List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll

"Death toll" redirects here. For the film, see Death Toll.

This is a list of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll. It covers the lowest estimate of death as well as the highest estimate, the name of the event, the location, and the start and end of each event. Some events may belong in more than one category. In addition, some of the listed events overlap each other, and in some cases the death toll from a smaller event is included in the one for the larger event or time period of which it was part.

Wars, armed conflicts, and genocides

These figures of one million or more deaths include the deaths of civilians from diseases, famine, etc., as well as deaths of soldiers in battle and massacres and genocide. Where only one estimate is available, it appears in both the low and high estimates.

The United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) defines genocide in part as "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group". Determining what historical events constitute a genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. In nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various sides have disputed the interpretation and details of the event, often to the point of promoting different versions of the facts. An accusation of genocide will almost always be controversial. Determining the number of persons killed in each genocide can be just as difficult, with political, religious and ethnic biases or prejudices often leading to downplayed or exaggerated figures. Some of the accounts below may include ancillary causes of death such as malnutrition and disease, which may or may not have been intentionally inflicted.

This is a sortable table. Click on the column sort buttons to sort results numerically or alphabetically. The table is sorted by lowest death toll estimate by default.

Estimated death tolls in millions. Log. mean calculated using simple power law.
Log. mean estimate[1] Lowest estimate Highest estimate Event Location From To Duration (years) Notes, See also
75[2] 65.0[3]85.0[4]World War II Worldwide 193919456 years and 1 day World War II casualties (includes worldwide Holocaust and concentration camps deaths). Estimates includes the Second Sino-Japanese War.
55.0 8.4[5]138.0[6] European colonization of the Americas Americas 1492 1691 199 Death toll estimates vary due to lack of consensus as to the demographic size of the native population pre-Columbus, which might never be accurately determined.[lower-alpha 1]
40.0 20.0[11] 100.0[12][13][14] Taiping Rebellion China 1851 1864 14 Dungan Revolt
37.0 36.0[15]40.0[16]Three KingdomsChina18428096 End of the Han dynasty
35.0 30.0[17]40.0[18] Mongol conquests Eurasia12061368163 Mongol Empire, Destruction under the Mongol Empire
25.0 25.0[19] 25.0 Qing dynasty conquest of the Ming dynastyChina1618168365 Qing dynasty
21.0 13.0[18]36.0[20] An Lushan RebellionChina7557639 Medieval warfare
18.0 15.0[21]21.0 World War I Worldwide 191419184 years, 3 months, 1 week World War I casualties
Does not include worldwide Spanish flu deaths.
17.0 15.0[22]20.0[22]Conquests of Timur-e-LangWest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Russia1369140537Timurid dynasty
8.4 4.194[23] 17.0
[24][25][26]
Holocaust Europe 1941 1945 4 Minimum number of Jewish deaths (low estimate), all racially and politically motivated German killing policies (high estimate).[lower-alpha 2]
8.0 8.0[27]8.0Chinese Civil WarChina1927194922 List of civil wars
6.7 5.09.0[28]Russian Civil WarRussia191719215 Russian Revolution, List of civil wars
5.9 3.011.5[29]Thirty Years' WarHoly Roman Empire1618164831 Initially Religious war, became a general European political war
4.9 3.5
7.0[30]Napoleonic WarsEurope, Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean1803181513Napoleonic Wars casualties
4.6 3.0[31]7.0[31]Yellow Turban RebellionChina18420522 Part of Three Kingdoms War
4.5 2.582[32][33][34] 8.0[35] Holodomor (and Soviet famine of 1932–1933) Ukrainian SSR (and other areas of southern USSR, western Siberia) 1932 1933 1 Agricultural famine and collectivization of Soviet farmers, especially landed Ukrainians, by Stalin's government.
3.7 2.5[36]5.4[37]Second Congo WarDemocratic Republic of the Congo199820036First Congo War
2.8 2.3[38]3.3[39]Hundred Years' WarWestern Europe13371453107Edwardian War (1337-1360), Caroline War (1369–1389), Lancastrian War (1415–53)
2.8 2.04.0[40]French Wars of ReligionFrance1562159837 Religious war
1.7 1.5[18]2.0[41]Shaka's conquestsSouthern Africa1816182813 Ndwandwe–Zulu War
1.7 1.5[42]2.0[42]War in AfghanistanAfghanistan1979200022 Soviet–Afghan War, Taliban era. Death toll estimates through 1999 (2M) and 2000 (1.5M and 2M).
1.7 1.0 3.0 Nigerian Civil War Nigeria 1966 1970 4 Ethnic cleansings of the Igbo people followed by Civil War.
1.7 1.0[43] 3.0[43] Cambodian Genocide Cambodia 1975 1979 4 War casualties, famine, health system collapse, executions and ethnic cleansing during the Khmer Rouge regime.
1.7 1.0[44]3.0[45] CrusadesHoly Land, Europe10951291 197 Christian military excursions against the Muslim Conquests.
1.6 1.25[46]1.85Punic WarsMediterranean264 BC146 BC118 Carthage, Roman Republic
1.5[47] 0.8[47] 1.8[47] Armenian Genocide Armenian Highlands 1915 1923 8 First Genocide of the 20th century committed by the Ottoman government on Armenian civilians.
1.5 0.8[48] 3.0[49]Vietnam WarSoutheast Asia1955197521 Cold War and First Indochina War
1.4 1.0[50]2.0 Second Sudanese Civil War Sudan1983200523 First Sudanese Civil War
1.34 0.4[51] 4.5[51]Korean WarKorean Peninsula195019534 Categorized as part of the Cold War.
1.2 0.5[52] 3.0[53] Expulsion of Germans after World War II Europe 1945 1950 5 Both direct and indirect deaths of ethnic German civilians and POWs during the redrawing of national borders after World War II.
1.1 0.6[42]2.0[42] Soviet–Afghan WarAfghanistan198019889 Sometimes categorized as a proxy war during the Cold War.
1.0 0.89-Du Wenxiu RebellionChina1856187318
1.0 0.5[54] 2.0[54]Mexican RevolutionMexico, United States1911192010 Includes Pancho Villa's raids and the Columbus Raid.
1.0 0.5 1.5Iran–Iraq WarIran, Iraq198019889 Includes the Al-Anfal Campaign.
0.94 0.91.0 Gallic WarsFrance58 BC50 BC9 Roman Empire
0.9 0.4[55] 1.7[56][57] Serbian GenocideNDH194119454 Includes Serbian deaths in concentration camps in Jasenovac, Jadovno, organized massacres like in Prebilovci etc.
0.79 0.67[58]0.9[59]American Civil WarUnited States of America186118654Estimates include civilian deaths
0.77 0.2[60] 3.0[60] 1971 Bangladesh genocide East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) 1971 1971 1 Killings by the Pakistani Armed Forces in East Pakistan leading to the Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971; widely regarded as a genocide against the Bengali people.
0.75 0.45[61] 1.0[62] Greek Genocide Asia Minor 1915 1923 8 Committed by the Ottoman government on Greek civilians.
0.71 0.5[63] 1.0[63] Rwandan genocide Rwanda 1994 1994 1 Part of the Rwandan Civil War.
0.71 0.51.0Spanish Civil WarSpain193619394
0.6 0.3[64] 1.2[65]Paraguayan WarSouth America186418707 Military history of South America, Francisco Solano López and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias
0.585 0.272[66] 1.260[66][67][68] War on Terror Greater Middle East 2001 2013 12 Includes Iraq War, War in Afghanistan (2001–present), and War in North-West Pakistan.
0.45 0.4[69] 0.5[70] Ethnic cleansing of Circassians Circassia 1864 1867 3 Deaths during the ethnic cleansing of Circassia by the Russian Empire in the aftermath of the Russo–Circassian War (1763–1864).
.275[71] 0.15[71] .3[71] Assyrian Genocide Mesopotamia 1915 1923 8 Committed by the Ottoman government on Assyrian civilians.
.25 0.2 .3 Hamidian massacres Armenian Highlands 1894 1896 2 Hamidian massacres - committed by the Ottoman government on Armenian civilians, before the Armenian Genocide.
0.24 0.3[72] 0.4[72] DelugePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth165516606 The Second Northern War, including subsequent campaigns by the same powers through the 1650s, and skirmishes between Catholic and Protestant partisans.
0.12 0.097207[73][74][75] 0.2[76] Bosnian War Bosnia 1992 1995 3 During the Bosnian War, at least 97,207 people were killed.
0.099 0.075 0.13 Fatalities during Uprising of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army Volhyn and Eastern Galicia 1943 1944 1 Fatalities during war of liberation conducted by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army.

Notes:

  1. Spanish Empire, Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas, Native American disease and epidemics. These death toll estimates vary due to lack of consensus as to the demographic size of the native population pre-Columbus, which some say might never be accurately determined. Historian Henige says that "the fifteen fold increase from the original population estimates were based on instrument rather than evidence. Newly introduced European diseases became the chief means used to explain a much greater population decline."[7] Modern scholarship tend to side with the higher estimates, but there is still variance based on calculation methods used. Even using conservative populations estimates, however, "one dreadful conclusion is inescapable: the 150 years after Columbus's arrival brought a toll on human life in this hemisphere comparable to all of the world's losses during World War II."[8] "Against the alien agents of disease, the indigenous people never had a chance. Their immune systems were unprepared to fight smallpox and measles, malaria and yellow fever. The epidemics that resulted have been well documented."[9] A small industry of researchers in recent years have focused their attention on Native American population size in 1492, and the subsequent decimation of the population after contact with Europeans. While that research is interesting and important to Native American history, a group of researchers are now exploring wide variations in health of Native Americans before 1492.[10] They say their findings in no way diminish the "dreadful impact Old World diseases had on the people of the New World. But it suggests that the New World was hardly a healthful Eden." For example, they note that as the previously thriving indigenous peoples became more urbanized and less mobile, they succumbed to the same declining sanitation and health conditions of other urban cultures, including tuberculosis. The researchers stress, however, that "their findings in no way mitigated the responsibility of Europeans as bearers of disease devastating to native societies."[9]
  2. The low estimate is the minimum number of Jewish deaths, to which some authors limit the definition of "The Holocaust." The upper estimate includes all racially and politically motivated German killing policies during the war, as well as both indirect and direct deaths.

Deadly prisons and camps

Deaths Name Run by Location Date Notes, references
800,000–1,500,000 Auschwitz-Birkenau Nazi Germany Oświęcim, Poland 1940–1945 [77][78]
700,000–1,000,000 Treblinka Nazi Germany Treblinka, Poland 1942–1943 [79][80]
480,000–600,000 Bełżec Nazi Germany Bełżec, Poland 1942–1943 [81][82][83]
130,000–500,000 Kolyma Gulag Soviet Union Kolyma, Soviet Union 1932–1954 [84]
100,000–700,000 Jasenovac NDH Ustaše Croatia 1941–1945 [85][86][87]
85,000 Stutthof Nazi Germany Stutthof, Third Reich 1939-1945 Second World War
12,790–75,000 Stara Gradiška NDH Ustaše Croatia 1941–1945 Primarily for women and children[88][89]
26,000–40,000 Second Boer War United Kingdom South African Republic 1900–1902 116,000 Boer women and children; 26,370 died.

Second Boer War#Concentration camps (1900–1902) 115,000 black people 15,000 died Second Boer War [90] 81% of the total fatalities in the camps were children Emily Hobhouse

17,000 Tuol Sleng Democratic Kampuchea Phnom Penh, Cambodia 1975–1979 [91]
13,171 Camp Sumter Confederate States of America Andersonville, Georgia, USA 1864–1865 [92]
12,000 Crveni Krst Nazi regime, Gestapo Niš, Serbia 1941 [93]
2,997 Tammisaari Prison Camp Finland Tammisaari, Finland 1918
2,963 Elmira Prison United States of America Elmira, New York, USA 1864–1865 [94]

Famine

Main articles: Famine and List of famines

Note: Some of these famines were partially caused by nature.
This section includes famines that were caused or exacerbated by the policies or actions of the ruling regime.

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Lowest estimate Highest estimate Event Location From To Notes
15,000,000[95]55,000,000[96]Great Chinese FaminePeople's Republic of China19581962During the Great Leap Forward under Mao Zedong tens of millions of Chinese starved to death.[97] State violence during this period further exacerbated the death toll, and some 2.5 million people were beaten or tortured to death in connection with Great Leap policies.[98]
9,000,00013,000,000Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79 China18761879 ENSO famine. See also: Late Victorian Holocausts
5,500,0006,000,000Great Famine of 1876–78 British India18761878 ENSO famine. See also: Late Victorian Holocausts
5,000,000[99]10,000,000[99]Russian famine of 1921 Soviet Russia19211922 See also: Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union and Russian Civil War with its policy of War communism, especially prodrazvyorstka
3,000,0004,000,000Bengal famine of 1943 British India19431943 The Japanese conquest of Burma cut off India's main supply of rice imports[100]

However, administrative policies in British India ultimately helped cause the massive death toll.[101]

2,400,000[102]2,400,000 Japanese occupation of the Dutch East IndiesIndonesia19441945 An estimated 2.4 million Indonesians starved to death during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia. The problem was partly caused by failures of the main 1944–45 rice crop, but mainly by the compulsory rice purchasing system that the Japanese authorities put in place to secure rice for distribution to the armed forces and urban population.[102]
2,000,0003,000,000Indian famine of 1896–97, Indian famine of 1899–1900 British India18961900 ENSO famines. See also: Late Victorian Holocausts
800,000[103]950,000[104]Cambodian GenocideCambodia19751979An estimated 2 million Cambodians lost their lives to murder, forced labor and famine perpetrated by the Khmer Rouge, of which nearly half was caused by forced starvation. Came to an end due to invasion by Vietnam in 1979.
750,000[105][106]1,500,000[107]Great Irish Famine[108]Ireland18461849 Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Ireland—where a third of the population was significantly dependent on the Irish Lumper potato for food—was exacerbated by a host of political, social and economic factors which remain the subject of historical debate.[109][110]
400,000[111]2,000,000[112] Vietnamese Famine of 1945Vietnam19441945 The Japanese occupation during World War II caused the famine in North Vietnam.[112]
400,000[113]1,000,000[114] 1983–85 famine in EthiopiaEthiopia19831985 The famines that struck Ethiopia between 1961 and 1985, and in particular the one of 1983–5, were in large part created by government policies.[113]
240,000.[115][116]4,000,000[117] North Korean famineNorth Korea19941998 The famine stemmed from a variety of factors. Economic mismanagement and the loss of Soviet support caused food production and imports to decline rapidly. A series of floods and droughts exacerbated the crisis, but were not its direct cause. The North Korean government and its centrally-planned system proved too inflexible to effectively curtail the disaster. Estimates of the death toll vary widely. Out of a total population of approximately 22 million, somewhere between 240,000 and 3,500,000 North Koreans died from starvation or hunger-related illnesses, with the deaths peaking in 1997.[115][116] Recent research suggests the likely number of excess deaths between 1993 and 2000 was about 330,000.[118]
70,000[119]70,000 Sudan famineSudan19981998 The famine was caused almost entirely by human rights abuse and the war in Southern Sudan.[120]

Floods and landslides

Note: These are floods and landslides that have been partially caused by humans, for example by failure of dams, levees, seawalls or retaining walls.

Rank Death toll Event Location Date
1. 2,500,000–3,700,000[121] 1931 China floods China 1931
2. 900,000–2,000,000 1887 Yellow River (Huang He) flood China 1887
3. 500,000–700,000 1938 Yellow River (Huang He) flood China 1938
4. 26,000[122]-230,000[123] The failure of 62 dams in Zhumadian Prefecture, Henan, the largest of which was Banqiao Dam, caused by Typhoon Nina. China August 1975
5. 145,000 1935 Yangtze river flood China 1935
6. more than 100,000 St. Felix's Flood, storm surge Netherlands 1530
7. 100,000 Hanoi and Red River Delta flood North Vietnam 1971
8. 100,000 1911 Yangtze river flood China 1911
9. 50,000–80,000 St. Lucia's flood, storm surge Netherlands, England 1287
10. 10,000–50,000 Vargas Tragedy, landslide Venezuela 1999
11. 2,400 North Sea flood, storm surge Netherlands, Scotland, England, Belgium 31 January 1953
12. 2,209 Johnstown Flood Pennsylvania 31 May 1889

Human sacrifice and ritual suicide

This section lists deaths from the systematic practice of human sacrifice or suicide. For notable individual episodes, see Human sacrifice and mass suicide.

Lowest estimate Highest estimate Description Group Location From To Notes
300,000 1,500,000 Human sacrifice in Aztec culture Aztecs Mexico 14th century 1521 Up to 3,000 sacrificed yearly[124]
13,000[125] 13,100 Human sacrifice Shang dynasty China 1300 BC 1050 BC Last 250 years of rule
7,941[126] 7,941 Ritual suicides Sati India 1815 1828
3,912 3,912 Kamikaze suicide pilots, see note[127] Imperial Japan navy and army Pacific theatre 1944 1945
913 913 Jonestown murder-suicide[128] Followers of The Peoples Temple cult Jonestown November 18, 1978 November 19, 1978
967 967 Mass suicide motivated religious and political. Judean rebels Masada Spring 73 CE

Other deadly events

Events with a large anthropogenic death toll not fitting any of the above classifications. May include deaths caused by famine, genocide, and other events listed above, as a portion of the total.

Lowest
estimate
Highest
estimate
Event Location From To Notes
49,000,000 78,000,000 Mao Zedong era 1949–1976 People's Republic of China 1949 1976 Millions of people died as a result of Mao Zedong's reforms,[129] with most of these deaths due to the Great Chinese Famine caused by mismanagement of agricultural resources during the Great Leap Forward. Millions more died as a result of human rights abuses. The total includes those who died during the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, the Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns, human rights abuses in Tibet, The Great Leap Forward (especially the resulting famine), and the Cultural Revolution. See also Mass killings under communist regimes.
8,000,000 61,000,000 Soviet crimes 1917–1953 Soviet Republics (1917–1922), the Soviet Union (1922–1953), the East and Center of Europe, Mongolia 1917 1953 Forced collectivization, and poor central planning in the Soviet Republics and Soviet Union led to enormous famines in 1921, 1932–33, and 1946–47. Mass murders were also perpetrated by the leaders of the Soviet Republics between 1917 and 1922 and later on in The Soviet Union during a period of 1922–1953 (until the death of Joseph Stalin). This includes terrors unleashed by Cheka during the Russian Civil War against nations and 'enemies of The Revolution',[130] deaths in Gulags,[131] forced resettlement,[132] Holodomor,[133] Dekulakization,[134] Great Purge,[135] National operations of the NKVD.[136] See also Mass killings under communist regimes.
5,000,000[137] 22,000,000[138] Crimes during Congo Free State 1885–1908 Now the Democratic Republic of the Congo 1885 1908 Private forces under the control of Leopold II of Belgium carried out mass murders, mutilations, and other crimes against the Congolese in order to encourage the gathering of valuable raw materials, principally rubber. Significant deaths also occurred due to major disease outbreaks and starvation, caused by population displacement and poor treatment.[139] Estimates of the death toll vary considerably because of the lack of a formal census before 1924, but a commonly cited figure of 10 million deaths was obtained by estimating a 50% decline in the total population during the Congo Free State and applying it to the total population of 10 million in 1924.[140]
100,000 2,000,000 Indonesian killings of 1965–1966 Indonesia 1965 1966 Massacres of people connected to the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) were carried out in 1965 and 1966. Death tolls are difficult to estimate.[141]
100,000[142][143] 250,000[144][145] War in the Vendée France 1793 1796 Described as genocide by some historians[143] but this claim has been widely discounted.[146] See also French Revolution.
100,000[147] 120,000 Manila Massacre Manila, Philippines 1945 1945 During the Battle of Manila, at least 100,000 civilians were killed.
90,800 202,600 Indonesian occupation of East Timor East Timor 1974 1999 Civilian deaths under the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, including killings, disappearances, and deaths caused by conflict-related hunger and illness.[148]
61,007[149] 77,552 Internal conflict in Peru Peru 1980 2000 Internal conflict between the Peruvian Army and guerrilla fighters in Peru. The principal actors in the war were the Communist Party of Peru or "Shining Path" and the government of Peru; the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement was also involved. All of the armed actors in the war (both terrorists and the Peruvian Army) deliberately targeted and killed civilians, making the conflict more bloody than any other war in Peruvian history since the European colonization of the country.
50,000 80,000[150] Operation Condor South America 1975 1983 A campaign of political repression by right-wing dictatorships in South America, sponsored by the United States
50,000 60,000[151][152][153] Warsaw Uprising Occupied Poland 5 August 1944 12 August 1944 Polish fatalities in district Wola and Ochota committed during Warsaw Uprising
40,000[154] 350,000[155] Nanking Massacre Nanking, China 1937 1938 The Nanking Massacre, commonly known as the Rape of Nanking, was a war crime committed by the Japanese military in Nanjing, then capital of the Republic of China, after it fell to the Imperial Japanese Army on 13 December 1937.
15,000 15,000[156] First Sack of Thessalonica Byzantine Empire 904 904 The sack of the second city of the Byzantine Empire by a Muslim fleet under the command of Leo of Tripoli. In addition to the thousands killed the Saracen fleet also took 20,000 Greek slaves.
10,000[157][158] 100,000[159][160] Great Fire of Smyrna Smyrna, Ottoman Empire September 9, 1922 September 24, 1922 Fires set during attacks on Greeks and Armenians by Turkish mobs and military forces in Smyrna at the end of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22). The violence and fires resulted in the destruction of the Greek and Armenian portions of the city and the massacre of their populations. After the attacks 30,000 Greek and Armenian men left behind were deported by Turkish forces, many of whom were subsequently killed.
9,000[161] 30,000[162] Dirty War Argentina 1976 1983 At least 9,000 people were tortured and killed in Argentina from 1976 to 1983, carried out primarily by the Argentinean military Junta (part of Operation Condor).
0[163] 576,000[164] Sanctions against Iraq Iraq 1990 1998 According to Saddam Hussein's government, sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security Council indirectly caused excess deaths of young children.

See also

Other lists organized by death toll

Other lists with similar topics

Topics dealing with similar themes

References

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  45. Robertson, John M., "A Short History of Christianity" (1902) p.278. Cited by White
  46. Nigel Bagnall., "The Punic Wars" June 23, 2005.
  47. 1 2 3 Forsythe, David P. (11 August 2009). Encyclopedia of human rights (Google Books). Oxford University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-19-533402-9.
  48. Charles Hirschman et al., "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate," Population and Development Review, December 1995.
  49. Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). "20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  50. Sudan: Nearly 2 million dead as a result of the world's longest running civil war at the Wayback Machine (archived December 10, 2004), U.S. Committee for Refugees, 2001. Archived 10 December 2004 on the Internet Archive. Accessed 10 April 2007
  51. 1 2 Rummel, R.J., Statistics Of North Korean Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources, Statistics of Democide, 1997.
  52. Christoph Bergner, Secretary of State in Germany's Bureau for Inner Affairs, Deutschlandfunk, November 29, 2006,
  53. Hermann Kinder; Werner Hilgemann (1978). The Anchor atlas of world history. Anchor Books. p. 221.
  54. 1 2 Buchenau, Jürgen (2005). Mexico otherwise: modern Mexico in the eyes of foreign observers. UNM Press. p. 285. ISBN 0-8263-2313-8.
  55. http://info.hazu.hr/
  56. Vatikan i Jasenovac, Vladimir Dedijer, Rad Beograd 1987.
  57. "Magnum Crimen", Viktor Novak, 1948.
  58. Nofi, Al (June 13, 2001). "Statistics on the War's Costs". Louisiana State University. Archived from the original on 2007-07-11. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  59. "U.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests". Science Daily. September 22, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-22.
  60. 1 2 White, Matthew. "Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the 20th Century: Bangladesh". Users.erols.com. "History: The Bangali Genocide, 1971". Virtualbangladesh.com.
  61. Rummel, R.J. "Statistics Of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". University of Hawai'i. Retrieved 15 April 2015. Table 5.1B.
  62. Henry Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, Doubleday, Page & Company, Garden City, New York, 1919.
  63. 1 2 See, e.g., Rwanda: How the genocide happened, BBC, April 1, 2004, which gives an estimate of 800,000, and OAU sets inquiry into Rwanda genocide, Africa Recovery, Vol. 12 1#1 (August 1998), page 4, which estimates the number at between 500,000 and 1,000,000. 7 out of 10 Tutsis were killed.
  64. Jurg Meister, Francisco Solano López Nationalheld oder Kriegsverbrecher?, Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1987. 345, 355, 454–5
  65. Another estimate is that from the pre-war population of 1,337,437, the population fell to 221,709 (28,746 men, 106,254 women, 86,079 children) by the end of the war (War and the Breed, David Starr Jordan, p. 164. Boston, 1915; Applied Genetics, Paul Popenoe, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1918)
  66. 1 2 "Human costs of war: Direct war death in Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan October 2001 - February 2013" (PDF). Costs of War. February 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
  67. "Update on Iraqi Casualty Data" by Opinion Research Business. January 2008.
  68. "Revised Casualty Analysis. New Analysis 'Confirms' 1 Million+ Iraq Casualties". January 28, 2008. Opinion Research Business. Word Viewer for.doc files.
  69. Paul Goble Circassians demand Russian apology for 19th century genocide, Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty 15 July 2005, Volume 8, Number 23
  70. Charles King: "The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus", Oxford University Press, 2008. Page 96.
  71. 1 2 3 David Gaunt, "The Assyrian Genocide of 1915", Assyrian Genocide Research Center, 2009
  72. 1 2 Jan Wróbel, Odnaleźć przeszłość 1 (2002)"Odnaleźć przeszłość 1".
  73. Research and Documentation Center: Rezultati istraživanja "Ljudski gubici '91–'95"
  74. Lara J. Nettelfield (2010). Courting Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 22 July 2013., pp. 96–98
  75. "After years of toil, book names Bosnian war dead". Reuters. 2013-02-15.
  76. Statement by Dr. Haris Silajdžić, Chairman of the Presidency Bosnia and Herzegovina, Head of the Delegation of Bosnia and Herzegovina at the 63rd Session of the General Assembly on the occasion of the General Debate, Summary, 23 September 2008.
  77. Wellers, Georges. Essai de determination du nombre de morts au camp d'Auschwitz (attempt to determine the number of dead at the Auschwitz camp), Le Monde Juif, Oct–Dec 1983, pp. 127–159
  78. Brian Harmon, John Drobnicki, Historical sources and the Auschwitz death toll estimates
  79. "Operation Reinhard: Treblinka Deportations". Nizkor.org. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
  80. Encyclopedia Americana
  81. Peter Witte and Stephen Tyas, A New Document on the Deportation and Murder of Jews during "Einsatz Reinhardt" 1942, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol. 15, No. 3, Winter 2001, ISBN 0-19-922506-0
  82. Raul Hilberg (2003). The Destruction of the European Jews: Third Edition. ISBN 978-0-300-09557-9.
  83. Yitzhak Arad, Bełżec, Sobibor, Treblinka. The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987, NCR 0-253-34293-7
  84. Ludwik Kowalski: Alaska notes on Stalinism Retrieved 18 January 2007. Case Study: Stalin's Purges from Genderside Watch. Retrieved 19 January 2007. George Bien, Gulag Survivor in the Boston Globe, June 22, 2005, Kolyma
  85. "Jewish virtual library". Jewish virtual library. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
  86. "Croatian holocaust still stirs controversy". BBC News. 2001-11-29. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
  87. "Balkan 'Auschwitz' haunts Croatia". BBC News. 2005-04-25. Retrieved 2010-09-29. No one really knows how many died here. Serbs talk of 700,000. Most estimates put the figure nearer 100,000.
  88. Jelka Smreka. "STARA GRADIŠKA Ustaški koncentracijski logor". Spomen područja Jasenovac. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
  89. Davor Kovačić (2004). "Iskapanja na prostoru koncentracijskog logora Stara Gradiška i procjena broj žrtava". Retrieved 2010-08-25.
  90. "15 000 black people died in the black concentration camps".
  91. A History of Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979). Documentation Center of Cambodia. p. 74. ISBN 99950-60-04-3.
  92. The Andersonville Prison Trial: The Trial of Captain Henry Wirz, by General N.P. Chipman, 1911.
  93. "On the killing of Roma in World War II". Mrc.org.rs. 2013-03-13. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
  94. Horigan, Michael (2002). Death Camp of the North: The Elmira Civil War Prison Camp. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-1432-2.
  95. Stéphane Courtois; Mark Kramer (1999-10-15). Livre Noir Du Communisme: Crimes, Terreur, Répression. ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2.
  96. Wemheuer, Felix (July 2011). "Sites of horror: Mao's Great Famine [with response]". The China Journal (66): 155–164. JSTOR 41262812. on p.163 Frank Dikötter, in his response, quotes Yu Xiguang's figure of 55 million
  97. Becker, Jasper (1998). Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine. Holt Paperbacks p.xi.
  98. Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62. Walker & Company, 2010. p. 298.
  99. 1 2 "How the U.S. saved a starving Soviet Russia: PBS film highlights Stanford scholar's research on the 1921–23 famine". Stanford University. April 4, 2011.
  100. Nicholas Tarling (Ed.) The Cambridge History of SouthEast Asia Vol.II Part 1 pp139-40
  101. Madhusree Mukerjee, Churchill's Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India During World War II. See also Book review: Churchill's secret war in India by Susannah York
  102. 1 2 Van der Eng, Pierre (2008) 'Food Supply in Java during War and Decolonisation, 1940–1950.' MPRA Paper No. 8852, pp.35–38. http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/8852/
  103. Bruce Sharp (2008), Counting Hell 2.Ben Kiernan, paragraph 3. Mekong.
  104. Marek Sliwinski (1995), Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique, L'Harmattan, p. 82.
  105. Foster, R.F. 'Modern Ireland 1600–1972'. Penguin Press, 1988. p324. Foster's footnote reads: "Based on hitherto unpublished work by C. Ó Gráda and Phelim Hughes, 'Fertility trends, excess mortality and the Great Irish Famine'...Also see C.Ó Gráda and Joel Mokyr, 'New developments in Irish Population History 1700–1850', Economic History Review, vol. xxxvii, no.4 (November 1984), pp. 473–488."
  106. Joseph Lee, The Modernisation of Irish Society p. 1. Lee says 'at least 800,000'.
  107. Vaughan, W.E. and Fitzpatrick, A.J.(eds). Irish Historical Statistics, Population, 1821/1971. Royal Irish Academy, 1978
  108. The Great Irish Famine Approved by the New Jersey Commission on Holocaust Education on 10 September 1996, for inclusion in the Holocaust and Genocide Curriculum at the secondary level. Revision submitted 11/26/98.
  109. Cecil Woodham-Smith (1991). The great hunger: Ireland 1845–1849. Penguin Books. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-14-014515-1.
  110. Dr Christine Kinealy (2006). This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine, 1845–52. ISBN 978-0-7171-4011-4.
  111. Charles Hirschman et al. "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate". Population and Development Review (December 1995).
  112. 1 2 Koh, David (21 August 2008). "Vietnam needs to remember famine of 1945". The Straits Times (Singapore). Retrieved 25 January 2010.
  113. 1 2 de Waal, Alex (2002) [1997]. Famine Crimes: Politics & the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa. Oxford: James Currey. ISBN 0-85255-810-4.
  114. "Flashback 1984: Portrait of a famine". BBC News. April 6, 2000.
  115. 1 2 Noland, Marcus, Sherman Robinson and Tao Wang, Famine in North Korea: Causes and Cures, Institute for International Economics.
  116. 1 2 Spoorenberg, Thomas; Schwekendiek, Daniel. 2012. "Demographic Changes in North Korea: 1993–2008", Population and Development Review, 38(1), pp. 133-158.
  117. The resource above is based on Andrew S. Natsios states, "From 1994 to 1998, 2-3 million people died of starvation and hunger-related illnesses, and the famine has generated a range of social and political effects." Natsios, "The Politics of Famine in North Korea"
  118. Daniel Goodkind, Loraine West, Peter Johnson (28 March 2011). "A Reassessment of Mortality in North Korea, 1993-2008". U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  119. Ó Gráda, Cormac (2009), Famine: a short history, Princeton University Press, p. 24, ISBN 978-0-691-12237-3.
  120. Despite aid effort, Sudan famine squeezing life from dozens daily CNN, Accessed May 25, 2006
  121. "Worst Natural Disasters In History". Nbc10.com. Retrieved 2010-08-11.
  122. Dai Qing (1998). The River Dragon Has Come!: The Three Gorges Dam and the Fate of China's Yangtze River and Its People. M.E. Sharpe. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7656-0206-0.
  123. 230,000 is the highest of a range of unofficial estimates, including also deaths of ensuing epidemics and famine, in Yi 1998
  124. "The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice", by Michael Harner. Natural History, April 1977, Vol. 86, No. 4, pages 46–51.
  125. National Geographic, July 2003, cited by White
  126. Sakuntala Narasimhan, Sati: widow burning in India, quoted by Matthew White, "Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th Century", p.2 (July 2005), Historical Atlas of the 20th Century (self-published, 1998–2005).
  127. This toll is only for the number of Japanese pilots killed in Kamikaze suicide missions. It does not include the number of enemy combatants killed by such missions, which is estimated to be around 4,000. Kamikaze pilots are estimated to have sunk or damaged beyond repair some 70 to 80 allied ships, representing about 80% of allied shipping losses in the final phase of the war in the Pacific (see Kamikaze).
  128. The largest single loss of American civilian life in a deliberate act until the September 11, 2001 attacks.
  129. "Did Mao Really Kill Millions in the Great Leap Forward?". Maoists.org. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
  130. Andrew and Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield, paperback ed., Basic books, 1999.
  131. Steven Rosefielde (2010-02-15). Red Holocaust. Taylor & Francis. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-415-77757-5.
  132. Павел Полян, Не по своей воле... (Pavel Polian, Against Their Will... A History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR), ОГИ Мемориал, Moscow, 2001
  133. С. Уиткрофт (Stephen G. Wheatcroft), "О демографических свидетельствах трагедии советской деревни в 1931—1933 гг.
  134. Lynne Viola The Unknown Gulag. The Lost World of Stalin's Special Settlements Oxford University Press 2007,
  135. Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments by Michael Ellman, 2002
  136. Vadim Rogovin "The Party of the Executed"
  137. Forbath, Peter. The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration, and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic River, 1991 (Paperback). Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-122490-1.
  138. R. J. Rummel Exemplifying the Horror of European Colonization:Leopold's Congo"
  139. p.226-232, Hochschild, Adam (1999), King Leopold's Ghost, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 0-547-52573-7
  140. Hochschild p.226–232.
  141. Cribb, Robert (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966". Asian Survey 42 (4): 550–563. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550.
  142. Donald Greer, The Terror, a Statistical Interpretation, Cambridge (1935)
  143. 1 2 Reynald Secher, La Vendée-Vengé, le Génocide franco-français (1986)
  144. Jean-Clément Martin, La Vendée et la France, Éditions du Seuil, collection Points, 1987 he gives the highest estimate of the civil war, including republican losses and premature death. However, he does not consider it as a genocide.
  145. Jacques Hussenet (dir.), " Détruisez la Vendée ! " Regards croisés sur les victimes et destructions de la guerre de Vendée, La Roche-sur-Yon, Centre vendéen de recherches historiques, 2007, p.148.
  146. Gough, Hugh (December 1987). "Genocide and the Bicentenary: The French Revolution and the Revenge of the Vendee". The Historical Journal 30 (4). JSTOR 2639130.
  147. White, Matthew. "Death Tolls for the Man-made Megadeaths of the 20th Century". Users.erols.com.
  148. "Conflict-related deaths in Timor-Leste 1974–1999" (PDF). Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor. Retrieved 29 December 2013.
  149. "Informe final. Anexo 2: ¿CUÁNTOS PERUANOS MURIERON? (2003)" (PDF). Comisión de la Verdad y la Reconciliación.
  150. "Background on Chile". The Center for Justice & Accountability. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  151. Lukas, Richard C. (2012). The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under German Occupation, 1939-1944. Hippocrene Books. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-7818-1302-0.
  152. "The Rape of Warsaw". Stosstruppen39-45.tripod.com. Retrieved 3 February 2009.
  153. Walter Laqueur, Judith Tydor Baumel (2001). "Dirlewanger, Oskar". The Holocaust Encyclopedia. Yale University Press. p. 150. ISBN 0300084323. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
  154. Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi; Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (2008). The Naking Atrocity: 1937–38. Berghahn Books. p. 362. ISBN 1-84545-180-5.
  155. Iris Chang (1997). The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II. Basic Books. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7867-2760-5.
  156. Warren T. Treadgold (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. p. 572. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2.
  157. Biondich, Mark. The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 92
  158. Naimark, Norman M. Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 52.
  159. Rudolph J. Rummel, Irving Louis Horowitz (1994). "Turkey's Genocidal Purges". Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56000-927-6., p. 233.
  160. Naimark. Fires of Hatred, pp. 47–52.
  161. Phil Gunson (2009-04-02). "The Guardian, Thursday 2 April 2009". London: Guardian. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
  162. PBS News Hour, 16 Oct. 1997, et al. Argentina Death Toll, Twentieth Century Atlas
  163. Spagat, Michael (September 2010). "Truth and death in Iraq under sanctions" (PDF). Significance (journal).
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