Latin conjugation

Latin verbs have four main patterns of conjugation. As in a number of other languages, most Latin verbs have an active voice and a passive voice. There also exist deponent and semi-deponent Latin verbs (verbs with a passive form but active meaning), as well as defective verbs (verbs with a perfect form but present meaning). Sometimes the verbs of the third conjugation with a present stem on -ǐ (short i) are regarded as a separate pattern of conjugation, and are called the fifth conjugation, or third-io conjugation.

Conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a verb from basic forms, or principal parts. It may be affected by person, number, gender, tense, mood, voice or other language-specific factors.

In a dictionary, Latin verbs are always listed with four "principal parts" (or fewer for deponent and defective verbs) which allow the reader to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are:

1. the first person singular of the present indicative active
2. the present infinitive active
3. the first person singular of the perfect indicative active
4. the supine or, in some texts, the perfect passive participle, which are nearly always identical. Texts that commonly list the perfect passive participle use the future active participle for intransitive verbs. Some verbs lack this principal part altogether.

For simple verb paradigms, see the appendix pages for first conjugation, second conjugation, third conjugation, and fourth conjugation.

Properties

The Latin verbs have the following properties:

• three persons: first, second, and third;
• two numbers: singular and plural;
• three times: present, past, and future, and two aspects: perfective (finished) and imperfective (unfinished), which combine to form six tenses: present, perfect, imperfect, Pluperfect, future, and future perfect;
• three finite moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, of which only the indicative is conjugated fully in all tenses and persons;
• four non-finite forms: infinitive, gerund, participle, and supine; and
• two voices: active and passive.

Conjugations

There are four conjugations in Latin which define patterns of verb inflection. However the grouping in conjugations is based solely on the behaviour of the verb in the present system, and the stems for other forms cannot be inferred from the present stem, so several forms of the verb are necessary to be able to produce the full range of Latin verbal forms. Most Latin verbs belong to one of the four verb conjugations, though some, like esse (to be), do not.

First conjugation

The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ā and can be recognized by the -āre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

• perfect has the suffix –āvī. The majority of first-conjugation verbs adhere to this pattern, which is considered to be "regular", for example:
  • portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum, "to carry, to bring";
  • amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum, "to love, to be fond of";
• perfect has the suffix –uī, for example:
  • secō, secāre, secuī, sectum, "to cut, to divide";
  • fricō, fricāre, fricuī, frictum, "to rub";
  • vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitum, "to forbid, to prohibit";
• perfect has the suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem, for example:
  • lavō, lavāre, lāvī, lautum, "to wash, to bathe";
  • iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtum, "to help, to assist";
• perfect is reduplicated, for example:
  • stō, stāre, stetī, statum, "to stand";
  • dō, dare, dedī, datum, "to give, to bestow"; this verb is irregular.

Second conjugation

The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

• perfect has the suffix –uī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples:
  • terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus (to frighten, to deter)
  • doceō, docēre, docuī, doctus (to teach, to instruct)
  • teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus (to hold, to keep)
• perfect has the suffix –ēvī. Examples:
  • dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētus (to destroy, to efface)
  • cieō, ciēre, cīvī, citus (to arouse, to stir)
• perfect has the suffix –sī (which combines with a preceding c or g to –xī). Examples:
  • augeō, augēre, auxī, auctus (to increase, to enlarge)
  • iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussus (to order, to bid)
• perfect is reduplicated with –ī. Examples:
  • mordeō, mordēre, momordī, morsus (to bite, to nip)
  • spondeō, spondēre, spopondī, spōnsus (to vow, to promise)
• perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
  • videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus (to see, to notice)
  • foveō, fovēre, fōvī, fōtus (to caress, to cherish)
• perfect has suffix –ī and no perfect passive participle. Examples:
  • strīdeō, strīdere, strīdī (to hiss, to creak)
  • ferveō, fervēre, fervī (sometimes fervuī) (to boil, to seethe)

Third conjugation

The third conjugation is characterized by a short thematic vowel, which alternates between e, i, and u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in an –ere in the present active infinitive. There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used:

• perfect has suffix –sī (–xī when c or h comes at the end of the root). Examples:
  • carpō, carpere, carpsī, carptus (to pluck, to select)
  • trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctus (to drag, to draw)
  • gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus (to wear, to bear)
  • flectō, flectere, flexī, flexus (to bend, to twist)
• perfect is reduplicated with suffix –ī. Examples:
  • currō, currere, cucurrī, cursus (to run, to race)
  • caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesus (to kill, to slay)
  • tangō, tangere, tetigī, tāctus (to touch, to hit)
  • pellō, pellere, pepulī, pulsus (to beat, to drive away)
• perfect has suffix -vī. Examples:
  • petō, petere, petīvī, petītus (to seek, to attack)
  • linō, linere, līvī, lītus (to smear, to befoul)
  • serō, serere, sēvī, satus (to sow, to plant)
  • terō, terere, trīvī, trītus (to rub, to wear out)
  • sternō, sternere, strāvī, strātus (to spread, to stretch out)
• perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
  • agō, agere, ēgī, āctus (to do, to drive)
  • legō, legere, lēgī, lēctus (to collect, to read)
  • emō, emere, ēmī, ēmptus (to buy, to purchase)
  • vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus (to conquer, to master)
  • fundō, fundere, fūdī, fūsus (to pour, to utter)
• perfect has suffix –ī only. Examples:
  • īcō, īcere, īcī, īctus (to strike, to smite)
  • vertō, vertere, vertī, versus (to turn, to alter)
  • vīsō, vīsere, vīsī, vīsus (to visit)
• perfect has suffix –uī. Examples:
  • metō, metere, messuī, messus (to reap, to harvest)
  • vomō, vomere, vomuī, vomitus (to vomit)
  • colō, colere, coluī, cultus (to cultivate, to till)
  • texō, texere, texuī, textus (to weave, to plait)
  • gignō, gignere, genuī, genitus (to beget, to cause)
• present tense stem has suffix –u. Examples:
  • minuō, minuere, minuī, minūtus (to lessen, to diminish)
  • ruō, ruere, ruī, rutus (to collapse, to hurl down)
  • struō, struere, strūxī, strūctus (to build, to erect)
• Present tense indicative first person singular form has suffix with –scō. Examples:
  • nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtus (to investigate, to learn)
  • adolēscō, adolēscere, adolēvī (to grow up, to mature)
  • flōrēscō, flōrēscere, flōruī (to begin to flourish, to blossom)
  • haerēscō, haerēscere, haesī, haesus (to adhere, to stick)
  • pāscō, pāscere, pāvī, pāstus (to feed, to nourish)

Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. .

Fourth conjugation

The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the –īre ending of the present active infinitive. Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns:

• perfect has suffix –vī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples:
  • audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus (to hear, listen (to))
  • mūniō, mūnīre, mūnīvī, mūnītus (to fortify, to build)
• perfect has suffix –uī. Examples:
  • aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertus (to open, to uncover)
• perfect has suffix –sī (-xī when c comes at the end of the root). Examples:
  • saepiō, saepīre, saepsī, saeptus (to surround, to enclose)
  • sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctus (to confirm, to ratify)
  • sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus (to feel, to perceive)
• perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
  • veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventūrus (to come, to arrive)

Personal endings

Personal endings are used in all tenses. The present, imperfect, future, pluperfect and future perfect use the same personal endings in the active voice. However, the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect do not have personal endings in the passive voice. These are formed by a participle and a form of esse (to be). For example, the perfect passive first person singular form of the verb amāre (to love) is amatus sum, using the participle and sum rather than the perfect stem amav- and some form of -ir. The perfect uses its own personal endings in the active voice, which are shown in the chart below.

		Active voice		Passive voice
		Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Present tense, etc.	First person	–ō, –m	–mus	–or, –r	–mur
	Second person	–s	–tis	–ris	–minī
	Third person	–t	–nt	–tur	–ntur
Perfect	First person	–ī	–imus
	Second person	–istī	–istis
	Third person	–it	–ērunt / -ēre

Tenses of the imperfective aspect

The tenses of the imperfective aspect are present, imperfect, and future tense. Verb forms in the imperfective aspect express an action that has (or had) not been completed. Consider for concreteness the following verbs:

• the first conjugation verb portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum (to carry, to bring)
• the second conjugation verb terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum (to frighten, to deter)
• the third conjugation verb petō, petere, petīvī, petītum (to seek, to attack)
• the fourth conjugation verb audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum (to hear, to listen (to))

In all the conjugations except for the third conjugation, the –re is removed from the second principal part (for example, portāre without the suffix –re becomes portā–) to form the present stem, which is used for all of the tenses in the imperfective aspect. In the third conjugation, the –ō ending of the present indicative is dropped in order to form the present stem (for example, the present indicative form of regere is regō, and without the -ō it is the present stem, reg–).^[1] Occasionally, the terminating vowel of the stem is lengthened and/or shortened, and sometimes completely changed. This is often true both in the third conjugation and in the subjunctive mood of all conjugations.

Present tense

The present tense (Latin tempus praesēns) is used to show an uncompleted action that happens in the current time. The present tense does not have a tense sign. Instead, the personal endings are added to the bare present stem. However, in this tense the thematic vowel, most notably the ě in the third conjugation, changes the most frequently.

Present indicative

The present indicative expresses general truths, facts, demands and desires. Most commonly, a verb like portō can be translated as "I carry," "I do carry," or "I am carrying". In all but the third conjugation, only the thematical vowel of the stem is used. In the third conjugation, the e is only used in the second person singular in the passive for a less difficult pronunciation. Otherwise, it becomes either an i or u. The first person singular of the indicative active present is the first principal part. All end in –ō.

	Present active indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portō	portāmus	terreō	terrēmus	petō	petimus	audiō	audīmus
Second person	portās	portātis	terrēs	terrētis	petis	petitis	audīs	audītis
Third person	portat	portant	terret	terrent	petit	petunt	audit	audiunt

Add the passive endings to form the passive voice. The passive portor can be translated as "I am carried," or "I am being carried".

	Present passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portor	portāmur	terreor	terrēmur	petor	petimur	audior	audīmur
Second person	portāris	portāminī	terrēris	terrēminī	peteris	petiminī	audīris	audīminī
Third person	portātur	portantur	terrētur	terrentur	petitur	petuntur	audītur	audiuntur

Notice that in the second person singular of petere, the thematic vowel is e (peteris, not petiris).

Present subjunctive

The present subjunctive may be used to assert many things. In general, in independent sentences, it is translated hortatorily (only in the third person plural), jussively and optatively. Portem can be translated as "Let me carry." or "May I carry." Portēmus can be "Let us carry".

Some alterations have occurred in the vowels from the indicative and subjunctive.

• The first conjugation now uses an e and an ē.
• The second conjugation uses ea and eā.
• The third conjugation uses a or ā.
• The fourth conjugation uses ia or iā.

"Let's beat that giant", "Defeat all liars", or "She wears a diamond/tiara" are helpful mnemonics for remembering this. First conjugation verbs have an "e" in their stem (we), second conjugation verbs have an "-ea" (eat), third conjugation verbs have an "a" (caviar), and fourths have an "ia" (caviar). Other acceptable mnemonics include she reads a diary, he beats a liar, everybody eats apple iambics, let’s steal a fiat, he cheats a friar, or Clem eats clams in Siam.

	Present active subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portem	portēmus	terream	terreāmus	petam	petāmus	audiam	audiāmus
Second person	portēs	portētis	terreās	terreātis	petās	petātis	audiās	audiātis
Third person	portet	portent	terreat	terreant	petat	petant	audiat	audiant

Like the indicative, active personal endings may be replaced by passive personal endings. Porter can be translated as "Let me be carried" or "May I be carried." Hortatorily, Portēmur can be "Let us be carried".

	Present passive subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	porter	portēmur	terrear	terreāmur	petar	petāmur	audiar	audiāmur
Second person	portēris	portēminī	terreāris	terreāminī	petāris	petāminī	audiāris	audiāminī
Third person	portētur	portentur	terreātur	terreantur	petātur	petantur	audiātur	audiantur

Present imperative

The present imperative conveys commands, pleas and recommendations. Portā can be translated as "(You) Carry" or simply, "Carry". The imperative present occurs only in the second person.

• The second person singular in the active voice uses only the bare stem, and does not add an imperative ending.

	Present active imperative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Second person	portā	portāte	terrē	terrēte	pete	petite	audī	audīte

The imperative present of the passive voice is rarely used, except in the case of deponent verbs, whose passive forms carry active meaning. Portāminī can be translated as "(You) Be carried". The deponent sequīminī, on the other hand, means "(You) Follow!".

• The singular uses the alternate form of the present passive indicative (which looks like the present active infinitive) and the plural uses the present passive indicative form of the second person plural.

	Present passive imperative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Second person	portāre	portāminī	terrēre	terrēminī	petere	petiminī	audīre	audīminī

Imperfect

The imperfect (Latin tempus imperfectum) indicates a perpetual, but incomplete action in the past. It is recognized by the tense signs bă and bā in the indicative, and re and rē in the subjunctive.

Imperfect indicative

The imperfect indicative simply expresses an action in the past that was not completed. Portābam can be translated to mean, "I was carrying," "I carried," or "I used to carry".

• In the indicative, the imperfect employs its tense signs ba and bā before personal endings are added.

	Imperfect active indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portābam	portābāmus	terrēbam	terrēbāmus	petēbam	petēbāmus	audiēbam	audiēbāmus
Second person	portābās	portābātis	terrēbās	terrēbātis	petēbās	petēbātis	audiēbās	audiēbātis
Third person	portābat	portābant	terrēbat	terrēbant	petēbat	petēbant	audiēbat	audiēbant

As with the present tense, active personal endings are taken off, and passive personal endings are put in their place. Portābar can be translated as "I was being carried," "I kept being carried," or "I used to be carried".

	Imperfect passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portābar	portābāmur	terrēbar	terrēbāmur	petēbar	petēbāmur	audiēbar	audiēbāmur
Second person	portābāris	portābāminī	terrēbāris	terrēbāminī	petēbāris	petēbāminī	audiēbāris	audiēbāminī
Third person	portābātur	portābantur	terrēbātur	terrēbantur	petēbātur	petēbantur	audiēbātur	audiēbantur

Imperfect subjunctive

In the subjunctive, the imperfect is quite important, especially in subordinate clauses. Independently, it is largely translated conditionally. Portārem can mean, "I should carry," or "I would carry".

• Unlike the indicative, the subjunctive does not modify the thematic vowel. The third conjugation's thematical remains short as an e, and the fourth conjugation does not use an iē before the imperfect signs. It keeps its ī.
• In the subjunctive, the imperfect employs its tense signs re and rē before personal endings.
• The verb esse (to be) has two imperfect subjunctives: one using the present infinitive (essem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis, essent) and one using the future infinitive (forem, fores, foret, foremus, foretis, forent).

	Imperfect active subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portārem	portārēmus	terrērem	terrērēmus	peterem	peterēmus	audīrem	audīrēmus
Second person	portārēs	portārētis	terrērēs	terrērētis	peterēs	peterētis	audīrēs	audīrētis
Third person	portāret	portārent	terrēret	terrērent	peteret	peterent	audīret	audīrent

As with the indicative subjunctive, active endings are removed, and passive endings are added. Portārer may be translated as "I should be carried," or "I would be carried."

	Imperfect passive subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portārer	portārēmur	terrērer	terrērēmur	peterer	peterēmur	audīrer	audīrēmur
Second person	portārēris	portārēminī	terrērēris	terrērēminī	peterēris	peterēminī	audīrēris	audīrēminī
Third person	portārētur	portārentur	terrērētur	terrērentur	peterētur	peterentur	audīrētur	audīrentur

Future tense

The future tense (Latin tempus futūrum simplex) expresses an uncompleted action in the future. It is recognized by its tense signs bō, bi, bu, a and ē in the indicative and the vowel ō in the imperative mood.

Future indicative

The future tense always refers to an incomplete action. In addition, the future tense is stricter in usage temporally in Latin than it is in English. Standing alone, portābō can mean, "I shall carry," or "I will carry."

• The first and second conjugations use bō, bi and bu as signs for the future indicative.
• The third and fourth conjugations replace their thematic vowels with a, ě and ē. The fourth conjugation inserts an ǐ before the a, e and ē.

	Future active indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portābō	portābimus	terrēbō	terrēbimus	petam	petēmus	audiam	audiēmus
Second person	portābis	portābitis	terrēbis	terrēbitis	petēs	petētis	audiēs	audiētis
Third person	portābit	portābunt	terrēbit	terrēbunt	petet	petent	audiet	audient

As with all imperfective system tenses, active personal endings are removed, and passive personal endings are put on. Portābor translates as, "I shall be carried."

	Future passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portābor	portābimur	terrēbor	terrēbimur	petar	petēmur	audiar	audiēmur
Second person	portāberis	portābiminī	terrēberis	terrēbiminī	petēris	petēminī	audiēris	audiēminī
Third person	portābitur	portābuntur	terrēbitur	terrēbuntur	petētur	petentur	audiētur	audientur

Notice that the penultimate vowel in the second person singular of portāre and terrēre is e, not i (portāberis and terrēberis, instead of the expected portābiris and terrēbiris).

Future imperative

The future imperative was a formal form of the imperative; by the classical period, it was chiefly used in legal documents, though it retained some currency in distinct reference to future time.^[2] A few irregular or defective verbs (meminisse 'remember') used this form as their only imperative.

Portātō can be translated as "You shall carry".

• As mentioned previously, the vowel ō is used as a sign of the future imperative.

	Future active imperative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Second person	portātō	portātōte	terrētō	terrētōte	petitō	petitōte	audītō	audītōte
Third person		portantō		terrentō		petuntō		audiuntō

The ending -r marks the passive voice in the future imperative. The second person plural is absent here. Portātor translates as "You shall be carried."

	Future passive imperative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Second person	portātor	——	terrētor	——	petitor	——	audītor	——
Third person		portantor		terrentor		petuntor		audiuntor

Perfective aspect tenses

The tenses of the perfective aspect, which are the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses, are used to express actions that have been, had been, or will have been completed. The verbs used for explanation are:

1st conjugation: portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum – to carry, bring

2nd conjugation: terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum – to frighten, deter

3rd conjugation: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum – to seek, attack

4th conjugation: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – to hear, listen (to)

To find the stem for the third principal part in all of the conjugations, the –ī is removed from it. For example, from portāvī, portāv is formed. This is the perfect stem, and it is used for all of the tenses in the perfective aspect. The perfective aspect verbs also use the perfect passive participle in the passive voice. See below to see how it is formed. Along with these participles, the verb esse, which means, "to be", is used.

Unlike the imperfective aspect, inflection does not deviate from conjugation to conjugation.

Perfect

The perfect (Latin tempus perfectum) refers to an action completed in the past. Tense signs are only used in this tense with the indicative. The tense signs of the subjunctive are eri and erī.

Perfect indicative

The indicative perfect expresses a finished action in the past. If the action were not finished, but still lies in the past, one would use the imperfect. Portāvī is translated as "I carried," "I did carry," or "I have carried."

• As aforementioned, the indicative perfect in the active voice has its special personal endings.

	Perfect active indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portāvī	portāvimus	terruī	terruimus	petīvī	petīvimus	audīvī	audīvimus
Second person	portāvistī	portāvistis	terruistī	terruistis	petīvistī	petīvistis	audīvistī	audīvistis
Third person	portāvit	portāvērunt	terruit	terruērunt	petīvit	petīvērunt	audīvit	audīvērunt

In the passive voice, the perfect passive participle is used with the auxiliary verb esse. It uses the present indicative form of esse. Portātus sum translates as "I was carried," or "I have been carried."

	Perfect passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portātus sum	portātī sumus	territus sum	territī sumus	petītus sum	petītī sumus	audītus sum	audītī sumus
Second person	portātus es	portātī estis	territus es	territī estis	petītus es	petītī estis	audītus es	audītī estis
Third person	portātus est	portātī sunt	territus est	territī sunt	petītus est	petītī sunt	audītus est	audītī sunt

Perfect subjunctive

Like the imperfect subjunctive, the perfect subjunctive is largely used in subordinate clauses. Independently, it is usually translated as the potential subjunctive. By itself, portāverim translates as "I may have carried."

• The tense signs eri and erī are used before the personal endings are added.

	Perfect active subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portāverim	portāverīmus	terruerim	terruerīmus	petīverim	petīverīmus	audīverim	audīverīmus
Second person	portāverīs	portāverītis	terruerīs	terruerītis	petīverīs	petīverītis	audīverīs	audīverītis
Third person	portāverit	portāverint	terruerit	terruerint	petīverit	petīverint	audīverit	audīverint

The passive voice uses the perfect passive participle with the subjunctive present forms of esse. Portātus sim means, "I may have been carried."

	Perfect passive subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portātus sim	portātī sīmus	territus sim	territī sīmus	petītus sim	petītī sīmus	audītus sim	audītī sīmus
Second person	portātus sīs	portātī sītis	territus sīs	territī sītis	petītus sīs	petītī sītis	audītus sīs	audītī sītis
Third person	portātus sit	portātī sint	territus sit	territī sint	petītus sit	petītī sint	audītus sit	audītī sint

Pluperfect

The pluperfect (Latin tempus plūs quam perfectum) expresses an action which was completed before another completed action. It is recognized by the tense signs era and erā in the indicative and isse and issē in the subjunctive.

Pluperfect indicative

As with English, in Latin, the pluperfect indicative is used to assert an action that was completed before another (perfect). Portāveram translates as "I had carried."

• The tense sign erā is employed before adding the personal endings, with the long ā following the usual rules for shortening before final -m, -t, and -nt.

	Pluperfect active indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portāveram	portāverāmus	terrueram	terruerāmus	petīveram	petīverāmus	audīveram	audīverāmus
Second person	portāverās	portāverātis	terruerās	terruerātis	petīverās	petīverātis	audīverās	audīverātis
Third person	portāverat	portāverant	terruerat	terruerant	petīverat	petīverant	audīverat	audīverant

In the passive voice, the perfect passive participle is used with esse in the imperfect indicative. Portātus eram is translated as "I had been carried."

	Pluperfect passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portātus eram	portātī erāmus	territus eram	territī erāmus	petītus eram	petītī erāmus	audītus eram	audītī erāmus
Second person	portātus erās	portātī erātis	territus erās	territī erātis	petītus erās	petītī erātis	audītus erās	audītī erātis
Third person	portātus erat	portātī erant	territus erat	territī erant	petītus erat	petītī erant	audītus erat	audītī erant

Pluperfect subjunctive

The pluperfect subjunctive is to the perfect subjunctive as the imperfect subjunctive is to the present subjunctive. Simply put, it is used with the perfect subjunctive in subordinate clauses. Like the imperfect subjunctive, it is translated conditionally independently. Portāvissem is translated as "I should have carried," or "I would have carried."

• The tense signs isse and issē are used before the personal endings.

	Pluperfect active subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portāvissem	portāvissēmus	terruissem	terruissēmus	petīvissem	petīvissēmus	audīvissem	audīvissēmus
Second person	portāvissēs	portāvissētis	terruissēs	terruissētis	petīvissēs	petīvissētis	audīvissēs	audīvissētis
Third person	portāvisset	portāvissent	terruisset	terruissent	petīvisset	petīvissent	audīvisset	audīvissent

As always, the passive voice uses the perfect passive participle. The imperfect subjunctive of esse is used here. Portātus essem may mean "I should have been carried," or "I could have been carried," in the conditional sense.

	Pluperfect passive subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portātus essem	portātī essēmus	territus essem	territī essēmus	petītus essem	petītī essēmus	audītus essem	audītī essēmus
Second person	portātus essēs	portātī essētis	territus essēs	territī essētis	petītus essēs	petītī essētis	audītus essēs	audītī essētis
Third person	portātus esset	portātī essent	territus esset	territī essent	petītus esset	petītī essent	audītus esset	audītī essent

Future perfect

Probably the least used of all the tenses, the future perfect (Latin tempus futūrum exāctum) conveys an action that will have been completed before another action. It is signified by the tense signs erō and eri. The future perfect is the only tense that occurs in a single mood.

Future perfect indicative

As said, the future perfect is used to mention an action that will have been completed in futurity before another action. It is often used with the future tense. In simple translation, portāverō means, "I will have carried," or "I shall have carried."

• The tense signs erō and eri are used before the personal endings.

	Future perfect active indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portāverō	portāverimus	terruerō	terruerimus	petīverō	petīverimus	audīverō	audīverimus
Second person	portāveris	portāveritis	terrueris	terrueritis	petīveris	petīveritis	audīveris	audīveritis
Third person	portāverit	portāverint	terruerit	terruerint	petīverit	petīverint	audīverit	audīverint

As with all perfective aspect tenses, the perfect passive participle is used in the passive voice. However, the future perfect uses the future indicative of esse as the auxiliary verb. Portātus erō is "I will have been carried," or "I shall have been carried."

	Future perfect passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	portātus erō	portātī erimus	territus erō	territī erimus	petītus erō	petītī erimus	audītus erō	audītī erimus
Second person	portātus eris	portātī eritis	territus eris	territī eritis	petītus eris	petītī eritis	audītus eris	audītī eritis
Third person	portātus erit	portātī erunt	territus erit	territī erunt	petītus erit	petītī erunt	audītus erit	audītī erunt

Non-finite forms

The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are:

1st conjugation: portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum – to carry, bring

2nd conjugation: terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum – to frighten, deter

3rd conjugation: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum – to seek, attack

4th conjugation: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – to hear, listen (to)

Participles

There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future passive, and future active.

• The present active participle is declined like a third declension adjective with one ending.
  • In the first and second conjugations, the present active is formed by taking the present stem and adding an –ns. The genitive singular form adds an –ntis, and the thematicals ā and ē are shortened.
  • In the third conjugation, the e of the present stem is lengthened. In the genitive, the ē is short again.
  • In the fourth conjugation, the ī is shortened, and an ē is placed. Of course, this ē is short in the genitive.
  • Puer portāns translates into "carrying boy."
• The perfect passive participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
  • In all conjugations, the perfect participle is formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –us (masculine nominative singular).
  • Puer portātus translates into "carried boy."
• The future active participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
  • In all conjugations the –um is removed from the supine, and an –ūrus (masculine nominative singular) is added.
  • Puer portātūrus translates into "boy going to carry," or "boy who is going to carry."
• The future passive participle is formed by taking the present stem, adding "-nd-", and then the adjective ending "-us, -a, -um". Thus "laudare" forms "laudandus".
  • The literal translation is "about to be praised", but this often extends a sense of obligation, thus "must be praised". Thus the "future passive participle" is often cross-listed as the "gerundive" (see below).

	Participles
	portāre	terrēre	petere	audīre
Present active	portāns, –antis	terrēns, –entis	petēns, –entis	audiēns, –entis
Perfect passive	portātus, –a, –um	territus, –a, –um	petītus, –a, –um	audītus, –a, –um
Future active	portātūrus, –a, –um	territūrus, –a, –um	petītūrus, –a, –um	audītūrus, –a, –um
Future passive	portandus, –a, –um	terrendus, –a, –um	petendus, –a, –um	audindus, –a, –um

Infinitives

There are six infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active and future passive.

• The present active infinitive is the second principal part (in regular verbs). It plays an important role in the syntactic construction of Accusativus cum infinitivo, for instance.
  • Portāre means, "to carry."
• The present passive infinitive is formed by adding a –rī to the present stem. This is only so for the first, second and fourth conjugations. In the third conjugation, the thematical vowel, e, is taken from the present stem, and an –ī is added.
  • Portārī translates into "to be carried."
• The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding an –isse onto the perfect stem.
  • Portāvisse translates into "to have carried."
• The perfect passive infinitive uses the perfect passive participle along with the auxiliary verb esse. The perfect passive infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender.
  • Portātus esse means, "to have been carried."
• The future active infinitive uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb esse.
  • Portātūrus esse means, "to be going to carry." The future active infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender.
  • Esse has two future infinitives: futurus esse and fore (fore is mostly used in a substitute expression for the Future Passive Infinitive)
• The future passive infinitive uses the supine with the auxiliary verb īrī.
  • Portātum īrī is translated as "to be going to be carried." This is normally used in indirect speech. For example: Omnēs senātōres dīxērunt templum conditum īrī. "All of the senators said that a temple would be built."

Here, masculine endings are used.

	Infinitives
	portāre	terrēre	petere	audīre
Present active	portāre	terrēre	petere	audīre
Present passive	portārī	terrērī	petī	audīrī
Perfect active	portāvisse	terruisse	petīvisse	audīvisse
Perfect passive	portātus esse	territus esse	petītus esse	audītus esse
Future active	portātūrus esse	territūrus esse	petītūrus esse	audītūrus esse
Future passive	portātum īrī	territum īrī	petītum īrī	audītum īrī

The Future Passive Infinitive was actually not very commonly used (Wheelock's Latin mentions it exists but makes it a point to avoid using it in any practice examples). In practice, the Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, "fore ut" followed by a subjunctive clause.

Supine

The supine is the fourth principal part. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.

• The accusative form ends in a –um, and is used with a verb of motion in order to show the purpose. Thus, it is only used with verbs like cedere, venīre, etc. The accusative form of a supine can also take an object if needed.
  • Pater vēnit portātum līberōs suōs. – The father came to carry his children.
• The ablative, which ends in a –ū, is used with the Ablative of Specification.
  • Arma haec facillima portātū erant. – These arms were the easiest to carry.

	Supine
	portāre	terrēre	petere	audīre
Accusative	portātum	territum	petītum	audītum
Ablative	portātū	territū	petītū	audītū

Gerund

The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the –ns becomes an –ndus, and the preceding ā or ē is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form portandī can mean "of carrying", the dative form portandō can mean "to carrying", the accusative form portandum can mean "carrying", and the ablative form portandō can mean "by carrying", "in respect to carrying", etc.

	Gerund
	portāre	terrēre	petere	audīre
Accusative	portandum	terrendum	petendum	audiendum
Genitive	portandī	terrendī	petendī	audiendī
Dative	portandō	terrendō	petendō	audiendō
Ablative
Locative

One common use of the gerund is with the preposition ad to indicate purpose. For example paratus ad oppugnandum could be translated as "ready to attack". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example for "ready to attack the enemy" the construction paratus ad hostes oppugnandos is preferred over paratus ad hostes oppugnandum.^[3]

Gerundive

The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see Participles above). It means "(which is) to be ...ed". Often, the gerundive is used with an implicit esse, to show obligation.

• Puer portandus "The boy to be carried"
• Oratio laudanda est means "The speech is to be praised". In such constructions a substantive in dative may be used to identify the agent of the obligation (dativus auctoris), as in Oratio nobis laudanda est meaning "The speech is to be praised by us" or "We must praise the speech".

Gerundive
portāre	terrēre	petere	audīre
portandus, –a, –um	terrendus, –a, –um	petendus, –a, –um	audiendus, –a, –um

For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article.

Periphrastic conjugations

There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive.

Active

The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is translated as "I am going to carry," "I was going to carry", etc.

	Conjugation	Translation
Pres. ind.	portātūrus sum	I am going to carry
Imp. ind.	portātūrus eram	I was going to carry
Fut. ind.	portātūrus erō	I shall be going to carry
Perf. ind.	portātūrus fuī	I have been going to carry
Plup. ind.	portātūrus fueram	I had been going to carry
Fut. perf. ind.	portātūrus fuerō	I shall have been going to carry
Pres. subj.	portātūrus sim	I may be going to carry
Imp. subj.	portātūrus essem	I should be going to carry
Perf. subj.	portātūrus fuerim	I may have been going to carry
Plup. subj.	portātūrus fuissem	I should have been going to carry

Passive

The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of esse and expresses necessity. It is translated as "I am to be carried," "I was to be carried", etc., or as "I have to (must) be carried," "I had to be carried," etc.

	Conjugation	Translation
Pres. ind.	portandus sum	I am to be carried
Imp. ind.	portandus eram	I was to be carried
Fut. ind.	portandus erō	I will deserve to be carried
Perf. ind.	portandus fuī	I was to be carried
Plup. ind.	portandus fueram	I had deserved to be carried
Fut. perf. ind.	portandus fuerō	I will have deserved to be carried
Pres. subj.	portandus sim	I may deserve to be carried
Imp. subj.	portandus essem	I should deserve to be carried
Perf. subj.	portandus fuerim	I may have deserved to be carried
Plup. subj.	portandus fuissem	I should have deserved to be carried
Pres. inf.	portandus esse	To deserve to be carried
Perf. inf.	portandus fuisse	To have deserved to be carried

Peculiarities

Irregular verbs

There are a few irregular verbs in Latin that are not grouped into a particular conjugation (such as esse and posse), or deviate slightly from a conjugation (such as ferre, īre, and dare). It consists of the following list and their compounds (such as conferre). Many irregular verbs lack a fourth principal part.

sum, esse, fuī, futūrum – to be, exist

possum, posse, potuī – to be able, can

eō, īre, īvī / īī, ītum – to go

volō, velle, voluī – to wish, want

nōlō, nōlle, nōluī – to not want, refuse

mālō, mālle, māluī – to prefer

ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum – to bear, endure, carry, bring

fīō, fierī, factus sum – to become, happen, be made

edō, ēsse, ēdī, ēsum – to eat, waste

dō, dare, dedī, datum – to give, bestow

Of these, esse, ferre, and fierī are suppletive, that is, their deviating third and fourth principal parts reflect what was an entirely different verb historically (in Proto-Indo-European).

Deponent and semi-deponent verbs

Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some examples coming from all conjugations are:

1st conjugation: mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum – to admire, wonder

2nd conjugation: polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum – to promise, offer

3rd conjugation: loquor, loquī, locūtus sum – to speak, say

4th conjugation: orior, orīrī, ortus sum – to rise, spring up (sometimes conjugated as a 3rd-conjugation -ior verb^[4])

Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with any form of loquī, and there are no forms like loquō, loquis, loquit, etc.

Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus semideponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example:

audeō, audēre, ausus sum – to dare, venture

Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, mīrārī changed to mirar(e) by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent "active form", and audeō changed to osar(e) by taking the participle ausus and making an -ar(e) verb out of it (note that au went to o).

Third conjugation –iō verbs

There is a rather prolific subset of important verbs within the third conjugation. They have an –iō present in the first principal part (–ior for deponents), and resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms. Otherwise, they are still conjugated as normal, third conjugation verbs. Thus, these verbs are called third conjugation –iō verbs or third conjugation i-stems. Some examples are:

capiō, capere, cēpī, captum – to take, seize, understand

cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītum – to desire, long for

faciō, facere, fēcī, factum – to do, make

morior, morī, mortuus sum (dep.) – to die, decay

patior, patī, passus sum (dep.) – to suffer, undergo, endure

rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptum – to plunder, take up, seize, snatch, carry away

They resemble the fourth conjugation in the following instances.

Present indicative (first person singular, third person plural) – capiō, capiunt, etc.

Indicative imperfect – capiēbam, capiēbāmus, etc.

Indicative future – capiam, capiēmus, etc.

Subjunctive present – capiam, capiāmus, etc.

Imperative future (third person plural) – capiuntō, etc.

Present Active Participle – capiēns, –entis

Gerund – capiendī, capiendum, etc.

Gerundive – capiendus, –a, –um

Defective verbs

Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances.

• Some verbs are conjugated only in the perfective aspect's tenses, yet have the imperfective aspect's tenses' meanings. As such, the perfect becomes the present, the pluperfect becomes the imperfect, and the future perfect becomes the future. Therefore, the defective verb ōdī means, "I hate." These defective verbs' principal parts are given in vocabulary with the indicative perfect in the first person and the perfect active infinitive. Some examples are:

ōdī, ōdisse – to hate

meminī, meminisse – to remember

coepī, coepisse – to have begun

• A few verbs, the meanings of which usually have to do with speech, appear only in certain occurrences.

Cedo (plur. cette), which means "Hand it over" or "Out with it" is only in the imperative mood, and only is used in the second person.

The following are conjugated irregularly:

Aio

	Conjugation of aiō
	Indicative present		Indicative imperfect		Subjunctive present
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	aiō	——	aiēbam	aiēbāmus	——	——
Second person	ais	——	aiēbās	aiēbātis	aiās*	——
Third person	ait	aiunt	aiēbat	aiēbant	aiat	aiant*

Present Active Participle: – aiēns, –entis

Inquam

	Conjugation of inquam
	Present indicative		Future indicative		Perfect indicative		Imperfect indicative
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	inquam	inquimus[5]	——	——	inquiī[6]	——	——	——
Second person	inquis	——	inquiēs	——	inquistī[7]	——	——	——
Third person	inquit	inquiunt	inquiet	——	inquit	——	inquiēbat	——

Fari

	Conjugation of fārī
	Present indicative		Future indicative		Perfect indicative		Pluperfect indicative		Present imperative
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First person	for	——	fābor	——	fātus sum	——	fātus eram	——	——	——
Second person	——	——	——	——	——	——	——	——	fāre	——
Third person	fātur	fantur	fābitur	——	——	——	——	——	——	——

Present Active Participle – fāns, fantis

Present Active Infinitive – fārī (variant: fārier)

Supine – (acc.) fātum, (abl.) fātū

Gerund – (gen.) fandī, (dat. and abl.) fandō, no accusative

Gerundive – fandus, –a, –um

The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as ōdī) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, odiare).

Impersonal verbs

Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "It storms"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:

pluit, pluere, pluvit – to rain (it rains)

ningit, ningere, ninxit – to snow (it snows)

oportet, oportēre, oportuit – to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to)

licet, licēre, licuit – to be permitted [to] (it is allowed [to])

The third person forms of esse may also be seen as impersonal when seen from the perspective of English:

Nox aestīva calida fuit. – It was a hot, summer night.

Est eī quī terram colunt. – It is they who till the land.

Irregular future active participles

As stated, the future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –ūrus. However, some deviations occur.

Present active infinitive	Supine	Future active participle
iuvāre	iūtum	iuvātūrus
lavāre	lautum	lavātūrus
parere	partum	paritūrus
ruere	rutum	ruitūrus
secāre	sectum	secātūrus
fruī	fructum	fruitūrus
nascī	nātum	nātūrus/nascitūrus
morī	mortuum	moritūrus
orīrī	ortum	oritūrus

Alternative verb forms

Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):

• The ending –ris in the passive voice may be –re as in:

portābāris → portābāre

• The ending –ērunt in the perfect may be –ēre (primarily in poetry) as in:

portāvērunt → portāvēre

Syncopated verb forms

Like most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances:

• Perfect stems that end in a –v may be contracted when inflected.

portāvisse → portāsse

portāvistī → portāstī

portāverant → portārant

portāvisset → portāsset

• The compounds of noscere (to learn) and movēre (to move, dislodge) can also be contracted.

nōvistī → nōstī

nōvistis → nōstis

commōveram → commōram

commōverās → commōrās

Summary of forms

The four conjugations in the present tense of the indicative mood

	The Four Conjugations, Indicative Mood
	1st		2nd		3rd		3rd (i-stem)		4th
	laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātus		terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus		agō, agere, ēgī, actus		capiō, capere, cēpī, captus		audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus
	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Passive
Present
1st singular	laudō	laudor	terrēo	terreor	agō	agor	capiō	capior	audiō	audior
2nd person	laudās	laudāris	terrēs	terrēris	agis	ageris	capis	caperis	audīs	audīris (audīre)
3rd person	laudat	laudātur	terret	terrētur	agit	agitur	capit	capitur	audit	audītur
1st plural	laudāmus	laudāmur	terrēmus	terrēmur	agimus	agimur	capimus	capimur	audīmus	audīmur
2nd person	laudātis	laudāminī	terrētis	terrēminī	agitis	agiminī	capitis	capiminī	audītis	audīminī
3rd person	laudant	laudantur	terrent	terrentur	agunt	aguntur	capiunt	capiuntur	audiunt	audiuntur

Notes

^ Futūrus esse is sometimes contracted as fore as seen in Caesar's De Bello Gallico.
^ The archaic uncontracted form potesse occurs frequently in Lucretius.
^ Form moriri, Ovid, Metamorphoses (poem) 14.215^[8]
^ Used by Cicero frequently.
^ Used personally by Lucretius (2.627): ningunt^[9]

1. Jenney, Charles; Roger Scudder; Eric C. Baade (1979). First Year Latin. Allyn and Bacon. p. 123. ISBN 0-205-07859-1.
2. Allen, Joseph and James Greenough. Allen and Greenough's Latin Grammar. New York: Ginn & Co., 1888. 282.
3. Eitrem, S. (2006). Latinsk grammatikk (3 ed.). Oslo: Aschehoug. p. 111.
4. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=orior
5. Horace. "1.3.66". Sermonum liber primus (in Latin).
6. Catullus. "10.27". Poems of Catullus (in Latin).
7. Cicero. "2.259". De Oratore (in Latin).
8. "P. OVIDI NASONIS METAMORPHOSEN LIBER QVARTVS DECIMVS". The Latin Library. Retrieved September 1, 2010.
9. "TITI LVCRETI CARI DE RERVM NATVRA LIBER SECVNDVS". The Latin Library. Retrieved September 1, 2010.

See also

• Grammatical conjugation
• Latin declension
• Latin mnemonics
• Romance copula
• William Whitaker's Words

References

• J.B. Greenough, G.L. Kittredge, A.A. Howard, and Benj. L. D'Ooge, ed. (1903). Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and College. Ginn and Company.
• Bennett, Charles Edwin; (at Project Gutenberg). New Latin Grammar. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)

External links

• Verbix automatically conjugates verbs in Latin.
• Latin Verb Synopsis Drill tests a user on his ability to conjugate verbs correctly.
• Arbuckle Latin Conjugator automatically conjugates and translates verbs in Latin.