothers were Stanisha, Reposh and Kostandin, and his sisters were Mara, Jelena, Angjelina, Vlajka and Mamica.^[8]

Gjon Kastrioti had been a vassal of the Sultan since the end of the 14th century, and, as a consequence, paid tribute and provided military services to the Ottomans (like in the Battle of Ankara 1402^[24]). In 1409, he sent his eldest son, Stanisha, to be the Sultan's hostage.^[C]

Ottoman service (1423–43)

Skanderbeg was sent to the Sultan's court in 1415. Ottoman miniature painting illustrating the devşirme.

Skanderbeg was sent as a hostage to the Ottoman court in Adrianople (Edirne) in 1415, and again in 1423. It is assumed that he remained at Murad II's court as içoğlan for a maximum of three years,^[25] where he received military training at Enderun.^[26]

The earliest existing record of Gjergj's name is the First Act of Hilandar from 1426, when Gjon Kastrioti and his four sons donated the right to the proceeds from taxes collected from two villages in Macedonia (in modern Mavrovo and Rostuša, R. Macedonia) to the Monastery of Hilandar.^[I][27] Afterwards, between 1426 and 1431,^[28] Gjon Kastrioti and his sons, with the exception of Stanisha, purchased four adelphates (rights to reside on monastic territory and receive subsidies from monastic resources) to the Saint George tower and to some property within the monastery as stated in the Second Act of Hilandar.^[27][29]

After graduating Enderun (çıkma), the sultan granted Skanderbeg control over one timar (land grant) which was near to the territories controlled by his father Gjon.^[30] His father was concerned that the sultan might order Skanderbeg to occupy his territory and informed the Venetians about this possibility in a letter written in April 1428.^[31] In the same year Gjon had to seek forgiveness from the Venetian Senate because Skanderbeg participated in Ottoman military campaigns against Christians.^[32] In 1430, Gjon Kastrioti was defeated in battle by the Ottoman governor of Skopje, Isa bey Evrenos and as a result, his territorial possessions were extremely reduced.^[33]

Later that year, Skanderbeg continued fighting for Murad II in his expeditions, and gained the title of sipahi.^[34] Several scholars have assumed that Skanderbeg was given a fiefdom in Nikopol in modern Bulgaria, because that location is mentioned in a 1430 document that has a certain Iskander bey.^[35] Although Skanderbeg was summoned home by his relatives when George Arianiti and Andrew Thopia along with other chiefs from the region between Vlorë and Shkodër organized a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire (1432–36), he did nothing, remaining loyal to the sultan.^[36]

Skanderbeg dueling with a Tatar in the Ottoman court.

In 1437-38,^[35] he became a governor (Turkish: subaşi) of the Krujë subaşilik^[29] before Hizir Bey was again appointed to that position in November 1438.^[37] Until May 1438, Skanderbeg controlled a relatively large timar (of the vilayet of Dhimitër Jonima) composed of nine villages which previously belonged to his father (registered as "Gjon's land", Turkish: Yuvan-ili).^[29][38] It was because of Skanderbeg's display of military merit in several Ottoman campaigns, that Murad II (r. 1421–51) had given him the title of vali. At that time, Skanderbeg was leading a cavalry unit of 5,000 men.^[39]

After his brother Reposh's death on 25 July 1431^[40] and the later deaths of Kostandin and Skanderbeg's father (who died in 1437), Skanderbeg and his surviving brother Stanisha maintained the relations that their father had with the Republic of Ragusa and the Republic of Venice; in 1438 and 1439, they sustained their father's privileges with those states.^[35]

During the 1438–43 period, he is thought to have been fighting alongside the Ottomans in their European campaigns, mostly against the Christian forces led by Janos Hunyadi.^[35] In 1440 Skanderbeg was appointed sanjakbey of Dibra.^[41][42]

During his stay in Albania as Ottoman governor, he maintained close relations with the population in his father's former properties and also with other Albanian noble families.^[29]

Rebellion against the Ottomans

Rise

In early November 1443, Skanderbeg deserted the forces of Sultan Murad II during the Battle of Niš, while fighting against the crusaders of John Hunyadi.^[43] According to some earlier sources, Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army during the Battle of Kunovica on 2 January 1444.^[44] Skanderbeg quit the field along with 300 other Albanians serving in the Ottoman army.^[43] He immediately led his men to Krujë, where he arrived on 28 November,^[45] and by the use of a forged letter from Sultan Murad to the Governor of Krujë he became lord of the city.^[43][46] To reinforce his intention of gaining control of the former domains of Zeta, Skanderbeg proclaimed himself the heir of the Balšić family. After capturing some less important surrounding castles (Petrela, Prezë, Guri i Bardhë, Svetigrad, Modrič and others) and eventually gaining control over more than his father Gjon Kastrioti's domains, Skanderbeg abjured Islam and proclaimed himself the avenger of his family and country.^[47] He raised a red standard with a black double-headed eagle on it: Albania uses a similar flag as its national symbol to this day.^[48] From that on, time the Ottomans referred to Skanderbeg as "kh'ain (treacherous) Iskender"^[49]

In Albania, the rebellion against the Ottomans has already been smouldering for years before Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army.^[50]

In August 1443 Gjergj Arianiti again revolted against the Ottomans in the region of central Albania.^[51] Under Venetian patronage,^[49] on 2 March 1444, Skanderbeg summoned the Albanian princes in the Venetian-controlled town of Lezhë and they formed the League of Lezhë.^[52]

Gibbon reports that the "Albanians, a martial race, were unanimous to live and die with their hereditary prince", and that "in the assembly of the states of Epirus, Skanderbeg was elected general of the Turkish war and each of the allies engaged to furnish his respective proportion of men and money".^[53] With this support, Skanderbeg organized a mobile defense army that forced the Ottomans to disperse their troops, leaving them vulnerable to the hit-and-run tactics of the Albanians.^[54] Skanderbeg fought a guerrilla war against the opposing armies by using the mountainous terrain to his advantage. During the first 8–10 years, Skanderbeg commanded an army of generally 10,000-15,000 soldiers,^[55] but only had absolute control over the men from his own dominions, and had to convince the other princes to follow his policies and tactics.^[56] Skanderbeg occasionally had to pay tribute to the Ottomans but only in exceptional circumstances such as during the war with the Venetians or his travel to Italy and perhaps when he was under pressure of too strong Ottoman forces.^[57]

Skanderbeg's victory at the Battle of Torvioll 1444

In the summer of 1444, in the Plain of Torvioll, the united Albanian armies under Skanderbeg faced the Ottomans who were under direct command of the Ottoman general Ali Pasha, with an army of 25,000 men.^[58]

Skanderbeg had under his command 7,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry. 3,000 cavalry were hidden behind enemy lines in a nearby forest under the command of Hamza Kastrioti. At a given signal they descended, encircled the Ottomans and gave Skanderbeg a much needed victory. About 8,000 Ottomans were killed and 2,000 were captured.^[56] Skanderbeg's first victory echoed across Europe because this was one of the few times that an Ottoman army was defeated in a pitched battle on European soil. On October 10, 1445 an Ottoman force of 9,000-15,000^[59] men under Firuz Pasha was sent to prevent Skanderbeg from moving into Macedonia.Firuz had heard that the Albanian army had disbanded for the time being, so he planned to move quickly around the Black Drin valley and through Prizren. These movements were picked up by Skanderbeg's scouts who moved to meet Firuz.^[59] The Ottomans were lured into the Mokra valley and Skanderbeg with a force of 3,500 attacked and defeated the Ottomans.Firuz was killed along with 1,500 of his men.^[60] Skanderbeg defeated the Ottomans two more times the following year once when Ottoman forces from Ohrid suffered severe losses,^[61] and again in the Battle of Otonetë on 27 September 1446.^[62][63]

War with Venice (1447-1448)

At the beginning of the Albanian insurrection, the Republic of Venice was supportive of Skanderbeg, considering his forces to be a buffer between them and the Ottoman Empire. Lezhë, where the eponymous league was established, was Venetian territory, and the assembly met with the approval of Venice. The later affirmation of Skanderbeg and his rise as a strong force on their borders, however, was seen as a menace to the interests of the Republic, leading to a worsening of relations and the dispute over the fortress of Dagnum which triggered the Albanian-Venetian War of 1447–48. After various attacks against Bar and Ulcinj, along with Đurađ Branković, Stefan Crnojević^[64] and Albanians of the area, the Venetians offered rewards for his assassination.^[5] The Venetians sought by every means to overthrow Skanderbeg or bring about his death, even offering a life pension of 100 golden ducats annually for the person who would kill him.^[63][65] During the conflict, Venice invited the Ottomans to attack Skanderbeg simultaneously from the east, facing the Albanians with a two-front conflict.^[66]

Woodcut depicting an engagement between Albanian and Ottoman forces

On 14 May 1448, an Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad II and his son Mehmed laid siege to the castle of Svetigrad. The Albanian garrison in the castle resisted the frontal assaults of the Ottoman army, while Skanderbeg harassed the besieging forces with the remaining Albanian army under his personal command. On 23 July 1448, Skanderbeg won a battle near Shkodër against a Venetian army led by Andrea Venier. In late summer 1448, due to a lack of potable water, ^[B] the Albanian garrison eventually surrendered the castle with the condition of safe passage through the Ottoman besieging forces, a condition which was accepted and respected by Sultan Murad II.^[67] Although his loss of men was minimal, Skanderbeg lost the castle of Svetigrad, which was an important stronghold that controlled the fields of Macedonia to the east.^[67] At the same time, he besieged the towns of Durazzo (modern Durrës) and Lezhë which were then under Venetian rule.^[68] In August 1448, Skanderbeg defeated Mustafa Pasha in Dibër at the battle of Oranik. Mustafa Pasha had lost 3,000 men as well as being captured including twelve high officers. Skanderbeg learned from these officers that it was the Venetians who pushed the Ottomans to invade Albania. The Venetians, upon hearing of the defeat, urged to establish peace. Mustafa Pasha was soon ransomed for 25,000 ducats to the Ottomans.^[69]

On 23 July 1448 Skanderbeg crossed the Drin River with 10,000 men, meeting a Venetian force of 15,000 men under the command of Daniele Iurichi, governor of Scutari.^[70] Skanderbeg instructed his troops on what to expect and opened battle by ordering a force of archers to open fire on the Venetian line.^[71] The battle continued for hours until large groups of Venetian troops began to flee. Skanderbeg, seeing his fleeing adversaries, ordered a full-scale offensive, routing the entire Venetian army.^[72] The Republic's soldiers were chased right to the gates of Scutari, and Venetian prisoners were thereafter paraded outside the fortress.^[71][72] The Albanians managed to inflict 2,500 casualties on the Venetian force, capturing 1,000. Skanderbeg's army suffered 400 casualties, most on the right wing.^[72][73]

The peace treaty, signed between Skanderbeg and Venice on 4 October 1448, envisioned that Venice would keep Dagnum and its environs, but would cede to Skanderbeg the territory of Buzëgjarpri at the mouth of the river Drin, and also that Skanderbeg would enjoy the privilege of buying, tax-free, 200 horse-loads of salt annually from Durazzo. In addition Venice would pay Skanderbeg 1,400 ducats. During the period of clashes with Venice, Skanderbeg intensified relations with Alfonso V of Aragon (r. 1416–1458), who was the main rival of Venice in the Adriatic, where his dreams for an empire were always opposed by the Venetians.^[74]

One of the reasons Skanderbeg agreed to sign the peace treaty with Venice, was the advance of John Hunyadi's army in Kosovo and his invitation for Skanderbeg to join the expedition against the sultan. However, the Albanian army under Skanderbeg did not participate in this battle as he was prevented from joining with Hunyadi's army.^[75] It is believed that he was delayed by Đurađ Branković, then allied with Sultan Murad II, although Brankovic's exact role is disputed.^[76][77][78] As a result, Skanderbeg ravaged his domains as a punishment for the desertion of the Christian cause.^[75][79] He appears to have marched to join Hunyadi immediately after making peace with the Venetians, and to have been only 20 miles from Kosovo Polje when the Hungarian army finally broke.^[80] The letter in Slavic and Cyrillic from ca. 1450, sent to Ragusa by Skanderbeg from Lezhë, mentioned his chancellor Ninac Vukoslavić, and was signed as "Скедерь бегь" (Skeder beg).^[81]

Siege of Krujë and it's aftermath (1450)

In June 1450, two years after the Ottomans had captured Svetigrad, they laid siege to Krujë with an army numbering approximately 100,000 men and led again by Sultan Murad II himself and his son, Mehmed II.^[82] Following a scorched earth strategy (thus denying the Ottomans the use of necessary local resources), Skanderbeg left a protective garrison of 1,500 men under one of his most trusted lieutenants, Vrana Konti, while, with the remainder of the army, which included many Slavs, Germans, Frenchmen and Italians,^[83][84] he harassed the Ottoman camps around Krujë by continuously attacking Sultan Murad II's supply caravans. The garrison repelled three major direct assaults on the city walls by the Ottomans, causing great losses to the besieging forces. Ottoman attempts at finding and cutting the water sources failed, as did a sapped tunnel, which collapsed suddenly. An offer of 300,000 aspra (Ottoman silver coins) and a promise of a high rank as an officer in the Ottoman army made to Vrana Konti, were both rejected by him.^[85]

Skanderbeg addressing the people — 16th century engraving by Jost Amman

During the First Siege of Krujë, the Venetian merchants from Scutari sold food to the Ottoman army and those of Durazzo supplied Skanderbeg's army.^[86] An angry attack by Skanderbeg on the Venetian caravans raised tension between him and the Republic, but the case was resolved with the help of the bailo of Durazzo who stopped the Venetian merchants from any longer furnishing the Ottomans.^[85] Venetians' help to the Ottomans notwithstanding, by September 1450, the Ottoman camp was in disarray, as the castle was still not taken, the morale had sunk, and disease was running rampant. Murad II acknowledged that he could not capture the castle of Krujë by force of arms before the winter, and in October 1450, he lifted the siege and made his way to Edirne.^[85] The Ottomans suffered 20,000 casualties during the siege,^[87] and many more died as Murad escaped Albania.^[88] A few months later, on 3 February 1451, Murad died in Edirne and was succeeded by his son Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481).^[89] After the siege Skanderbeg was at the end of his resources. He lost all of his possessions except Krujë. The other nobles from the region of Albania allied with Murad II as he came to save them from the oppression. Even after the sultan's withdrawal they rejected Skanderbeg's efforts to enforce his authority over their domains.^[90] Skanderbeg then travelled to Ragusa, urging for assistance, and the Ragusans informed Pope Nicholas V. Through financial assistance, Skanderbeg managed to hold Krujë and regain much of his territory. Skanderbeg's success brought praise from all over Europe and ambassadors were sent to him from Rome, Naples, Hungary, and Burgundy.^[91]

Consolidation

Although Skanderbeg had achieved success in resisting Murad II himself, harvests were unproductive and famine was widespread. After being rejected by the Venetians, Skanderbeg established closer connections with King Alfonso V ^[92] who, in January 1451, appointed Skanderbeg as "captain general of the king of Aragon".^[93] Following Skanderbeg's requests, King Alfonso V helped him in this situation and the two parties signed the Treaty of Gaeta on 26 March 1451, according to which, Skanderbeg would be formally a vassal of Alfonso in exchange for military aid.^[94] More explicitly, Skanderbeg recognized King Alfonso's sovereignty over his lands in exchange for the help that King Alfonso would give to him in the war against the Ottomans.^[E] King Alfonso pledged to respect the old privileges of Krujë and Albanian territories and to pay Skanderbeg an annual 1,500 ducats, while Skanderbeg pledged to make his fealty to King Alfonso only after the full expulsion of the Ottomans from the country, a condition never reached in Skanderbeg's lifetime.^[74]

Ardenica Monastery - where Skanderbeg married Donika Kastrioti

A month after the treaty, on 21 April 1451 in an Eastern Orthodox Ardenica Monastery,^[95][96] Skanderbeg married Donika Kastrioti, daughter of Maria Muzaka and Gjergj Arianit Komneni, one of the most influential Albanian noblemen, strengthening the ties between them.^[97] Their only child was Gjon Kastrioti II.

In 1451, Mehmed was focused on defeating the Karamanids and Menteşe in the East, but it was in his intentions to return to Albania. During this brief period of rest, Skanderbeg took up the rebuilding of Krujë and erected a new fortress in Modrica in the Drin Valley near Svetigrad (which had been lost in a 1448 siege) where Turkish forces had previously slipped through unhindered.^[98] The fortress was constructed in the heat of summer within a few months when few Turkish posts were present. This came as a huge blow to Ottoman efforts whose Albanian operations were thus inhibited.^[99]

Right after the Treaty of Gaeta, Alfonso V signed other treaties with the rest of the most important Albanian noblemen, including Gjergj Arianit Komneni,^[100] and with the Despot of the Morea, Demetrios Palaiologos.^[101] These movements of Alfonso show that he was thinking about a crusade starting from Albania and Morea, which actually never took place.^[102] Following the Treaty of Gaeta, in the end of May 1451, a small detachment of 100 Catalan soldiers, headed by Bernard Vaquer, was established at the castle of Krujë. One year later, in May 1452, another Catalan nobleman, Ramon d'Ortafà, came to Krujë with the title of viceroy.^[E] In 1453, Skanderbeg paid a secret visit to Naples and the Vatican, probably to discuss the new conditions after the fall of Constantinople and the planning of a new crusade which Alfonso would have presented to Pope Nicholas V in a meeting of 1453—1454.^[103] During the five years which followed the First Siege of Krujë, Albania was allowed some respite as the new sultan set out to conquer the last vestiges of the Byzantine Empire but In 1452, the newly acceded Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II ordered his first campaign against Skanderbeg.An expedition was sent under the dual-command of Hamza Pasha and Tahip Pasha, with an army of approximately 25,000 men.The force was under the main command of Tahip Pasha who would split his forces into two parts, one under his command, and the other under his subordinate, Hamza Pasha.^[104]

Skanderbeg gathered 14,000 men.^[105] and marched against the Ottoman army. Skanderbeg planned to first defeat Hamza and then to move around Tahip and encircle him.^[72] Skanderbeg did not give Hamza much time to prepare and, on 21 July, he assaulted immediately. The fierce attack made short work of the Ottoman force, resulting in them fleeing.^[106][107] Hamza was captured in the battle as well as his staff.^[107] The same day Skanderbeg attacked Tahip's army and defeated them.Tahip pasha was killed^[108] and the Ottomans were thus left without their commander as they fled.^[107][108] Skanderbeg's victory over a ruler even more powerful than Murad came as a great surprise to the Albanians.^[74]

During this period, skirmishes between Skanderbeg and the Dukagjin family, which had been dragging on for years, were put to an end by a reconciliatory intervention of the Pope, and in 1454, a peace treaty between them was finally reached.^[109]

Fall of Constantinople

On 22 April 1453, Mehmed sent another expedition to Albania under Ibrahim Pasha^[110] The same day, despite the storms, Skanderbeg launched a swift cavalry attack which broke into the enemy camp causing disorder and chaos.^[108] Ibrahim was killed in action^[111] along with 3,000 of his men. Skanderbeg's army continued looting before returning to Debar.^[108] He returned triumphantly with his army with whom he had split his booty.^[106]

The Albanian victory at Pollog, however, was shadowed by Mehmed's conquest of Constantinople only five weeks after, which deeply troubled the Christian states of Europe. Mehmed, by then called el-Fātiḥ ("the Conqueror"), turned his attention to finally defeating the Kingdom of Hungary and crossing into Italy.^[112]

Skanderbeg informed King Alfonso that he had conquered some territories and a castle, and Alfonso replied some days later that soon Ramon d'Ortafà would return to continue the war against the Ottomans and promised more troops and supplies. In the beginning of 1454, Skanderbeg and the Venetians^[113] informed King Alfonso and the Pope about a possible Ottoman invasion and asked for help. The Pope sent 3,000 ducats while Alfonso sent 500 infantry and a certain amount of money,^[114] along with a message directed to Skanderbeg.^[115] Meanwhile, the Venetian Senate was resenting Skanderbeg's alliance with the Kingdom of Naples, an old enemy of the Republic. Frequently they delayed their tributes to Skanderbeg and this was long a matter of dispute between the parties, with Skanderbeg threatening war on Venice at least three times between 1448–58, and Venice conceding in a conciliatory tone.^[116]

In June 1454, Ramon d'Ortafà returned to Krujë, this time with the title of viceroy of Albania, Greece, and Slavonia, with a personal letter to Skanderbeg as the Captain-General of the armed forces in Albania.^[117] Along with Ramon d'Ortafà, King Alfonso V also sent the clerics Fra Lorenzo da Palerino and Fra Giovanni dell'Aquila to Albania with a tabby flag embroidered with a white cross as a symbol of the Crusade which was about to begin.^[118][119] Even though this crusade never materialized, the Neapolitan troops were used in the Siege of Berat where they were almost entirely annihilated and were never replaced.

The citadel of Berat

The Siege of Berat was the first real test between the armies of the new sultan and Skanderbeg. That siege would end up in a defeat for Skanderbeg's forces.^[120] Skanderbeg besieged the town's castle for months, causing the demoralized Ottoman officer in charge of the castle to promise his surrender.^[120] At that point, Skanderbeg relaxed his grip, split his forces, and departed the siege, leaving behind one of his generals, Muzakë Topia, and half of his cavalry on the banks of the Osum River in order to finalize the surrender.^[120] It was a costly error—the Ottomans saw this moment as an opportunity for attack and sent a large cavalry force, led by Isak-Beg, to reinforce the garrison.^[120] The Albanian forces lulled into a false sense of security.^[120] The Ottomans caught the Albanian cavalry by surprise while they were resting on the banks of the Osum River, and almost all the 5,000 Albanian cavalry laying siege to Berat were killed.^[120] Most of the forces belonged to Gjergj Arianiti, whose role as the greatest supporter of Skanderbeg diminished after the siege of Berat ended up in defeat.^[120]

The defeat of Berat somewhat affected the attitude of other Albanian noblemen. One of them, Moisi Arianit Golemi, defected to the Ottomans and returned to Albania in 1456 as the commander of an Ottoman army of 15,000 men, but he was defeated by Skanderbeg in the Battle of Oranik.^[121] Later that year, he returned to Albania asking for Skanderbeg's pardon, and once pardoned, remained loyal until his death in 1464.^[121]

From time to time, Venice succeeded in stirring up Skanderbeg's relatives and weaker neighbors,who set up in opposition to him the elderly George Arianiti as "captain of all Albania" from Scutari to Durrazo in 1456, but in clan warfare Skanderbeg usually had the upper hand.He fought and defeated his uncle Moses (Musa) Komninos Golem and his Turkish auxiliaries toward the end of March 1456 and took possession of his territory of Debar and of the lands of the Zenebishi and the Balsides as well.^[122] On 5 April 1456, he entered Kruja and Komninos fled to his nephew professing his willingness to take up arms against the Ottomans, and Skanderbeg pardoned him. Skanderbeg's followers that ruled over northern Albania and all of the chieftains on both sides of the Tomor mountains remained loyal to him.^[123]

Engraving of an Albanian assault on the Ottoman camp during Battle of Albulena 1457.

In 1456, one of Skanderbeg's nephews (the son of his sister Jelena), George Strez Balšić, sold the fortress of Modrič (today in the Macedonia) to the Ottomans for 30,000 silver ducats. He tried to cover up the act; however, his treason was discovered and he was sent to prison in Naples.^[124] In 1456, Skanderbeg's son, Gjon Kastriot II, was born.^[125] Hamza Kastrioti, Skanderbeg's own nephew and his closest collaborator, lost his hope of succession after the birth of Skanderbeg's son and defected to the Ottomans in the same year.^[126] In the summer of 1457, an Ottoman army numbering approximately 70,000 men^[127] invaded Albania with the hope of destroying Albanian resistance once and for all. This army was led by Isak-Beg and by Hamza Kastrioti, the commander who knew all about Albanian tactics and strategy. After wreaking much damage to the countryside,^[127] the Ottoman army set up camp at Ujebardha field (literally translated as "White Water"), halfway between Lezhë and Krujë. After having avoided the enemy for months, calmly giving to the Ottomans and his European neighbours the impression that he was defeated, on 2 September Skanderbeg attacked the Ottoman forces in their encampments and defeated them^[128] killing 15,000 Ottomans,capturing 15,000 and 24 standards,and all the riches in the camp were lost to the Albanians.^[129] This was one of the most famous victories of Skanderbeg over the Ottomans, which led to a five-year peace treaty with Sultan Mehmed II. Hamza was captured^[130] and sent to detention in Naples.^[131]

After the victorious Battle of Ujëbardha, Skanderbeg's relations with the Papacy under Pope Calixtus III were intensified. The reason was that during this time, Skanderbeg's military undertakings involved considerable expense which the contribution of Alfonso V of Aragon was not sufficient to defray.^[132] In 1457, Skanderbeg requested help from Calixtus III. Being himself in financial difficulties, the pope could do no more than send Skanderbeg a single galley and a modest sum of money, promising more ships and larger amounts of money in the future.^[132] On 23 December 1457, Calixtus III appointed Skanderbeg as Captain-General of the Curia in the war against the Ottomans and declared him Captain-General of the Holy See. The Pope gave him the title Athleta Christi, or Champion of Christ.^[132]

Main Albanian towns during the 15th century, including settlements in neighboring regions

Meanwhile, Ragusa bluntly refused to release the funds which had been collected in Dalmatia for the crusade and which, according to the Pope, were to have been distributed in equal parts to Hungary, Bosnia, and Albania. The Ragusans even entered into negotiations with Mehmed.^[132] At the end of December 1457, Calixtus threatened Venice with an interdict and repeated the threat in February 1458. As the captain of the Curia, Skanderbeg appointed the duke of Leukas (Santa Maura), Leonardo III Tocco, formerly the prince of Arta and "despot of the Rhomaeans", a figure virtually unknown except in Southern Epirus, as a lieutenant in his native land.^[132]

On 27 June 1458, King Alfonso V died at Naples and Skanderbeg sent emissaries to his son and successor, King Ferdinand.^[133] According to the historian C. Marinesco, the death of King Alfonso marked the end of the Aragonese dream of a Mediterranean Empire and also the hope for a new crusade in which Skanderbeg was assigned a leading role.^[134] The relationship of Skanderbeg with the Kingdom of Naples continued after Alfonso V's death, but the situation had changed. Ferdinand I was not as able as his father and now it was Skanderbeg's turn to help King Ferdinand to regain and maintain his kingdom. In 1459 Skanderbeg captured the fortress of Sati from the Ottoman Empire and ceded it to Venice in order to secure cordial relationship with Signoria.^[44] The reconciliation reached the point where Pope Pius II suggested entrusting Skanderbeg's dominions to Venice during his Italian expedition.

After Serbian Despot Stefan Branković was dethroned in April 1459, he travelled to Albania and stayed with Skanderbeg and supported his anti-Ottoman activities, forging plans to recapture Serbia from Ottomans and return to Smederevo.^[135] In November 1460 Branković married Angelina Arianit Komneni, the sister of Skanderbeg's wife Donika.^[136] Skanderbeg gave to dethroned Serbian Despot an unknown estate as appanage.^[137] With Skanderbeg's recommendations, Branković moved from Albania to Italy in 1461^[138] or 1466.^[139]

Italian expedition (1460–1462)

"The Prince of Taranto wrote me a letter, a copy of which, and the reply I made him, I am sending to Your Majesty. I am very surprised that His Lordship should think to turn me from my intention by his brusque words, and I should like to say one thing: may God guard Your Majesty from ill and harm and danger, but however things may turn out I am the friend of virtue and not fortune."

Skanderbeg's letter to Ferdinand I of Naples.^[140]

Skanderbeg's military expedition to Italy 1460—1462.The Northern route was taken by himself,whereas the southern one was taken by his subordinates.

In 1460, King Ferdinand had serious problems with another uprising of the Angevins and asked for help from Skanderbeg. This invitation worried King Ferdinand's opponents, and Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta declared that if Ferdinand of Naples received Skanderbeg, Malatesta would go to the Ottomans.^[141] In the month of September 1460, Skanderbeg dispatched a company of 500 cavalry under his nephew, Gjok Stres Balsha.^[142]

Ferdinand's main rival, Giovanni Antonio Orsini, Prince of Taranto, in correspondence with Skanderbeg tried to dissuade the Albanian from this enterprise and even offered him an alliance.^[142] This did not affect Skanderbeg, who answered on 31 October 1460, that he owed fealty to the Aragon family, especially in times of hardship.^[F] When the situation became critical, Skanderbeg made a three-year armistice with the Ottomans on 17 April 1461, and in late August 1461, landed in Apulia with an expeditionary force of 1,000 cavalry and 2,000 infantry. At Barletta and Trani, he managed to defeat the Italian and Angevin forces of Giovanni Antonio Orsini, Prince of Taranto, secured King Ferdinand's throne, and returned to Albania.^[143][144] King Ferdinand was grateful to Skanderbeg for this intervention for the rest of his life: at Skanderbeg's death, he rewarded his descendants with the castle of Trani, and the properties of Monte Sant'Angelo and San Giovanni Rotondo.^[144]

Last years

Skanderbeg Museum in Krujë

After securing Naples, Skanderbeg returned home after being informed of Ottoman movements. There were three Ottoman armies approaching: the first, under the command of Sinan Pasha, was defeated at Mokra (in Makedonski Brod); the second, under the command of Hussain Bey, was defeated in the Battle of Ohrid, where the Ottoman commander was captured; and the third was defeated in the region of Skopje.^[145] This forced Sultan Mehmed II to agree to a 10-year armistice which was signed in April 1463 in Skopje.^[145] Skanderbeg did not want peace, but Tanush Thopia's willingness for peace prevailed. Tanush himself went to Tivoli to explain to the Pope why Skanderbeg had opted for peace with Mehmed II. He pointed out that Skanderbeg would be ready to go back to war should the Pope ask for it.^[145]

Meanwhile, the position of Venice toward Skanderbeg had changed perceptibly because it entered a war with the Ottomans (1463–79). During this period Venice saw Skanderbeg as an invaluable ally, and on 20 August 1463, the 1448 peace treaty was renewed with other conditions added: the right of asylum in Venice, an article stipulating that any Venetian–Ottoman treaty would include a guarantee of Albanian independence, and allowing the presence of several Venetian ships in the Adriatic around Lezhë.^[146]

In November 1463, Pope Pius II tried to organize a new crusade against the Ottomans, similar to what Pope Nicholas V and Pope Calixtus III tried to priorly. Pius II invited all the Christian nobility to join, and the Venetians immediately answered the appeal.^[147] So did Skanderbeg, who on 27 November 1463 declared war on the Ottomans and attacked their forces near Ohrid. Pius II's planned crusade envisioned assembling 20,000 soldiers in Taranto, while another 20,000 would be gathered by Skanderbeg. They would have been marshalled in Durazzo under Skanderbeg's leadership and would have formed the central front against the Ottomans. However, Pius II died in August 1464, at the crucial moment when the crusading armies were gathering and preparing to march in Ancona, and Skanderbeg was again left alone facing the Ottomans.^[147]

In April 1465, at the Battle of Vaikal, Skanderbeg fought and defeated Ballaban Badera, an Ottoman Albanian sanjakbey of Ohrid.^[148] However, during an ambush in the same battle, Ballaban managed to capture some important Albanian noblemen, including cavalry commander Moisi Arianit Golemi, chief army quartermaster Vladan Gjurica, Skanderbeg's nephew Muzaka of Angelina, and 18 other officers.^[147] These were immediately sent to Constantinople where they were skinned alive for fifteen days and later cut to pieces and thrown to the dogs. Skanderbeg's pleas to have them back, by either ransom or prisoner exchange, failed.^[147]

Later that same year, two other Ottoman armies appeared on the borders. The commander of one of the Ottoman armies was Ballaban Pasha, who, together with Jakup Bey, the commander of the second army, planned a double-flank envelopment. Skanderbeg, however, attacked Ballaban's forces at the Second Battle of Vajkal, where the Ottomans were defeated. This time, all Ottoman prisoners were slain in an act of revenge for the previous execution of Albanian captains.^[73] The other Ottoman army, under the command of Jakup Bey, was also defeated some days later in Kashari field near Tirana.^[73]

Skanderbeg's helmet preserved in the Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna

In 1466, Sultan Mehmed II personally led an army of 30,000 into Albania and laid the Second Siege of Krujë, as his father had attempted 16 years earlier.^[149] The town was defended by a garrison of 4,400 men, led by Prince Tanush Thopia. After several months of siege, destruction and killings all over the country, Mehmed II, like his father, saw that seizing Krujë was impossible for him to accomplish by force of arms. Subsequently, he left the siege to return to Istanbul.^[149] However, he left the force of 30,000 men under Ballaban Pasha to maintain the siege by building a castle in central Albania, which he named Il-basan (modern Elbasan), in order to support the siege. Durazzo would be the next target of the sultan in order to be used as a strong base opposite the Italian coast.^[149]

In 1466, on his return trip to Istanbul, Mehmed II expatriated Dorotheos, the Archbishop of Ohrid and his clerks and boyars because of their anti-Ottoman activities and collaboration with rebels from Albania during Skanderbeg's rebellion.^[150][151]

Skanderbeg spent the following winter of 1466—1467 in Italy, of which several weeks were spent in Rome trying to persuade Pope Paul II to give him money. At one point, he was unable to pay for his hotel bill, and he commented bitterly that he should be fighting against the Church rather than the Ottomans.^[152] Only when Skanderbeg left for Naples did Pope Paul II give him 2,300 ducats. The court of Naples, whose policy in the Balkans hinged on Skanderbeg's resistance, was more generous with money, armaments and supplies. However, it is probably better to say that Skanderbeg financed and equipped his troops largely from local resources, richly supplemented by Ottoman booty.^[153] It is safe to say that the papacy was generous with praise and encouragement, but its financial subsidies were limited. It is possible that the Curia only provided to Skanderbeg 20,000 ducats in all, which could have paid the wages of 20 men over the whole period of conflict.^[153]

Elbasan fortress

However, on his return he allied with Lekë Dukagjini, and together on 19 April 1467, they first attacked and defeated, in the Krrabë region, the Ottoman reinforcements commanded by Yonuz, Ballaban's brother. Yonuz himself and his son, Haydar were taken prisoner.^[73] Four days later, on 23 April 1467, they attacked the Ottoman forces laying siege to Krujë. The Second Siege of Krujë was eventually broken, resulting in the death of Ballaban Pasha by an Albanian arquebusier^[56][145] named Gjergj Aleksi.^[154]

With the death of Ballaban, Ottoman forces were left surrounded and according to Bernandino de Geraldinis, a Neapolitan functionary, 10,000 men remained in the besieging camp. Those inside the encirclement asked to leave freely to Ottoman territory, offering to surrender all that was within the camp to the Albanians. Skanderbeg was prepared to accept, but many nobles refused.^[155] The Albanians thus began to annihilate the surrounded Ottoman army before they cut a narrow path through their opponents and fled through Dibra.^[156] On 23 April 1467, Skanderbeg entered Krujë.^[157] The victory was well received among the Albanians, and Skanderbeg's recruits increased as documented by Geraldini: Skanderbeg was in his camp with 16,000 men and every day his camp grows with young warriors. ^[158] The victory was also well received in Italy with contemporaries hoping for more such news.^[159] Meanwhile, the Venetians had taken advantage of Mehmed's absence in Albania and sent a fleet under Vettore Capello into the Aegean. Capello attacked and occupied the islands of Imbros and Lemnos after which he sailed back and laid siege to Patras. Ömer Bey, the Ottoman commander in Greece, led a relief force to Patras where he was initially repelled before turning on his pursuers, forcing them to flee, ending their campaign.^[160]

After these events, Skanderbeg's forces besieged Elbasan but failed to capture it because of the lack of artillery and sufficient number of soldiers.^[161]

The death of Skanderbeg - 16th century German engraving

The destruction of Ballaban Pasha's army and the siege of Elbasan forced Mehmed II to march against Skanderbeg again in the summer of 1467. Skanderbeg retreated to the mountains while Ottoman grand vizier Mahmud Pasha Angelović pursued him but failed to find him because Skanderbeg succeeded in fleeing to the coast.^[162] Mehmed II energetically pursued the attacks against the Albanian strongholds while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions (especially Durazzo) and to keep them isolated. The Ottomans failed again, in their third Siege of Krujë, to take the city and subjugate the country, but the degree of destruction was immense.^[163]

During the Ottoman incursions, the Albanians suffered a great number of casualties, especially to the civilian population, while the economy of the country was in ruins. The above problems, the loss of many Albanian noblemen, and the new alliance with Lekë Dukagjini, caused Skanderbeg to call together in January 1468 all the remaining Albanian noblemen to a conference in the Venetian stronghold of Lezhë to discuss the new war strategy and to restructure what remained from the League of Lezhë. During that period, Skanderbeg fell ill with malaria and died on 17 January 1468, aged 62.^[161]

Aftermath

Siege of Shkodër 1478

After Skanderbeg's death, Venice asked and obtained from his widow the permission to defend Krujë and the other fortresses with Venetian garrisons.^[161] Krujë held out during its fourth siege, started in 1477 by Gedik Ahmed Pasha, until 16 June 1478, when the city was starved to death and finally surrendered to Sultan Mehmed II himself.^[161] Demoralized and severely weakened by hunger and lack of supplies from the year-long siege, the defenders surrendered to Mehmed, who had promised to allow them to leave unharmed in exchange.^[164] As the Albanians were walking away with their families however, the Ottomans reneged on this promise, killing the men and enslaving the women and children.^[164] In 1479, an Ottoman army, headed again by Mehmed II, besieged and captured Shkodër,^[161] reducing Venice's Albanian possessions to only Durazzo, Antivari, and Dulcigno.^[161]

Meanwhile, King Ferdinand of Naples' gratitude toward Skanderbeg for the help given during this Italian campaign continued even after Skanderbeg's death.

Mural commemorating a battle of Skanderbeg. The Arms of Skanderbeg visible in the forefront are copies of the originals held at the Art Museum of Vienna

In a letter dated to 24 February 1468, King Ferdinand expressively stated that "Skanderbeg was like a father to us" and "We regret this (Skanderbeg's) death not less than the death of King Alfonso", offering protection for Skanderbeg's widow and his son. It is relevant to the fact that the majority of Albanian leaders after the death of Skanderbeg found refuge in the Kingdom of Naples and this was also the case for the common people trying to escape from the Ottomans, who formed Arbëresh colonies in that area.

On 25 April 1479, the Ottoman forces captured the Venetian-controlled Shkodër, which had been besieged since 14 May 1478.^[165] Scutari was the last fortified town in Albania to fall to the Ottomans. The Albanian resistance to the Ottoman invasion continued after Skanderbeg's death by his son, Gjon Kastrioti II, who tried to liberate Albanian territories from Ottoman rule in 1481–1484.^[166] In addition, a major revolt in 1492 occurred in southern Albania, mainly in the Labëria region, and Bayazid II was personally involved with crushing the resistance.^[167] In 1501, Gjergj Kastrioti II, grandson of Skanderbeg and son of Gjon Kastrioti II, along with Progon Dukagjini and around 150–200 stratioti, went to Lezhë and organized a local uprising, but that too was unsuccessful.^[168] The Venetians evacuated Durazzo in 1501.

Descendants

Skanderbeg's family, the Kastrioti (Castriota), were invested with a Neapolitan dukedom after their flight from the Ottoman conquest of Albania.^[169] They obtained a feudal domain, the Duchy of San Pietro in Galatina and the County of Soleto (Province of Lecce, Italy).^[170] His son, Gjon Kastrioti II, married Jerina Branković, daughter of Serbian Despot Lazar Branković and one of the last descendants of the Palaiologos.^[170]

Two lines of the Castriota family lived in southern Italy, one of which descended from Pardo Castriota Scanderbeg and the other from Achille Castriota Scanderbeg, who were both biological sons of Ferrante, son of Gjon Kastrioti II. They were part of the Italian nobility and members of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta with the highest rank of nobility.^[171]

The only legitimate daughter of Duke Ferrante, Irene Castriota Scanderbeg, born to Andreana Acquaviva d'Aragona from the Nardò dukes, inherited the paternal estate, bringing the Duchy of Galatina and County of Soleto into the Sanseverino family after her marriage with Prince Pietrantonio Sanseverino (1508–1559). They had a son, Nicolò Bernardino Sanseverino (1541–1606), but the male line of descendants was lost after Irene Castriota.

Through the female lines, his descendants include the ruling (or former ruling) families of Belgium, Luxembourg, Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Serbia, and some members of the British royal family. Other prominent modern descendants include Filippo Castriota, collaborator of Ismail Qemali, founder of modern Albania and author Giorgio Maria Castriota.

Legacy

Oldest illustration of Skanderbeg (1477).

Skanderbeg's mausoleum (former Selimie Mosque) in Lezhë

The Ottoman Empire's expansion ground to a halt during the time that Skanderbeg's forces resisted. He has been credited with being one of the main reasons for the delay of Ottoman expansion into Western Europe, giving the Italian principalities more time to better prepare for the Ottoman arrival.^[56][172] While the Albanian resistance certainly played a vital role, it was one of numerous relevant events that played out in the mid-15th century. Much credit must also go to the successful resistance mounted by Vlad III Dracula in Wallachia and Stephen III the Great of Moldavia, who dealt the Ottomans their worst defeat at Vaslui, among many others, as well as the defeats inflicted upon the Ottomans by Hunyadi and his Hungarian forces.^[173] Along with Skanderbeg, Stephen III the Great and Hunyadi achieved the title of Athletae Christi (Christ's champions). The distinguishing characteristic of Skanderbeg was the maintenance of such an effective resistance for a long period of time (25 years) against one of the 15th century's strongest powers while possessing very limited economic and human resources. His political, diplomatic, and military abilities were the main factors enabling the small Albanian principalities to achieve such a success. Having said that, the accomplishments of the other afore-mentioned commanders must not be minimized. Stephen the Great of Moldavia faced the biggest Ottoman army ever assembled during the Battle of Vaslui where the Ottomans outnumbered the Moldavians 3 to 1 and were better equipped. As in Skanderberg's case, Stephen needed to face invasions from neighboring kingdoms, primarily Hungary and Poland whose armies, which heavily outnumbered the Moldavians, were defeated at Battle of Baia and Battle of the Cosmin Forest respectively. Overall, Stephen kept most of Moldavia independent for 40 years. The Night Attack of Vlad III Dracula, during which the Wallachian prince's army was approximately three times smaller, almost resulted in the Sultan's death. Michael the Brave scored an epic victory against the Ottomans at Battle of Călugăreni where the Turkish army was approximately ten times bigger than that of the Wallachians. Therefore. while Skanderberg's successes were instrumental to halting the Ottoman empire's advance, they were certainly not the only ones and must not be overstated.

Skanderbeg is considered today a commanding figure not only in the national consciousness of Albanians but also of 15th-century European history.^[174] According to archival documents, there is no doubt that Skanderbeg had already achieved a reputation as a hero in his own time.^[175] The failure of most European nations, with the exception of Naples, to give him support, along with the failure of Pope Pius II's plans to organize a promised crusade against the Ottomans meant that none of Skanderbeg's victories permanently hindered the Ottomans from invading the Western Balkans.^[175]

In 1481 Sultan Mehmet II captured Otranto and massacred the male population, thus proving what Skanderbeg had been warning about.^[175] Skanderbeg's main legacy was the inspiration he gave to all of those who saw in him a symbol of the struggle of Christendom against the Ottoman Empire.^[176] During the Albanian National Awakening Skanderbeg was a symbol of national cohesion and cultural affinity with Europe.^[177]

The murale of Skanderbeg in Piazza in Rome, Italy

Skanderbeg's struggle against the Ottomans became highly significant to the Albanian people. It strengthened their solidarity, made them more conscious of their identity, and was a source of inspiration in their struggle for national unity, freedom, and independence.^[178]

The trouble Skanderbeg gave the Ottoman Empire's military forces was such that when the Ottomans found the grave of Skanderbeg in Saint Nicholas, a church in Lezhë, they opened it and made amulets of his bones, believing that these would confer bravery on the wearer.^[179] Indeed, the damage inflicted to the Ottoman Army was such that Skanderbeg is said to have slain three thousand Ottomans with his own hand during his campaigns. Among stories told about him was that he never slept more than five hours at night and could cut two men asunder with a single stroke of his scimitar, cut through iron helmets, kill a wild boar with a single stroke, and cleave the head of a buffalo with another.^[180] James Wolfe, commander of the British forces at Quebec, spoke of Skanderbeg as a commander who "excels all the officers, ancient and modern, in the conduct of a small defensive army".^[181] On October 27, 2005, the United States Congress issued a resolution "honoring the 600th anniversary of the birth of Gjergj Kastrioti (Scanderbeg), statesman, diplomat, and military genius, for his role in saving Western Europe from Ottoman occupation."^[182] Fully understanding the importance of the hero to the Albanians, Nazi Germany formed the 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian) in 1944, composed of 6,491 Kosovo Albanian recruits.^[183]

In literature and art

Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi, Epirotarum principis by Marin Barleti

There are two known works of literature written about Skanderbeg which were produced in the 15th century. The first was written at the beginning of 1480 by Serbian writer Martin Segon who was the Catholic Bishop of Ulcinj and one of the most notable 15th-century humanists.^[184][185] A part of the text he wrote under the title Martino Segono di Novo Brdo, vescovo di Dulcigno. Un umanista serbo-dalmata del tardo Quattrocento is a short but very important biographical sketch on Skanderbeg (Italian: Narrazioni di Giorgio Castriotto, da i Turchi nella lingua loro chiamato Scander beg, cioe Alesandro Magno).^[186][187] Another 15th century literary work with Skanderbeg as one of the main characters was Memoirs of a janissary (Serbian: Успомене јаничара) written in the period of 1490—1497 by Konstantin Mihailović, a Serb who was a janissary in the Ottoman Army.^[188][189]

Skanderbeg gathered quite a posthumous reputation in Western Europe. In the 16th and 17th centuries, most of the Balkans were under the suzerainty of the Ottomans who were at the gates of Vienna in 1683 and narratives of the heroic Christian's resistance to the "Moslem hordes" captivated readers' attention in the West.^[175] Books on the Albanian prince began to appear in Western Europe in the early 16th century. One of the earliest was the Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi, Epirotarum Principis (Rome, 1508), published a mere four decades after Skanderbeg's death. This History of the life and deeds of Scanderbeg, Prince of the Epirotes was written by the Albanian historian Marinus Barletius Scodrensis, known in Albanian as Marin Barleti, who, after experiencing the Ottoman capture of his native Scutari firsthand, settled in Padua where he became rector of the parish church of St. Stephan. Barleti dedicated his work to Don Ferrante Kastrioti, Skanderbeg's grandchild, and to posterity. The book was first published in Latin.^[190] Barleti is sometimes inaccurate in favour of his hero, for example, according to Gibbon, Barleti claims that the Sultan was killed by disease under the walls of Krujë.^[191] Barleti's inaccuracies were noticed prior to Gibbon by Laonikos Chalkokondyles.^[192] He made up spurious correspondence between Vladislav II of Wallachia and Skanderbeg wrongly assigning it to the year 1443 instead of to the year of 1444.^[193] Barleti also invented correspondence between Skanderbeg and Sultan Mehmed II to match his interpretations of events.^[194]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Barleti's book was translated into a number of foreign-language versions. All these books, written in the panegyric style that would often characterize medieval historians who regarded history mostly as a branch of rhetoric, inspired a wide range of literary and art works.

Portrait of Scanderbeg, ca. 1648

Franciscus Blancus, a Catholic bishop born in Albania, also wrote a Kastrioti's biography. His book "Georgius Castriotus, Epirensis vulgo Scanderbegh, Epirotarum Princeps Fortissimus" was published in Latin in 1636.^[195] French philosopher, Voltaire, in his works, held in very high consideration the Albanian hero. Sir William Temple considered Skanderbeg to be one of the seven greatest chiefs without a crown, along with Belisarius, Flavius Aetius, John Hunyadi, Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Alexander Farnese, and William the Silent.^[196] Ludvig Holberg, a Danish writer and philosopher, claimed that Skanderbeg was one of the greatest generals in history.^[197]

The Italian baroque composer Antonio Vivaldi composed an opera entitled Scanderbeg (first performed 1718), libretto written by Antonio Salvi. Another opera, entitled Scanderberg, was composed by 18th-century French composer François Francœur (first performed 1735).^[198] In the 20th century, Albanian composer Prenkë Jakova composed a third opera, entitled Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu, which premiered in 1968 for the 500th anniversary of the hero's death.^[199]

Skanderbeg is the protagonist of three 18th-century British tragedies: William Havard's Scanderbeg, A Tragedy (1733), George Lillo's The Christian Hero (1735), and Thomas Whincop's Scanderbeg, Or, Love and Liberty (1747).^[200] A number of poets and composers have also drawn inspiration from his military career. The French 16th-century poet Ronsard wrote a poem about him, as did the 19th-century American poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.^[201] Gibbon, the 18th-century historian, held Skanderbeg in high regard with panegyric expressions.

Giammaria Biemmi, an Italian priest, published a work on Skanderbeg titled Istoria di Giorgio Castrioto Scanderbeg-Begh in Brescia, Italy in 1742.^[202] He claimed that he had found a work published in Venice in 1480 and written by an Albanian humanist from Bar, in modern-day Montenegro^[202] whose brother was a warrior in Skanderbeg's personal guard. According to Biemmi, the work had lost pages dealing with Skanderbeg's youth, the events from 1443 to 1449, the Siege of Krujë (1467), and Skanderbeg's death. Biemmi referred to the author of the work as Antivarino, meaning the man from Bar.^[203] The "Anonymous of Antivari" was Biemmi's invention that some historians (Fan S. Noli and Athanase Gegaj) had not discovered and used his forgery as source in their works.^[204]

Skanderbeg is also mentioned by the Prince-Bishop of Montenegro, Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, one of the greatest poets of Serbian literature, in his 1847 epic poem The Mountain Wreath,^[205] and in False Tsar Stephen the Little (1851).^[206] In 1855, Camille Paganel wrote Histoire de Scanderbeg, inspired by the Crimean War,^[207] whereas in the lengthy poetic tale Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–1819), Byron wrote with admiration about Skanderbeg and his warrior nation.

The Great Warrior Skanderbeg (Albanian: Skënderbeu, Russian: Великий воин Албании Скандербег), a 1953 Albanian-Soviet biographical film, earned an International Prize at the 1954 Cannes Film Festival.^[208] The film was re-recorded and updated for high-definition for the 100th anniversary of Albanian independence.

Skanderbeg Square, Tirana

Skanderbeg's memory has been engraved in many museums, such as the Skanderbeg Museum next to Krujë Castle. Many monuments are dedicated to his memory in the Albanian cities of Tirana (in Skanderbeg Square by Odhise Paskali),(in and outside Skanderbeg Museum by Janaq Paço) Krujë, and Peshkopi. A palace in Rome in which Skanderbeg resided during his 1466–67 visits to the Vatican is still called Palazzo Skanderbeg and currently houses the Italian museum of pasta:^[209] the palace is located in Piazza Scanderbeg, between the Fontana di Trevi and the Quirinal Palace. Also in Rome, a statue by florentine sculptor Romano Romanelli is dedicated to the Albanian hero in Piazza Albania. Monuments or statues of Skanderbeg have also been erected in the cities of Skopje and Debar, in the Republic of Macedonia; Pristina, in Kosovo; Geneva, in Switzerland; Brussels, in Belgium; London, in England; and other settlements in southern Italy where there is an Arbëreshë community. In 2006, a statue of Skanderbeg was unveiled on the grounds of St. Paul's Albanian Catholic Community in Rochester Hills, Michigan. It is the first statue of Skanderbeg to be erected in the United States.^[210]

His name is also commemorated in Skanderbeg Military University in Tirana; Skënderbeu Stadium, home of KF Skënderbeu Korçë; and the Order of Skanderbeg.

See also

• History of Albania
• History of the Balkans
• Myth of Skanderbeg
• Timeline of Skanderbeg

Notes

Footnotes

1. ^ There have been many theories on the place where Skanderbeg was born.^[211] One of the main Skanderbeg biographers, Frashëri, has, among other, interpreted Gjon Muzaka's book of genealogies, sources of Raffaele Maffei, ("il Volterrano" (1451–1522)), and the Ottoman defter (census) of 1467 and has placed the birth of Skanderbeg in the small village.^[212]
2. ^ Primary sources disagree about the reason why the besieged had problems with the water in the castle: While Barleti and Biemmi maintained that a dead dog was found in the castle well, and the garrison refused to drink the water since it might corrupt their soul, another primary source, an Ottoman chronicler, conjectured that the Ottoman forces found and cut the water sources of the castle. Recent historians mostly concur with the Ottoman chronicler's version.^[213]
3. ^ According to Marin Barleti, a primary source, Skanderbeg and his three older brothers, Reposh, Kostandin, and Stanisha, were taken by the Sultan to his court as hostages. However, according to documents, besides Skanderbeg, only one of the brothers of Skanderbeg, probably Stanisha,^[8] was taken hostage and had been conscripted into the Devşirme system, a military institute that enrolled Christian boys, converted them to Islam, and trained them to become military officers.^[214] Recent historians are of the opinion that while Stanisha might have been conscripted at a young age, and had to go through the Devşirme system, this was not the case with Skanderbeg, who is assumed to have been sent hostage to the Sultan by his father only at the age of 18.^[25] It was in use at that time that in case of a military loss against the Sultan, a local chieftain would send one of his children at the Sultan's court, so that the child would be kept hostage for an unspecified time. The Sultan would this way exercise control in the area of the father by the hostage kept. The treatment of the hostage was not a bad one: Far from being a prison or anything similar, the sons taken hostage would be usually sent to the best military schools and trained to be future military leaders.^[215]
4. ^ Skanderbeg always signed himself as "Lord of Albania" (Latin: Dominus Albaniae), and claimed no other titles but that in official documents.^[216]
5. ^ Authors have disagreed on whether Krujë belonged to Skanderbeg or to Alfonso V. While scholar Marinesco claimed in 1923 that Kruje no longer belonged Skanderbeg, but to Alfonso, who exercised his power through his viceroy,^[217] this thesis has been rejected by scholar Athanas Gegaj in 1937, who claimed that the disproportion in numbers between the Spanish forces (100) and Skanderbeg's (around 10–15 thousand) clearly showed that the city belonged to Skanderbeg. Now what is generally accepted is that Skanderbegde facto had full sovereignty over his territories: while Naples' archives registered payments and supplies sent to Skanderbeg, they do not mention any kind of payment or tribute by Skanderbeg to Alfonso, except for various Ottoman war prisoners and banners sent by him as a gift to the King.^[218] Frashëri agrees with Gegaj in regards.^[219]
6. ^ In his response to Orsini, Skanderbeg mentioned that the Albanians never betray their friends, and that they are the descendants of Pyrrhus of Epirus. He reminded Orsini of Pyrrhus' victories in southern Italy.^[142]

Citations

1. Donald Edgar Pitcher (1972). An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire: From Earliest Times to the End of the Sixteenth Century. Brill Archive. p. 88. GGKEY:4CFA3RCNXRP. Yet in spite of this brilliance in the field, Castriota could do no more than hold his own; reference to the map will show that apart from the Uskiip campaign all these victories took place within the very narrow area of North Albania. ... Nor did the constant victories rob the Ottomans of the territory they held in southern Albania.
2. Schmitt 2012, p. 55

   in seiner Gefolgschaft fanden sich neben Albanern auch Slawen, Griechen und Vlachen.

3. Housley, Norman. The later Crusades, 1274-1580: from Lyons to Alcazar. Oxford university press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-19-822136-4.
4. Frazee 2006, p. 33
5. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press, p. 559, ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5, Skanderbeg declared himself the heir of Balšići and declared his intention to recover his inheritance
6. http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20vs/205_Du_Cange/1610-1688,_Du_Cange_C,_Historia_Byzantina_Familiae_Byzantinae_Index,_LT.pdf
7. Konrad Clewing; Oliver Jens Schmitt; Edgar Hösch (2005). Südosteuropa: von vormoderner Vielfalt und nationalstaatlicher Vereinheitlichung : Festschrift für Edgar Hösch. Oldenbourg Verlag. p. 150. ISBN 978-3-486-57888-1. Retrieved 20 July 2013. Zorzi Castrioti, Signor de Croia
8. Anamali 2002, p. 341
9. Nichols 2010, p. 329
10. Tennent 1845, p. 129
11. Moore 1850, p. 1
12. Noli 1947, p. 19
13. Masson 1954, p. 15
14. Hungarian Academy of Sciences 1985, p. 201
15. Michaelides, Constantine E. (30 November 2003). The Aegean crucible: tracing vernacular architecture in post-Byzantine centuries. Delos Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-9729723-0-7. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
16. Bulletin d'archéologie et d'histoire dalmate (in Croatian), 55—59, Split: Arheološki Muzej (Zadar); Arheološki Muzej (Split), p. 118, retrieved 30 November 2011, Još treba istaći Skenderbegovo prezime Kastriot ... To je svakako grčka izvedenica ... etnikum od castra
17. von Thallóczy, Ludwig (1916), Illyrisch-albanische Forschungen (in German), Konstantin Jireček; Milan von Šufflay; Theodor A Ippen; Ernst C Sedlmayr, MÜNCHEN UND LEIPZIG: VERLAG VON DüNCKER & HUMBLOT, p. 80, OCLC 10224971, Kastriot, die einen griechischen Namen führten, "Stadtbürger", kastriotis von kastron, Stadt (aus lat. castrum; polis war nur Konstantinopel allein).
18. Hodgkinson 2005, p. 1
19. Rosser 2001, p. 363
20. Hodgkinson 2005, p. xix
21. Neubecker, Ottfried (1987). The Flags of Albania. The Flag bulletin 26. Flag Research Center. p. 111. Retrieved 20 July 2012. History records that the 15th century Albanian national hero, Skanderbeg (i.e. George Kastriota), had raised the red flag with the black eagle over his ancestral home, the Fortress of Kruje
22. Frashëri 2002, pp. 72–77
23. Anamali 2002, p. 335
24. Fine 1994, p. 422 "Albanian vassals of the Ottomans — Koja Zakarija, Demetrius Jonima, John Castriot, and probably Tanush Major Dukagjin"
25. Frashëri 2002, p. 86
26. Kenneth Meyer Setton; Harry Williams Hazard; Norman P. (1 June 1990). A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-299-10744-4. Retrieved 19 June 2013. Kastriota had been sent from Albania as a hostage to the sultan's court and trained at the military academy of Enderum in Adrianople
27. Frashëri 2002, pp. 86–92
28. Sindik, Dušan (1990), "Dve povelje u Hilandaru o Ivanu Kastriotu i sinovima", Stanovništvo slovenskog porijekla u Albaniji: zbornik radova sa međunarodnog naučnog skupa održanog u Cetinju 21-22-i-23-juna 1990 (in Serbian), Titograd: Istorijski institut SR Crne Gore; Stručna knj., OCLC 29549273, Повеља није датирана ... Стога ће бити најбоље да се за датум издавања ове повеље задржи временски оквир између 1426. и 1431. године ... This act was not dated ... Therefore it is best to assume that it was issued ... between 1426 and 1431.
29. Anamali 2002, p. 342
30. Gibb, Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen; Lewis, Bernard; Pellat, Charles; Joseph Schacht (1973). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. p. 139. The son, raised in the pallace as ic-oglani, was according to the procedure of çıkma,... granted a timar near the territories of had a timar near his fathers' territories (Yuvan-eli)...
31. Gibb, Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen; Lewis, Bernard; Pellat, Charles; Joseph Schacht (1973). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. p. 139. ...who, in Radjab 831 April 1428, informed Venice of his growing anxiety that his Muslim son would be ordered by the sultan to occupy his territory.
32. Elsie 2010, p. 399
33. Frashëri 2002, p. 98
34. Frashëri 2002, p. 99
35. Anamali 2002, p. 343
36. Fine 1994, p. 535

    In 1432 Andrew Thopia revolted against his Ottoman overlords ... inspired other Albanian chiefs, in particular George Arianite (Araniti) ... The revolt spread ... from region of Valona up to Skadar ... At this time, though summoned home by his relatives ... Skanderbeg did nothing, he remained ... loyal to sultan

37. İnalcık 1995, p. 76

    D'après le registre de l'an 1432, à Kruje on fait les subasi en ordre chronologique, les titulaires suivants : en 1432 Hizir Bey, en novembre 1438 encore Hizir Bey, en avril 1440 Umur Bey. Vers 1438 Iskender Bey, fils de Jean, avec le kadi de Kruje ont delivre des certificats (biti, mektub) sur des transfers de timar, operation qui indique que Iskander Bey (Scanderbeg le Kastriote) avait ete nomme subasi de Akcahisar (Kruje), avant que ne soit nomme a ce poste pour la deuxième fois Hizir Bey.)

38. İnalcık 1995, p. 77

    La note en question, datée 1438, ne laisse subsister aucun doute que c'est autour de cette date que ces terres avaient été cadastrées. Les neuf villages en question, compte tenu qu'ils se trouvaient sur le Registre de Yuvan-ili (Jean Kastriote), sont du domaine du père de Skanderbeg. (The note, dated 1438, leaves no doubt that it is around this date that the land had been surveyed and registered. As the nine villages were listed on the Register of Yuvan-ili (John Kastrioti), they were definitely part of Skanderbeg's father's land.)

39. Francione 2003, p. 15
40. Frashëri 2002, p. 92
41. Zhelyazkova, Antonina. "Albanian identities". Archived from the original on 3 April 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2016. In 1440, he was promoted to sancakbey of Debar
42. Hösch, Peter (1972). The Balkans: a short history from Greek times to the present day, Volume 1972, Part 2. Crane, Russak. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-8448-0072-1. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
43. Frashëri 2002, pp. 130–133
44. Gegaj 1937, p. 120
45. Drizari 1968, p. 1
46. Setton 1976, p. 72
47. Gibbon 1901, p. 464
48. Frashëri 2002, p. 212
49. Gibb, Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen; Lewis, Bernard; Pellat, Charles (1973). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Joseph Schacht. Brill. p. 139.
50. Bury, John Bagnell; Whitney, James Pounder; Tanner, Joseph Robson; Charles William Previté-Orton; Zachary Nugent Brooke (1966). The Cambridge Medieval History. Macmillan. p. 383. In Albania, where rebellion had been smouldering for several years, the heroic Skanderbeg (George Castriota) revolted and under ...
51. Jireček, Konstantin (1923). Istorija Srba. Izdavačka knjižarnica G. Kona. p. 147. Искусни вођа Арнит (Арианит) поче у средњој Албанији већ у августу 1443 године поново борбу против турака.
52. Frashëri 2002, p. 135
53. Gibbon 1788, p. 143
54. Stavrianos 1958, p. 64
55. Jacques 1995, pp. 179–180
56. Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240
57. Momčilo Spremić (1968). Zbornik Filozofskog fakulteta. Naučno delo. p. 257. Retrieved 11 September 2013. Ђурађ Кастриот је био велики борац против Турака, али је ипак с времена на време морао да плаћа харач султану. Додуше он је то чинио само у изузетним приликама: или у време жестоких сукоба са млетачком републиком или када је напуштао родни крај и одлазио у Италију, или можда када притиснут огромном турском силом ни на који други начин
58. Noli 1947, p. 21
59. Hodgkinson, Harry (1999-01-01). Scanderbeg. Centre for Albanian Studies. p. 81. ISBN 9781873928134.
60. Francione, Gennaro (2003). Skënderbeu: Një hero modern (In ALbanian. Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri". p. 310. ISBN 978-99927-38-75-7.
61. Frashëri 2002, p. 144
62. Frashëri 1964, p. 72
63. Myrdal 1976, p. 48
64. Schmitt, Oliver Jens; Oliver Jens Schmitt (2001), Das venezianische Albanien (1392–1479) (in German), Münich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag GmbH München, ISBN 3-486-56569-9, Georg Branković, Stefan Crnojević und Skanderbeg erschienen mit starken heeren vor den venezianischen Stadten (Georg Branković, Stefan Crnojević and Skanderbeg appeared with a strong army before the Venetian cities)
65. Noli 1947, p. 40
66. Fine 1994, p. 557
67. Hodgkinson 1999, p. 102
68. Hodgkinson 1999, p. 85
69. Hodgkinson, Harry (1999-01-01). Scanderbeg. Centre for Albanian Studies. p. 89. ISBN 9781873928134.
70. Schmmit, Das venezianische Albanien (2001). Das venezianische Albanien (1392–1479). München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag GmbH München. p. 490. ISBN 3-486-56569-9.
71. Demetrio, Franco (1539). Comentario de le cose de' Turchi, et del S. Georgio Scanderbeg, principe d' Epyr. Altobello Salkato. p. 88. ISBN 99943-1-042-9.
72. Gennaro, Francione (2003). Skenderbeu: Një hero modern. Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri". p. 105. ISBN 99927-38-75-8.
73. Noli 1947, p. 40
74. Noli 1947, p. 100
75. Frashëri 2002, pp. 160–161
76. Vaughan, Dorothy Margaret (1954-06-01). Europe and the Turk: a pattern of alliances, 1350–1700. AMS Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-404-56332-5. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
77. Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. p. 393. ISBN 978-0-295-97290-9. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
78. Babinger 1992, p. 40
79. Setton 1978, p. 100

    Scanderbeg intended to go "peronalmente" with an army to assist Hunyadi, but was prevented from doing so by Branković, whose lands he ravaged as punishment for the Serbian desertion of the Christian cause.

80. Malcolm, Noel. Kosovo: A Short History, 1998, pp 89–90
81. Miklosich, Fr. (ed.) (1858) Monumenta Serbica spectantia Historiam Serbiæ Bosnæ Ragusii (Vienna), CCCLVI, p. 443
82. Francione 2003, p. 88
83. Setton, Kenneth M. (1976), The papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, American Philosophical Society, p. 101, ISBN 978-0-87169-127-9, ... among whom were Slavs, Germans, Italians and others
84. Babinger, Franz (1992), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, p. 60, ... including many Slavs, Italians, Frenchmen and Germans.
85. Noli 1947, p. 25
86. Setton 1978, p. 101

    While the Venetians of Scutari sold food to the Turks, those of Durazzo aided the Albanians

87. Jacques, Edwin (1995). Shqiptarët: Historia e popullit shqiptar nga lashtësia deri në ditët e sotme. Trans. Edi Seferi. Tirana. p. 207. ISBN 0-89950-932-0.
88. Gennaro, Francione (2006). Skënderbeu, një hero modern : (Hero multimedial) [Skanderbeg, a modern hero (Hero multimedia)] (in Albanian). Translated by Tasim Aliaj. Tirana: Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri". p. 94. ISBN 99927-38-75-8.
89. Setton 1975, p. 272
90. Setton 1978, p. 102
91. Setton, Kenneth M. (1978-01-01). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571: The Fifteenth Century. American Philosophical Society. p. 102. ISBN 9780871691279.
92. Božić 1979, p. 370

    ... и напуљског краља Алфонса, за кога ce, одбијен од Млечана, тесно везао ...

93. Babinger 1992, p. 151
94. Frashëri 2002, pp. 310–316
95. Elsie, Robert (2000). A dictionary of Albanian religion, mythology, and folk culture. New York University Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-8147-2214-8.
96. Gjika, Ilirjan. "Manastiri i Ardenices" (in Albanian). Retrieved 28 July 2010.
97. Frashëri 2002, p. 181
98. Frashëri, Kristo (2002-01-01). Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 320. ISBN 9789992716274.
99. Jens, Oliver Jens (2009). Skënderbeu. Tirana: K&B Tiranë. p. 280. ISBN 978-99956-667-5-0.
100. Archive of Crown of Aragon, reg. 2691, 101 recto –102 verso; Zurita: Anales. IV, 29
101. Archive of Crown of Aragon, reg. 2697, pp. 98—99
102. Noli 1947, p. 27
103. Marinesco 1923, pp. 69–79
104. Gennaro, Francione (2003). Skenderbeu: Një hero modern (in Albanian). Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri". p. 105. ISBN 978-99927-38-75-7.
105. Noli, Fan Stilian (1947). George Castrioti Scanderbeg (1405-1468. International Universities Press. OCLC 732882.
106. Franco, Demetrio (1539). Comentario de le cose de' Turchi, et del S. Georgio Scanderbeg, principe d' Epyr. Altobello Salkato. p. 317. ISBN 99943-1-042-9.
107. Schmaus, Alois (1969). Beiträge zur Kenntnis Südosteuropas und des Nahen Orients, Volume 8. p. 92. OCLC 2368272.
108. Gennaro, Francione (2003). Skenderbeu: Një hero modern. Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri". p. 108. ISBN 978-99927-38-75-7.
109. Fine 1994, p. 558
110. Frashëri, Kristo (2002-01-01). Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 321. ISBN 9789992716274.
111. Frashëri, Kristo (2002-01-01). Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 321. ISBN 9789992716274.
112. Frashëri, Kristo (2002-01-01). Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 322. ISBN 9789992716274.
113. Ljubić, Šime (1868–91), Listine o odnošajih izmedju južnoga slaventsva i mletačke republike (Documents about the relations of South Slavs and Venetian Republic), Monumenta spectantia historiam slavorum meridionalium, X/XXV, Zagreb, OCLC 68872994
114. ASM, Carteggio gen. Sforzasco, ad annum 1454
115. "Magnifico et strenuo viro Georgio Castrioti, dicto Scandabech, gentium armorum magnanimo capitaneo, nobis plurimum dilecto" Noli 1947
116. Noli 1947, p. 30
117. "Magnifico et strenuo viro Georgio Castrioti, dicto Scandarbech, gentium armorum nostrarum in partibus Albanie generali capitaneo, consiliario fideli nobis dilecto" Noli 1947
118. Jorga 1908–1913, p. 46
119. Marinesco 1923, p. 82
120. Noli 1947, p. 51
121. Frashëri 1964, p. 79
122. Babinger, Franz. Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. p. 152. ISBN 0691010781. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
123. Babinger, Franz (1992). Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. p. 152. ISBN 0691010781.
124. Noli 1947, p. 52
125. Zbornik Odsjeka za Povijesne Znanosti Zavoda za Povijesne i Društvene Znanosti Hrvatske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti. HAZU. 1999. p. 169. ...1456 rođen je princ Gjon Kastrioti, Skenderbegov sin
126. Zbornik Odsjeka za Povijesne Znanosti Zavoda za Povijesne i Društvene Znanosti Hrvatske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti. HAZU. 1999. p. 169. ...pobjegao je kod sultana Mehmeda II 1456 godine...
127. Noli 1947, p. 29
128. Noli 1947, p. 53
129. Barbinger, Franz (1992). Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6.
130. Frashëri 1964, p. 80
131. Anamali 2002, pp. 367–368
132. Babinger 1992, pp. 152–53
133. Frashëri 2002, p. 359
134. Marinesco 1923, pp. 133–34
135. Спремић, Момчило, Борбе за ослобођење Смедерева (1459–1485), Смедеревски Зборник 3 (2011), 13–29.
136. Elsie, Robert (2000). A dictionary of Albanian religion, mythology and folk culture. New York University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8147-2214-8.
137. Samardžić, Radovan (1892). Istorija srpskog naroda: Doba borbi za očuvanje i obnovu države 1371-1537. Srpska knjiiževna zadruga. p. 375. ...Скендербега, који му је уступио неки ближе непознати посед за издржавање
138. Samardžić, Radovan (1892). Istorija srpskog naroda: Doba borbi za očuvanje i obnovu države 1371-1537. Srpska knjiiževna zadruga. p. 375. ...Већ почетком 1461 отишао је са Скендербеговом препоруком у Италију.
139. Зборник Матице српске за историју. Матица. 1995. p. 211.
140. Translated version provided by Hodgkinson 1999, pp. 163–164
141. Babinger 1992, p. 201
142. Anamali 2002, p. 387
143. Noli 1947, p. 32
144. Frashëri 2002, pp. 370–390
145. Noli 1947, p. 35
146. Noli 1947, pp. 35–36
147. Noli 1947, p. 36
148. İnalcık, Halil, From empire to republic: essays on Ottoman and Turkish social history, Istanbul: Isis Press, p. 88, ISBN 978-975-428-080-7, OCLC 34985150, retrieved 4 January 2012, Balaban Aga, qui a accordé des timar à ses propres soldats dans la Basse- Dibra et dans la Çermeniça, ainsi qu'à son neveu à Mati, doit être ce même Balaban Aga, sancakbeyi d'Ohrid, connu pour ses batailles sanglantes contre Skanderbeg.
149. Babinger 1992, pp. 251–253
150. Shukarova, Aneta (2008), Todor Chepreganov, ed., History of the Macedonian People, Mitko B. Panov, Dragi Georgiev, Krste Bitovski, Academician Ivan Katardziev, Vanche Stojchev, Novica Veljanovski, Todor Chepreganov, Skopje: Institute of National History, ISBN 9989159246, OCLC 276645834, retrieved 26 December 2011, deportation of the Archbishop of Ohrid, Dorotei, to Istanbul in 1466, to-gether with other clerks and bolyars who probably were expatriated be-cause of their anti Ottoman acts during the Skender-Bey's rebellion.
151. Pavlovski, Jovan; Pavlovski, Mišel (2006). Вчера и денес--Македонија!: практикум по историја. Mi-An. p. 99. ...Една година подоцна, по неуспешниот обид да ја освои Албанија, Мехмед Втори на враќање, во Охрид, сомневајќи се дека црквата, болјарите и, веројатно, граѓаните, шуруваат со останатите Албанци, го сменил охридскиот архиепископ Доротеј и за нов епископ го наименувал Гркот Марк Ксилокаров. Имотот на оние Македонци што ги депортирал во Анадолија им бил одземен и разделен на новодојдените Турци.
152. Setton 1976, p. 282
153. Housley 1992, p. 91
154. Drizari 1968, p. 85
155. Frashëri, Kristo. Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 451. ISBN 9789992716274. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
156. Noli, Fan Stilian (1947). George Castroiti Scanderbeg (1405–1468). International Universities Press. p. 333. OCLC 732882.
157. Frashëri, Kristo (2002-01-01). Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 455. ISBN 9789992716274.
158. Frashëri, Kristo (2002-01-01). Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 456. ISBN 9789992716274.
159. Frashëri, Kristo (2002-01-01). Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468) (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. p. 456. ISBN 9789992716274.
160. Freely, John (2009). The grand Turk: Sultan Mehmet II, conqueror of Constantinople and master of an empire. New York: The Overlook Press. p. 112. ISBN 1-59020-248-1.
161. Noli 1947, p. 38
162. Stavrides 2001, pp. 163–64

     When the Ottoman army arrived Skanderbeg took refuge in Albanian mountains. Mehmed II sent Mahmud Pasha to the mountains, together with the most experienced part of the army, in order to pursue Skanderbeg, while he himself ravaged the rest of the land ... The Grand Vezier spent fifteen days in the mountains, ... However, they did not find Skanderbeg, who had managed to flee to the coast

163. Stavrides 2001, p. 163

     ... taking much booty and many prisoners ... Mehmed II after ravaging the rest of the land, went to Kruje and besieged it for several days. When he realized that it would not be taken by assault, he decided to return ...

164. Anamali 2002, pp. 411–12
165. Anamali 2002, pp. 411–413
166. Anamali 2002, pp. 413–416
167. Anamali 2002, pp. 416–417
168. Anamali 2002, pp. 417–420
169. Gibbon 1901, p. 467
170. Runciman 1990, pp. 183–185
171. Archivio del Gran Priorato di Napoli e Sicilia del Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta, Napoli
172. Lane–Poole 1888, p. 135
173. Sedlar 1994, p. 396
174. Hodgkinson 2005, p. ix
175. Hodgkinson 2005, p. xii
176. Hodgkinson 2005, p. xiii
177. Schwandner-Sievers, Stephanie (2002), "... transformation of Skanderbeg into national symbol did not just serve national cohesion ... in the national narrative Skanderbeg symbolised the sublime sacrifice of the Albanians in defending Europe from the Asiatic hordes.", Albanian identities: myth and history, Bernd Jürgen Fischer, Roderick Bailey, Isa Blumi, Nathalie Clayer, Ger Dujizings, Denisa Costovicova, Annie Lafontaine, Fatos Lubonja, Nicola Mai, Noel Malcolm, Piro Misha, Mariella Pandolfi, Gilles de Rapper, Fabian Schmidt, George Shopflin, Elias G. Skoulidas, Alex Standish and Galia Vatchinova, Indiana University Press, p. 43
178. Kabashi, Artemida (2007). "Creation of Albanian National Identity". Balkanistica (Slavica Publishers) 20: 63. The story of Scanderbeg ... rests at the heart of the Albanian nation, because it marks the creation of national identity for the Albanian people and their desire for freedom.
179. Gibbon 1901, p. 466
180. Cohen 2003, p. 151
181. Willson 1909, p. 296
182. Congressional Record, V. 151, Pt. 18, October 27 to November 7, 2005. Congress. 2005. p. 24057. ISBN 978-0-16-084826-1. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
183. Elsie 2010, p. 261.
184. Zbornik Matice srpske za književnost i jezik (in Serbian). Novi Sad: Matica srpska. 1991. p. 91. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Мартина Сегона, по сопственој изјави "српског писца"
185. Zgodovinski časopis, Vol. 54. Zgodovinsko društvo za Slovenijo. 2000. p. 131. Retrieved 1 April 2012. Martin Segon je eden najvidnejših humanistov s konca 15. stoletja. Znano je, daje bil sin Jovana de Segonis iz Kotora in daje bil kanonik cerkve sv. Marije v znanem rudarskem mestu Novo Brdo.
186. Studi storici (in Italian). Istituto storico italiano per il medio evo. pp. 142–45. Retrieved 1 April 2012. Narrazioni di Giorgio Castriotto, da i Turchi nella lingua loro chiamato Scander beg, cioe Alesandro Magno
187. UNVOLLSTÄNDIGER TEXTENTWURF ZUR DISKUSSION AM 6.2.2012 (PDF). 2012. p. 9. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Martinus Segonus verfasste eine der frühesten "Landeskunden" des spätmittelalterlichen Balkans und eine kurze, aber sehr wichtige biographische Skizze zu Skanderbeg
188. Živanović, Đorđe. "Konstantin Mihailović iz Ostrovice". Predgovor spisu Konstantina Mihailovića "Janičarove uspomene ili turska hronika" (in Serbian). Projekat Rastko, Poljska. Archived from the original on 19 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Taj rukopis je ... postao pre 1500. godine, a po svoj prilici još za vlade Kazimira Jagjelovića (1445–1492) ... Kao što smo već rekli, Konstantin Mihailović je negde između 1497. i 1501. napisao jedino svoje književno delo, koje je sačuvano u raznim prepisima sve do naših dana ... delo napisano verovatno između 1490. i 1497, i to zbog toga što se u njemu Matija Korvin spominje kao već mrtav, a poljski kralj Jan Olbraht kao živ.
189. Mihailović, Konstantin (1865) [1490—1501], Turska istorija ili kronika (Турска историја или кроника (Memoirs af a Janissary)) (in Serbian) 18, Glasnik Srpskoga učenog društva (Serbian Learned Society), pp. 135, 140–45, Глава XXXIV ... спомиње се и Скендербег, кнез Епирски и Албански, ... (Chapter XXXIV ... there is mention of Skanderbeg, prince of Epirus and Albania)
190. Minna Skafte Jensen, 2006,A Heroic Tale: Edin Barleti's Scanderbeg between orality and literacy
191. Gibbon 1901, p. 465
192. see Laonikos Chalkokondyles, l vii. p. 185, l. viii. p. 229
193. Setton, Kenneth (1976–84), The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, four volumes, American Philosophical Society, p. 73, ISBN 978-0-87169-114-9, .. ... The spurious correspondence of July and August 1443, between Ladislas and Scanderbeg (made up by Barletius, who should assigned it to the year 1444) ...
194. Setton, Kenneth (1976–84), The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, four volumes, American Philosophical Society, p. 73, ISBN 978-0-87169-114-9, .. ... He also invented a correspondence between Skanderbeg and Sultan Mehmed II to fit his interpretations of the events in 1461—1463 ...
195. Georgius Castriotus Epirensis, vulgo Scanderbegh. Per Franciscum Blancum, De Alumnis Collegij de Propaganda Fide Episcopum Sappatensem etc. Venetiis, Typis Marci Ginammi, MDCXXXVI (1636).
196. Temple 1705, pp. 285–286
197. Bjoern Andersen Holberg on Scanderbeg, bjoerna.dk; accessed 26 January 2016.(Danish)
198. The Scanderberg Operas by Vivaldi and Francouer by Del Brebner Archived February 17, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
199. Rubin, Don (2001), The world encyclopedia of contemporary theatre, Taylor & Francis, pp. 41–, ISBN 978-0-415-05928-2
200. Havard, 1733, Scanderbeg, A Tragedy; Lillo, 1735, The Christian Hero; Whincop, 1747, Scanderbeg, Or, Love and Liberty.
201. Longfellow 1880, pp. 286–296
202. Frashëri, Kristo (2002) (in Albanian), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, pg. 9.
203. Frashëri, Kristo (2002) (in Albanian), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, p. 10.
204. Setton 1978, p. 102

     Unfortunately Athanase Gegaj, L'Albanie et I'invasion turque au XV siecle, Louvain and Paris, 1937, pp. 77–80, had not discovered that the "Anonymous of Antivari" was an invention of Biemmi, nor had Noli even by 1947.

205. The Mountain Wreath, Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (Serbian)
206. False Tsar Stephen the Little, Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (Serbian)
207. Camille Paganel, 1855,"Histoire de Scanderbeg, ou Turcs et Chrétiens du XVe siècle"
208. "Festival de Cannes: The Great Warrior Skanderbeg". festival-cannes.com. Retrieved 2009-01-31.
209. "Palazzo Skanderbeg e la Cultura tradita" (in Italian).
210. Delaney, Robert (29 September 2006). "Welcoming Skanderbeg — Cd. Maida, Albanian president unveil statue of Albanian hero". The Michigan Catholic. Archdiocese of Detroit. Archived from the original on September 1, 2009.
211. Frashëri 2002, pp. 54–62
212. Frashëri 2002, pp. 62–66
213. Frashëri 2002, p. 158
214. Glassé 2008, p. 129
215. Zilfi 2010, p. 101
216. Anamali 2002, p. 379
217. Marinesco 1923, p. 59
218. Gegaj 1937, p. 92
219. Frashëri 2002, pp. 320–321

References

• Anamali, Skënder (2002), Historia e popullit shqiptar në katër vëllime (in Albanian) I, Botimet Toena, OCLC 52411919
• Babinger, Franz (1992), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6
• Barletius, Marinus (1508), Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum Principis (in Latin), Bernardinus de Vitalibus, OCLC 645065473
• Barleti, Marin (1597), Coronica del esforçado principe y capitan Iorge Castrioto, rey de Epiro, ò Albania (in Spanish), Luis Sanchez, OCLC 20731044
• Blancum, Franciscus (1636) (in Latin) Georgius Castriotus, Epirensis vulgo Scanderbegh, Epirotarum Princeps Fortissimus, Propaganda Fide, Venice.
• Božić, Ivan (1979), Nemirno pomorje XV veka (in Serbian), Beograd: Srpska književna zadruga, OCLC 5845972
• Clayer, Nathalie (2007), Aux origines du nationalisme albanais: la naissance d'une nation (in French), Karthala, ISBN 978-2-84586-816-8
• Cohen, Richard (2003), By the Sword: A History of Gladiators, Musketeers, Samurai, Swashbucklers, and Olympic Champions, Random House, Inc., ISBN 978-0-8129-6966-5
• De Lavardin, Jacques (1592), Histoire de Georges Castriot surnommé Scanderbeg, Roy d'Albanie: contenant ses illustres faicts d'armes & memorables victoires alencontre des Turcs, pour la foy de Jesus Christ. Le tout en douze livres. (in French), H. Haultin: La Rochelle, OCLC 560834149
• Drizari, Nelo (1968), Scanderbeg; his life, correspondence, orations, victories, and philosophy, National Press, OCLC 729093
• Elsie, Robert (2010). Historical Dictionary of Kosovo. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-7483-1.
• Elsie, Robert (2010) [2004], Historical Dictionary Of Albania (PDF), Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-282-52192-6, OCLC 816372706
• Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5
• Francione, Gennaro (2003), Skenderbeu: Një hero modern (in Albanian), Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri", ISBN 978-99927-38-75-7
• Frashëri, Kristo (1964), The history of Albania: a brief survey, s.n., OCLC 1738885
• Frashëri, Kristo (2002), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468 (in Albanian), Botimet Toena, ISBN 99927-1-627-4
• Gegaj, Athanase (1937), L'Albanie et l'Invasion turque au XVe siècle (in French), Universite de Louvain, OCLC 652265147
• Gibbon, Edward (1788), The Analytical review, or History of literature, domestic and foreign, on an enlarged plan 2, OCLC 444861890
• Gibbon, Edward (1802), The history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, T. Cadell
• Gibbon, Edward (1901), The decline and fall of the Roman empire, P. F. Collier & Son, OCLC 317326240
• Glassé, Cyril (2008), The new encyclopedia of Islam, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-7425-6296-7
• Hodgkinson, Harry (1999), Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero, Centre for Albanian Studies, ISBN 978-1-873928-13-4
• Hodgkinson, Harry (2005), Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero, I. B. Tauris, ISBN 1-85043-941-9
• Holberg, Ludwig (1739), Adskillige store heltes og beroemmelige maends, saer Orientalske og Indianske sammenlignede historier og bedrifter efter Plutarchi maade/ 2. (in Danish), Kjøbenhavn : Höpffner, 1739., OCLC 312532589
• Housley, Norman (1992), The later Crusades, 1274–1580: from Lyons to Alcazar, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-822136-4
• İnalcık, Halil (1995), From empire to republic: essays on Ottoman and Turkish social history, Isis Press, ISBN 978-975-428-080-7
• Jacques, Edwin E. (1995), The Albanians: an ethnic history from prehistoric times to the present, McFarland, ISBN 978-0-89950-932-7
• Jorga, Neculai (1908–1913), Geschichte Des Osmanischen Reiches. Nach Den Quellen Dargestellt (in German) II, OCLC 560022388
• Lane–Poole, Stanley (1888), The story of Turkey, G.P. Putnam's sons, OCLC 398296
• Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1880), Tales of a wayside inn, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., pp. 286–, OCLC 562689407
• Marinesco, Constantin (1923), "Alphonse V, roi d'Aragon et de Naples et l'Albanie de Scanderbeg", Mélanges de l'École roumaine en France (in French) I, OCLC 459949498
• Moore, Clement Clarke (1850), George Castriot, Surnamed Scanderbeg, King of Albania, New York: D. Appleton & Co., OCLC 397003
• Myrdal, Jan (1976), Albania defiant, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 978-0-85345-356-7
• Nasse, George Nicholas (1964), The Italo-Albanian villages of southern Italy, National Academies, OCLC 476226177
• Nichols, Aidan (2010), Rome and the Eastern Churches, Ignatius Press, ISBN 978-1-58617-282-4
• Noli, Fan Stilian (1947), George Castrioti Scanderbeg (1405–1468), International Universities Press, OCLC 732882
• Noli, Fan Stilian (2009), Scanderbeg, General Books, ISBN 978-1-150-74548-5
• Paganel, Camille (1855), Histoire de Scanderbeg, ou Turks et chrétiens au xve siècle (in French), Paris: Didier, OCLC 562582673
• Rosser, John Hutchins (2001), Historical dictionary of Byzantium, Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-3979-3
• Runciman, Steven (1990), The fall of Constantinople, 1453, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-39832-9
• Sansovino, Francesco (1582), Historia universale dell'origine, et imperio de'Turchi: Raccolta, & in diversi lunghi di nuovo ampliata et riformata in molte sue parti per ordine della Santa Inquisitione : Con le figure in disegno de gli habiti & dell'armature de soldati d'esso gran Turco ; Et con la tavola di tutte le cose più notabili, et degne (in Italian), Salicato, OCLC 220591138
• Schmitt, Oliver Jens (2001), Das venezianische Albanien (1392–1479) (in German), München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag GmbH München, ISBN 3-486-56569-9
• Schmitt, Oliver Jens (2012), Die Albaner: eine Geschichte zwischen Orient und Okzident (in German), C.H.Beck, ISBN 978-3-406-63031-6
• Sedlar, Jean W. (1994), A history of East Central Europe: East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500, University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-0-295-97290-9
• Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1975), A History of the Crusades: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, edited by H. W. Hazard III, Univ of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 978-0-299-06670-3
• Setton, Kenneth M. (1976), The papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0-87169-127-9
• Setton, Kenneth M. (1978), The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The fifteenth century II, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0-87169-127-9
• Stavrianos, Leften Stavros (1958), The Balkans since 1453, Rinehart, OCLC 485496689
• Stavrides, Theoharis (2001), The Sultan of vezirs : the life and times of the Ottoman Grand Vezir Mahmud Pasha Angelovic (1453–1474), Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-12106-5, OCLC 46640850
• Temple, William (1705), Miscellanea: The first part. Containing I. A survey of the constitutions and interests of the Empire, Sweden, ... IV An essay upon the cure of the gout by Moxa., printed for Jacob Tonson, and Awnsham and John Churchill, OCLC 83414679
• Tennent, Sir James Emerson (1845), The history of modern Greece, from its conquest by the Romans B.C.146, to the present time, H. Colburn
• Whincop, Thomas (1747), Scanderbeg: or, love and liberty: A tragedy, Printed for W. Reeve at Shakespear's Head, OCLC 277675772
• Willson, Beckles (1909), The life and letters of James Wolfe, W. Heinemann, OCLC 3890956
• Zilfi, Madeline (2010), Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51583-2
• Masson, Margaret (1954), The unwritten law in Albania, University Press
• Schutz, Istvan (1985), Des "Comans noirs" dans la poésie populaire albanaise, Hungarian AAcademy of Sciences
• Frazee, Charles A. (2006-06-22). Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453–1923. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02700-7. Retrieved 20 April 2012.

Further reading

• Angelo, Paolo; Laporta, Alessandro; Giovio, Paolo (1539), La vita di Scanderbeg di Paolo Angelo (in Latin in the 1539 version and translated into Italian in 2004), Franco, Venice: Anonymous Publisher and Demetrio ed. in 2004 for the Italian publication, ISBN 978-88-8086-571-1
• Frashëri, Naim (1898), Istori'e Skenderbeut (in Albanian), Coinetarevet
• Kabashi, Artemida (August 2005). "The memory of George Castriota Scanderbeg among the Arberesh of Italy: a study on the role of diaspora in the creation of Albanian national identity" (PDF). Texas Tech University. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
• Musachi, John (1515). "Brief Chronicle on the Descendants of our Musachi Dynasty". Retrieved 29 November 2011.
• Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1993), The last centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43991-6
• Noli, Fan Stilian (1993), Scanderbeg (in Italian), Argo, ISBN 978-88-86211-04-8
• Prifti, Peter R. (2005-07-13), Unfinished portrait of a country, East European Monographs, ISBN 978-0-88033-558-4

External links

• Official website of the Kastrioti family of Italy (Italian)
• Analysis of literature on Scanderbeg
• Marinus Barletius: History of George Castriot, surnamed Scanderbeg: Chapter XII
• Schmitt Jens Oliver (2008) Scanderbeg: an Uprising and its Leader
• The story of Skanderbeg in development by Skanderbeg Media Productions by members of the Kastrioti bloodline