Mangrove

Mangroves in Kannur, India.

Mangroves are shrubs or small trees that grow in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. In the year 2000, the area of mangroves was 53,190 square miles (137,760 km²), spanning 118 countries and territories.[1][2]

Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to life in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud.

The word is used in at least three senses: (1) most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal,[3] for which the terms mangrove forest biome, mangrove swamp and mangrove forest are also used, (2) to refer to all trees and large shrubs in the mangrove swamp, and (3) narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora.

The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (30 to 40 ppt [parts per thousand]), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 90 ppt).[4][5]

Etymology

The term "mangrove" comes to English from Spanish (perhaps by way of Portuguese), and is likely to originate from Guarani. It was earlier "mangrow" (from Portuguese mangue or Spanish mangle), but this word was corrupted via folk etymology influence of the word "grove".

Ecology

The world's mangrove forests in 2000.

Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangal occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines.[5]

The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.

At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation, and are then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as a number of other key environmental factors — thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.

About 110 species are considered "mangroves", in the sense of being a tree that grows in such a saline swamp,[5] though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, Rhizophora. However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of other organisms.

Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs.

Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have scavenged from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota.

Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis.[6][7] The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy.[8] Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs.[9] In this way, mangroves build their own environments.[6] Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans.[7]

However, mangrove swamps' protective value is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow,[10] so their effect on erosion can only be measured over long periods.[8] Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such as storm surges and tsunamis.[11] Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is accruing.

The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine region for young organisms.[12] In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home.[13] Mangrove crabs munch on the mangrove leaves, adding nutritients to the mangal muds for other bottom feeders.[14] In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.

Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines and India host several commercially important species of fishes and crustaceans. Despite restoration efforts, developers and others have removed over half of the world's mangroves in recent times.

Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of termites. It becomes peat in good geochemical, sedimentary and tectonic conditions.[15] The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangrove involved. In Puerto Rico the red (Rhizophora mangle), white (Laguncularia racemosa) and black (Avicennia germinans) mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions so the carbon content varies between the species as well between the different tissues of the plant e.g. leaf matter vs roots.[15]

In Puerto Rico there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations which are dominated by red mangroves to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves.[15] Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems.[15] Using this it is possible to attempt to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem for thousands of years by using sediment cores.[16] However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in the sediment due to tidal flushing of mangrove forests.[15]

In order to understand peat formation by mangroves, it is important to understand the conditions they grew in, and how they decayed. Termites are an important part of this decay, and so an understanding of their action on the organic matter is crucial to the chemical stabilization of mangrove peats.[15]

Biology

Of the recognized 110 mangrove species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats.[3] Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal.[5] The greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia.[17]

Adaptations to low oxygen

A red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle.
Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal.

Red mangroves, which can survive in the most inundated areas, prop themselves above the water level with stilt roots and can then absorb air through pores in their bark (lenticels). Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised root-like structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are also covered in lenticels.

These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm, and in some species, over 3 m. The four types of pneumatophores are stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plants.

Limiting salt intake

Salt crystals formed on grey mangrove leaf.

Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots which are highly suberised (impregnated with suberin), acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant. Analysis of water inside mangroves has shown 90% to 97% of salt has been excluded at the roots. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research suggests the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves.[18] Red mangroves can also store salt in cell vacuoles. As seen in the photograph on the right, white or grey mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (correlating with their name—they are covered in white salt crystals).

Limiting water loss

Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author, observed anecdotally a red mangrove in captivity only grows if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating frequent tropical rainstorms.[19]

Nutrient uptake

Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble ferrum (iron), inorganic phosphates, sulfides and methane, which make the soil much less nutritious. Pneumatophores (aerial roots) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide.

Increasing survival of offspring

Red mangrove seeds germinate while still on the parent tree.

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove) are viviparous, whose seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis.

The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.

Taxonomy and evolution

The following listing (modified from Tomlinson, 1986) gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant genus and family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction.[20]

Major components

Family Genus, number of species Common name
Acanthaceae, Avicenniaceae or Verbenaceae
(family allocation disputed)		 Avicennia, 9 Black mangrove
Combretaceae Conocarpus, 1; Laguncularia, 11; Lumnitzera, 2 Buttonwood, white mangrove
Arecaceae Nypa, 1 Mangrove palm
Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera, 6; Ceriops, 2; Kandelia, 1; Rhizophora, 8 Red mangrove
Lythraceae Sonneratia, 5 Mangrove apple

Minor components

Family Genus, number of species
Acanthaceae Acanthus, 1; Bravaisia, 2
Bombacaceae Camptostemon, 2
Cyperaceae Fimbristylis, 1
Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria, 2
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia, 6
Lythraceae Pemphis, 2
Meliaceae Xylocarpus, 2
Myrtaceae Osbornia, 1
Pellicieraceae Pelliciera, 1
Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis, 2
Primulaceae Aegiceras, 2
Pteridaceae Acrostichum, 3
Rubiaceae Scyphiphora, 1
Sterculiaceae Heritiera, 3

Geographical regions

Further information: List of mangrove ecoregions

Mangroves can be found in over 118 countries and territories in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The largest percentage of mangroves is found between the 5° N and 5° S latitudes.[21] Approximately 75% of world’s mangroves are found in just 15 countries.[21] Asia has the largest amount (42%) of the world’s mangroves, followed by Africa (21%), North/Central America (15%), Oceania (12%) and South America (11%).[21]

Africa

There are important mangrove swamps in Kenya, Tanzania, République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) and Madagascar, with the latter even admixing at the coastal verge with dry deciduous forests.

Nigeria has Africa's largest mangrove concentration, spanning 36,000 km2. Oil spills and leaks have destroyed many in the last 50 years, damaging the local fishing economy and water quality.[22]

Along the coast of the Red Sea, both on the Egyptian side and in the Gulf of Aqaba, mangroves composed primarily of Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata[23] grow in about 28 stands that cover about 525 hectares. Almost all Egyptian mangrove stands are now protected.

There are mangroves off the coast of Durban, South Africa, on the Umgeni River estuary.

Americas

Mangroves live in many parts of the tropical and subtropical coastal zones of North and South America.

Continental United States

Because of their sensitivity to subfreezing temperatures, mangroves in the continental United States are very limited to the Florida peninsula (see Florida mangroves) and some isolated growths[24] of black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) at the southmost coast of Louisiana[25] and South Texas.[26]

Mexico

In Mexico four species of mangrove predominate: Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia germinans and Conocarpus erectus.[27] During an inventory conducted by CONABIO between 2006 and 2008, 770,057 hectares of mangrove were counted.[28] Of this total, 55% are located in the Yucatán Peninsula.[28]

Significant mangals include the Marismas Nacionales-San Blas mangroves found in Sinaloa and Nayarit.

Central America and Caribbean

The same area in Honduras shown from 1987 (bottom) to 1999 and the corresponding removal of mangrove swamps for shrimp farming.

Mangroves occur on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. Mangroves can also be found in many of the Antilles including Puerto Rico,[29] Cuba, and Hispaniola,[30] as well as other islands in the West Indies such as the Bahamas.

Belize

The nation of Belize has the highest overall percentage of forest cover of any of the Central American countries.[31] In terms of Belize's mangrove cover—which assumes the form not only of mangrove 'forest', but also of scrubs and savannas, among others[32]—a 2010 satellite-based study of Belize's mangroves by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean found, in 2010, mangroves covered some 184,548 acres (74,684 hectares) or 3.4% of Belize's territory.[33]

In 1980, by contrast, mangrove cover stood at 188,417 acres (76,250 hectares)—also 3.4% of Belize's territory, although based on the work of mangrove researcher Simon Zisman,[34] Belize's mangrove cover in 1980 was estimated to represent 98.7% of the precolonial extent of those ecosystems. Belize's mangrove cover in 2010 was thus estimated to represent 96.7% of the precolonial cover.[33] Assessing changes in Belize's mangrove cover over a 30-year period was possible because of Belize's participation in the Regional Visualization and Monitoring System, a regional observatory jointly implemented by CATHALAC, RCMRD, ICIMOD, NASA, USAID, and other partners.[35]

South America

Brazil contains approximately 26,000 km2 of mangals, 15% of the world's total.

Ecuador has substantial remaining mangrove forests in the provinces of El Oro, Guayas, Manabi and Esmeraldas with limited forest remaining in Santa Elena.[36] The northern portion of Esmeraldas province has a large pristine mangrove forest that is preserved as the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje (REMACAN) and is an original Ramsar site.[37] This forest is the most preserved within Ecuador and likely the most pristine forest along the Pacific Coast of the Americas.[38]

The only other major mangrove holding in Esmeraldas is in-and-around the community of Muisne and the Rio Muisne Estuary Swampland Wildlife Refuges.[39] The mangroves in-and-around the estuaries of Muisne have decreased in area from 3222 ha in 1971 to 1065 ha as of 2005, during this time commercial shrimp aquaculture has become the dominant land-cover within this estuary environment.[40]

On the border of Esmeraldas province and Manabí province is a formerly large area of mangrove within Cojimies Estuary. The mangroves in this estuary are some of the most degraded in Ecuador with only 19% of 1971 mangrove area remaining as of 1998, although mangrove has recovered since this date.[38] Within Manabí the major mangrove holding estuary is the Chone estuary situated near the city of Bahía de Caráquez. Again, Chone has undergone substantial mangrove deforestation since the advent of commercial aquaculture in Ecuador.[40] Although mangrove loss appears to have halted in this estuary and mangrove regrowth driven by local fisherman is now occurring.[41]

Peru has a very small region of mangrove located in the north-west of the country on the Ecuadorian Border.[42]

Venezuela's northern Caribbean island, Margarita, possesses mangrove forests in the Parque nacional Laguna de La Restinga. Venezuela has 4% of the world's mangroves, with an extension of 6735 km2.[43]

Colombia possesses large mangrove forests on both its Caribbean and Pacific coasts.

The Mangrove forests of Suriname have a height of 20–25 m and are found mainly in the coastal area. There are six types of mangroves, namely two types of parwa or black mangroves, three types of red mangroves (mangro) and a small mangrove species (white mangrove, akira or tjila).[44]

Asia

Bangladesh

Main article: Sundarbans

The Sundarbans, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world, covering parts of Bangladesh's Khulna Division and the Indian state of West Bengal.

The Sundarbans National Park is a National Park, Tiger Reserve, and a Biosphere Reserve. It is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger.

A third of this area is covered by water and marshes. Since 1966 it has been considered a sanctuary for wildlife with an estimated 400 Royal Bengal tigers and more than 30,000 deer.

The forest lies at the foot of the Ganges The seasonally-flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland from the mangrove forests. The forest covers 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of which about 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) are in Bangladesh. It was inscribed as a UNESCO world heritage site in 1997, but while the Bangladeshi and Indian portions constitute the same continuous ecotope, they are separately listed in the UNESCO world heritage list as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park, respectively. The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for the eponymous Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Sundarbans was designated a Ramsar site on May 21, 1992. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Sundarbans serves a crucial function as a protective flood barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Kolkata (Calcutta) against the result of cyclone activity. Sundarbans is home to many different species of birds, mammals, insects, reptiles and fish. It is estimated that there may be found more than 120 species of fish and over 260 species of birds and more than fifty species of reptiles and eight amphibians. Many tourists go there to see the Bengal tigers, saltwater crocodiles, leopards and snakes cobra. Geographical data of Sundarban Latitude: 25.7667 Longitude: 88.7167 Average Height: 34 Time Zone: Asia / Dhaka Title: Lugar Poblado

India

The deltas of the Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, and Kaveri rivers are known to contain mangrove forests.

The following table shows the presence of mangroves in the different states of India and the total area covered by them in square kilometres.[45]

Rank States/UTs with Highest Mangrove Cover 2013 Total Mangrove Cover in km2
1 West Bengal 2,097
2 Gujarat 1,103
3 Andaman And Nicobar Islands 604
4 Andhra Pradesh 352
5 Odisha 213
6 Maharashtra 186
7 Tamil Nadu 39
8 Goa 22
9 Kerala 6
10 Karnataka 3
Sundarban Mangroves (India)

In the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, Sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber. Palm, Coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta. India's mangrove forests are known to serve as a habitat for turtles, crocodiles, gharials, and snakes. This region is part of the Great Sundarbans, the largest mangroves region in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This area covers a National Park, Tiger reserve and a Biosphere Reserve.[46][47]

Bhitarkanika Mangroves

Bhitarkanika Mangroves is India’s second largest forest, located in the state of Odisha. Bhitarkanika is created by the two river deltas of Brahmani and Baitarani river and one of the important Ramsar Wetland in India. It is also home of salt-water crocodiles and nesting beach olive ridley sea turtle.[46][47]

Godavari-Krishna Mangroves

The Godavari-Krishna mangroves lies in the delta of the Godavari and Krishna rivers in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Mangroves ecoregion is under protection for Calimere Wildlife and Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary.[47]

Pichavaram Mangroves

Pichavaram mangrove is one of the largest mangrove in India, situated at Pichavaram near Chidambaram in the state of Tamil Nadu. Pichavaram ranks amongs one of the most exquisite scenic spots in Tamil Nadu and home of many species of aquatic birds.[47]

Baratang Island Mangroves

Baratang Island Mangroves is a swamp, located at Great Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mangrove Swamps of Baratang Island are situated between Middle and South Andamans, capital city Port Blair.[47]

Sunderbans

Indo-Malaya Ecozone

Mangroves occur on Asia's south coast, throughout the Indian subcontinent, in all Southeast Asian countries, and on islands in the Indian Ocean, Persian gulf, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea, East China Sea and the Pacific.

The mangal is particularly prevalent in the deltas of large Asian rivers. The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, located in the Ganges River delta in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India.

The Pichavaram mangroves in Tamil Nadu is India's one of the largest mangrove forests. The Bhitarkanika Mangroves Forest of Odisha, by the Bay of Bengal, is India's second largest mangrove forest. Other major mangals occur on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat.[48]

Mangroves occur in certain muddy swampy islands of the Maldives.[49]

On the Malayan Peninsula mangroves cover an estimated 1,089.7 square kilometres (420.7 sq mi), while most of the remaining 5,320 square kilometres (2,054 sq mi) mangroves in Malaysia are on the island of Borneo.[50]

In Vietnam, mangrove forests grow along the southern coast, including two forests: the Can Gio Mangrove Forest biosphere reserve and the U Minh mangrove forest in the sea and coastal region of Kiên Giang, Cà Mau and Bạc Liêu provinces.

The mangrove forests of Kompong Sammaki in Cambodia are of major ecological and cultural importance, as the human population relies heavily on the crabs and fish that live in the roots.

The three most important mangrove forests of Taiwan are: Tamsui River in Taipei, Jhonggang River in Miaoli and the Sihcao Wetlands in Tainan. According to research, four types of mangrove exist in Taiwan. Some places have been developed as scenic areas, such as the log raft routes in Sihcao.

The most extensive mangrove forests of the Ryukyu Islands in East China Sea occur on Iriomote Island of the Yaeyama Islands, Okinawa, Japan.[51] Seven types of mangroves are recognised on Iriomote Island.[52]

The northern limit of mangrove forests in the Indo-Malaya ecozone is considered to be Tanegashima Island, Kyushu, Japan.[53]

Indonesia

In the Indonesian Archipelago, mangroves occur around much of Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, and the surrounding islands, while further north, they are found along the coast of the Malay Peninsula. Indonesia has around 9.36 million hectares of mangrove forests, but 48% is categorized as 'moderately damaged' and 23% as 'badly damaged'.[54]

The Guinness World Record certificate of achievement to Sindh Forest Departmet, Govt of Sindh, Pakistan

Mangroves around the world

A Young mangrove plantation in the Indus Delta
Glowing mangrove plantation at Keti Bundar, Thatta, Pakistan
Flourishing mangroves along Karachi coast, Pakistan

Pakistan

Pakistani mangroves are located mainly along the delta of the Indus River (the Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves ecoregion). Major mangrove forests are found on the coastline of the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan. In Karachi, land reclamation projects have led to the cutting down of mangrove forests for commercial and urban development.. On 22 June 2013, Sindh Forest Department, Govt. of Sindh, Pakistan, with the help of 300 local coastal volunteer planters set the Guinness World through 847,250 mangrove saplings planted at Kharo Chan, Thatta, Sindh, Pakistan in a little over 12 hours. This is the highest number of saplings planted within a day under the Guinness World Record category of "Maximum Number of Trees Planted in a Day”..

Shah Bundar, Sujawal, Pakistan, new mangrove plantation

Sindh Forest Department, Government of Sindh Mangrove has played pioneer role for the conservation and protection of the mangroves in the Indus Delta since late 1950s when it was handed over the areas. A breakthrough success is the Re-introduction of Rhizophora mucronata into the Indus Delta, which had become extinct there. More recently, a threatened mangrove shrub Ceriops tagal has also been successfully Re-introduces. A third species, Aegiceras corniculatum, is under trails at the nursery stage.

A gigantic initiative is under in the Sindh, Pakistan, to rehabilitate the degraded and blank mangrove mudflats. Since 2010 alone, around 55,000 Hectares of such area has been planted and rehabilitated. During this period, through concerted efforts and a rigorous conservation policy adopted by the Sindh Forest Department, Govt. of Sindh and the federal govt. a mangrove resource base of 150,000 plus Hectares has been created, with the support of local coastal communities. International organizations like IUCN and WWF are also playing critical role to support this initiative of the government. Other achievements include: (1) Declaring all the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta as Protected Forests in December 2010; Constitution of a Mangrove Conservation Committee at the provincial level which includes all stakeholders as members and overall awareness of the importance of mangroves and its ecosystem. [55]

Middle East

Oman, near Muscat, supports large areas of mangroves, in particular at Shinas, Qurm Park and Mahout Island. In Arabic, mangrove trees are known as qurm, thus the mangrove area in Oman is known as Qurm Park. A small mangrove area is present in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Mangroves are also present extensively in neighbouring Yemen.[56]

Iranian mangrove forests occur between 25°11′N to 27°52′N. These forests exist in the north part of the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman, along three maritime provinces in the south of Iran. These provinces, respectively, from southwest to southeast of Iran, include Bushehr, Hormozgan, and Sistan and Balouchestan.

Mangrove is also widely seen in Tarut Island, east of Qatif in Saudi Arabia. In addition, large forest of mangrove surround the coast to the south of Qatif (Siahat Beach). Nonetheless, because of sea land re-claiming the mangrove is being cut down which makes lots of sea fish losses their natural habitats.

The mangrove forests that cover thousands of hectares of land along the UAE shoreline form an integral part of its coastal ecosystem. The Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi (EAD) is currently working on rehabilitation, conservation and protection of mangrove forests in seven key sites in Abu Dhabi including: Saadiyat Island, Jubail Island, Marawah Marine Biosphere Reserve (which also comprises famous Bu Tinah Island), Bu Syayeef Protected Area, Ras Gharab, the Eastern Corniche and Ras Ghanada.

Oceania

Australia and New Guinea

Main article: Australian mangroves

More than 5 species of Rhizophoraceae grow in Australasia[57] with particularly high biodiversity on the island of New Guinea and northern Australia.[57]

Australia has about 11,500 km2 of mangroves, primarily on the northern and eastern coasts of the continent, with occurrences as far south as Millers Landing in Wilsons Promontory, Victoria[58] (38°54′S)[59] and Barker Inlet in Adelaide, South Australia.[60]

New Zealand

New Zealand also has mangrove forests extending to around 38°S (similar to Australia's southernmost mangrove incidence): the furthest geographical extent on the west coast is Raglan Harbour (37°48′S); on the east coast, Ohiwa Harbour (near Opotiki) is the furthest south mangroves are found (38°00′S).

Pacific islands

Twenty-five species of mangrove are found on various Pacific islands, with extensive mangals on some islands. Mangals on Guam, Palau, Kosrae and Yap have been badly affected by development.[61]

Mangroves are not native to Hawaii, but the red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, and Oriental mangrove, Bruguiera sexangula, have been introduced and are now naturalized.[62] Both species are considered invasive species and classified as pests by the University of Hawaii Botany Department.[63]

Exploitation and conservation

Mangroves in West Bali National Park, Indonesia.

Adequate data is only available for about half of the global area of Mangrove swamp. However, of those areas for which data has been collected, it appears that 35% of the Mangroves have been destroyed.[64] The United Nations Environment Program & Hamilton (2013), estimate that shrimp farming causes approximately a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests.[65][66] Likewise, the 2010 update of the World Mangrove Atlas indicated a fifth of the world's mangrove ecosystems have been lost since 1980.[67]

Grassroots efforts to save mangroves from development are becoming more popular as their benefits become more widely known. In the Bahamas, for example, active efforts to save mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay. In Trinidad and Tobago as well, efforts are underway to protect a mangrove threatened by the construction of a steelmill and a port. In Thailand, community management has been effective in restoring damaged mangroves.[68] Within northern Ecuador mangrove regrowth is reported in almost all estuaries and stems primarily from local actors responding to earlier periods of deforestation in the Esmeraldas region.[41]

Mangroves have been reported to be able to help buffer against tsunami, cyclones, and other storms. One village in Tamil Nadu was protected from tsunami destruction—the villagers in Naluvedapathy planted 80,244 saplings to get into the Guinness Book of World Records. This created a kilometre-wide belt of trees of various varieties. When the tsunami struck, much of the land around the village was flooded, but the village itself suffered minimal damage.[69]

Reforestation

Mangroves in Bohol, Philippines.

In some areas, mangrove reforestation and mangrove restoration is also underway. Red mangroves are the most common choice for cultivation, used particularly in marine aquariums in a sump to reduce nitrates and other nutrients in the water. Mangroves also appear in home aquariums, and as ornamental plants, such as in Japan.

In Senegal, Haïdar El Ali has started the fr project, which (amongst others) focuses on reforesting several areas with mangroves.[70]

The Manzanar Mangrove Initiative is an ongoing experiment in Arkiko, Eritrea, part of the Manzanar Project founded by Gordon H. Sato, establishing new mangrove plantations on the coastal mudflats. Initial plantings failed, but observation of the areas where mangroves did survive by themselves led to the conclusion that nutrients in water flow from inland were important to the health of the mangroves. Trials with the Eritrean Ministry of Fisheries followed, and a planting system was designed to provide the nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron missing from seawater.[71][72]

The propagules are planted inside a reused galvanized steel can with the bottom knocked out; a small piece of iron and a pierced plastic bag with fertilizer containing nitrogen and phosphorus are buried with the propagule. As of 2007, after six years of planting, 700,000 mangroves are growing; providing stock feed for sheep and habitat for oysters, crabs, other bivalves, and fish.[71][72]

National studies

In terms of local and national studies of mangrove loss, the case of Belize's mangroves is illustrative in its contrast to the global picture. A recent, satellite-based study[33]—funded by the World Wildlife Fund and conducted by the Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean (CATHALAC)—indicates Belize's mangrove cover declined by a mere 2% over a 30-year period. The study was born out of the need to verify the popular conception that mangrove clearing in Belize was rampant.[73]

Instead, the assessment showed, between 1980 and 2010, under 4,000 acres (16 km2) of mangroves had been cleared, although clearing of mangroves near Belize's main coastal settlements (e.g. Belize City and San Pedro) was relatively high. The rate of loss of Belize's mangroves—at 0.07% per year between 1980 and 2010—was much lower than Belize's overall rate of forest clearing (0.6% per year in the same period).[74] These findings can also be interpreted to indicate Belize's mangrove regulations (under the nation's)[75] have largely been effective. Nevertheless, the need to protect Belize's mangroves is imperative, as a 2009 study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) indicates the ecosystems contribute US$174–249 million per year to Belize's national economy.[76]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Giri, C. et al. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 20, 154-159 (2011).
  2. ↑ "Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  3. 1 2 Hogarth, Peter J. (1999) The Biology of Mangroves Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, ISBN 0-19-850222-2.
  4. ↑ "Morphological and Physiological Adaptations: Florida mangrove website". Nhmi.org. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "Mangal (Mangrove). ''World Vegetation''. Mildred E. Mathias Botanical Garden, University of California at Los Angeles". Botgard.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  6. 1 2 Mazda, Y.; Kobashi, D.; Okada, S. (2005). "Tidal-Scale Hydrodynamics within Mangrove Swamps". Wetlands Ecology and Management 13 (6): 647–655. doi:10.1007/s11273-005-0613-4.
  7. 1 2 Danielsen, F.; et al. (2005). "The Asian tsunami: a protective role for coastal vegetation". Science 310: 643. doi:10.1126/science.1118387.
  8. 1 2 Massel, S. R.; Furukawa, K.; Brinkman, R. M. (1999). "Surface wave propagation in mangrove forests". Fluid Dynamics Research 24 (4): 219–249. doi:10.1016/s0169-5983(98)00024-0.
  9. ↑ Mazda, Yoshihiro; et al. (1997). "Drag force due to vegetation in mangrove swamps". Mangroves and Salt Marshes 1: 193–199.
  10. ↑ Baird, Andrew (26 December 2006) "False Hopes and Natural Disasters" New York Times editorial
  11. ↑ Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; et al. (2005). "How effective were mangroves as a defence against the recent tsunami?". Current Biology 15 (12): 443–447. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.06.008.
  12. ↑ Bos, A. R.; Gumanao, G. S.; van Katwijk, M. M.; Mueller, B.; Saceda, M. M. and Tejada, R. P. (2011). "Ontogenetic habitat shift, population growth, and burrowing behavior of the Indo-Pacific beach star Archaster typicus (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)". Marine Biology 158: 639–648. doi:10.1007/s00227-010-1588-0.
  13. ↑ Encarta Encyclopedia 2005. Article — Seashore, by Heidi Nepf.
  14. ↑ Skov, Martin W. and Hartnoll, Richard G. (2002). "Paradoxical selective feeding on a low-nutrient diet: why do mangrove crabs eat leaves?". Oecologia 131 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1007/s00442-001-0847-7.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vane, C. H.; et al. (2013). "Degradation of mangrove tissues by arboreal termites (Nasutitermes acajutlae) and their role in the mangrove C cycle (Puerto Rico): Chemical characterization and organic matter provenance using bulk δ13C, C/N, alkaline CuO oxidation-GC/MS, and solid-state 13C NMR". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 14 (8): 3176–3191. doi:10.1002/ggge.20194.
  16. ↑ Versteegh, G. J. M., et al. (2004). "Taraxerol and Rhizophora pollen as proxies for tracking past mangrove ecosystems." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 68(3): 411-422.
  17. ↑ "UN Report on mangrove diversity". Maps.grida.no. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  18. ↑ Gray, L. Joseph (2010); et al. "Sacrificial leaf hypothesis of mangroves" (PDF). ISME/GLOMIS Electronic Journal. GLOMIS. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
  19. ↑ "Calfo, Anthony (2006). ''Mangroves for the Marine Aquarium''". Reefkeeping.com. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  20. ↑ Ricklefs, R. E., A. Schwarzbach & S. S. Renner; Schwarzbach; Renner (2006). "Rate of lineage origin explains the diversity anomaly in the world's mangrove vegetation" (PDF). American Naturalist 168 (6): 805–810. doi:10.1086/508711. PMID 17109322.
  21. 1 2 3 Giri, C., E. Ochieng, L. L. Tieszen, Z. Zhu, A. Singh, T. Loveland, J. Masek & N. Duke; Ochieng; Tieszen; Zhu; Singh; Loveland; Masek; Duke (2011). "Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data". Global Ecology and Biogeography 20 (1): 154–159. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x.
  22. ↑ O'Neill, Tom (February 2007). "Curse of the Black Gold: Hope and betrayal in the Niger Delta". National Geographic 211 (2): 88–117. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014.
  23. ↑ Ali A. Gab-Alla, Ishrak, K. Khafagi, Waleed, M. Morsy and Moustafa M. Fouda (2010). "Ecology of Avicennia marina mangals along Gulf of Aqaba, South Sinai, Red Sea" (PDF). Egypt J. Aquat. Biol. & Fish. 14 (2): 79–93. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
  24. ↑ ""Modeling Hurricane Effects on Mangrove Ecosystems" U.S. Geological Survey, USGS FS-095-97, June 1997" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  25. ↑ "Coastal Mangrove-Marsh Shrubland" (PDF). Conservation Habitats & Species Assessments. Louisiana Department of Wildlife & Fisheries. December 2005.
  26. ↑ Yang, Chenghai; Everitt, James; Fletcher, Reginald; Jensen, Ryan; Mausel, Paul (2008-03-15). "Mapping Black Mangrove Along the South Texas Gulf Coast Using AISA+ Hyperspectral Imagery". Biennial Workshop on Aerial Photography, Videography, and High Resolution Digital Imagery for Resource Assessment Proceedings (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing).
  27. ↑ "Mangroves of Mexico". Biodiversidad.gob.mx. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
  28. 1 2 "Monitoring program". Biodiversidad.gob.mx. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
  29. ↑ Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. "Los Maglares - Hojas de Nuestro Ambiente" (PDF). www.drna.gobierno.pr. Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  30. ↑ Meyer-Arendt, Klaus; Byrd. S; Hamilton, S.E (October 2013). "Mangrove deforestation in the Dominican Republic, 1969 to 2012" (PDF). GLOMIS / ISME Electronic Journal 1 (1): 1. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
  31. ↑ "Vreugdenhil, D., Meerman, J., Meyrat, A., Gómez, L. D., and D. J. Graham "Map of the Ecosystems of Central America: Final Report" World Bank, Washington, DC. 56 pp.". 2002. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
  32. ↑ Murray, M. R., Zisman, S. A., Furley, P. A., Munro, D. M., Gibson, J., Ratter, J., Bridgewater, S., Mity, C. D. & C. J. Place; Zisman; Furley; Munro; Gibson; Ratter; Bridgewater; Minty; Place (2003). "The mangroves of Belize: part 1. Distribution, composition and classification". Forest Ecology and Management 174: 265–279. doi:10.1016/s0378-1127(02)00036-1.
  33. 1 2 3 Cherrington, E.A., Hernandez, B.E., Trejos, N.A., Smith, O.A., Anderson, E.R., Flores, A.I., and B.C. Garcia. 2010. "Identification of Threatened and Resilient Mangroves in the Belize Barrier Reef System." Technical report to the World Wildlife Fund. Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean (CATHALAC) / Regional Visualization & Monitoring System (SERVIR). 28 pp. Archived July 31, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  34. ↑ Zisman, S.A. 1998. "Sustainability or Status Quo: Elite Influence and the Political Ecology of Mangrove Exploitation in Belize." Doctoral dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh. Edinburgh, Scotland.
  35. ↑ "NASA - NASA, USAID Expand Web-Based Environmental Monitoring System". Nasa.gov. 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  36. ↑ Hamilton, Stuart (2011). The impact of shrimp farming on mangrove ecosystems and local livelihoods along the Pacific coast of Ecuador. ProQuest, UMI Dissertation Publishing. p. 194. ISBN 1249871735.
  37. ↑ "Ramsar sites Database". The Ramsar convention on wetlands.
  38. 1 2 Hamilton, Stuart; Clare Stankwitz (2012). "Examining the relationship between international aid and mangrove deforestation in coastal Ecuador from 1970 to 2006". Land Use Science 7 (2): 177–202. doi:10.1080/1747423x.2010.550694.
  39. ↑ "Ecuador:Mangrove Restoration in Muisne". Global Restoration Network. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
  40. 1 2 Hamilton, Stuart (2011-01-01). "Quantifying mangrove deforestation in Ecuador's northern estuaries since the advent of commercial aquaculture". Glomis / Isme 9 (1): 1–3. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
  41. 1 2 Hamilton, S. & S. Collins (2013) Las respuestas a los medios de subsistencia deforestación de los manglares en las provincias del norte de Ecuador. Bosque 34:2
  42. ↑ Giri, C.; Ochieng, E.; L. L. Tieszen; Z. Zhu; A. Singh; T. Loveland; J. Masek & N. Duke (2011). "Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data". Global Ecology and Biogeography 20: 154–159. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x.
  43. ↑ "Mangroves of Venezuela". azulambientalistas.org. Retrieved 2012-12-13.
  44. ↑ Environmental statistics of Suriname 2014. http://www.statistics-suriname.org/index.php/statistieken/downloads/category/34-milieu-publicatie-2012
  45. ↑ Mangrove forests of India (2013)
  46. 1 2 The Wetland Mangroves Swampand Ramsar Sites of India
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 Largest mangrove and swamp forests in India
  48. ↑ Mangroves of India - URL retrieved November 26, 2006
  49. ↑ Xavier Romero-Frias, The Maldive Islanders, A Study of the Popular Culture of an Ancient Ocean Kingdom. Barcelona 1999, ISBN 84-7254-801-5
  50. ↑ Augustin, Sean (15 September 2014). "Mangroves protect Malaysia’s coast, but also shield illegals". The Rakyat Post (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). Archived from the original on 15 September 2014.
  51. ↑ Nakasuga, Tsuneo. "Analysis of the mangrove stand (Department of Forestry)". University of the Ryukyus. Retrieved 2015-08-19.
  52. ↑ "Iriomote Island and the Iriomote Wildcat". Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA). Retrieved 2015-08-19.
  53. ↑ Somiya, Kazuo. "Conservation of landscape and culture in southwestern islands of Japan" (PDF). Naha Nature Conservation Office, Ministry of the Environment. Retrieved 2015-08-19.
  54. ↑ "71% of Indonesian mangrove forests damaged: minister". The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  55. ↑ "By planting 750,000 mangroves, Pakistan claims new world record.". Express Tribune. 22 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
  56. ↑ Rouphael, Tony ;Turak, Emre and Brodie, Jon (1992) "Chapter 3: Seagrasses and Mangroves of Yemen's Red Sea" In DouAbal, A. et al. (editors) (1992) Protection of Marine Ecosystems of the Red Sea Coast of Yemen Global Environment Facility, United Nations Development Programme, New York, pp. 41-49
  57. 1 2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2007) The world's mangroves, 1980-2005: a thematic study in the framework of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 (FAO forestry paper #153(FAO) Rome,page 37, ISBN 978-92-5-105856-5
  58. ↑ "Millers Landing". Victorian Resources Online:West Gippsland. Department of Primary Industries. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
  59. ↑ "Millers Landing". Geoscience Australia Place Names Search. Australian Government. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
  60. ↑ Zann, Leon P. (1996) [1995]. "Mangrove ecosystems in Australia: structure, function and status". State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia. Australian Government, Dept of Environment and Heritage. ISBN 0-642-17399-0. Archived from the original on September 17, 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-25.
  61. ↑ Lloyd L. Loope. "Hawaii and the Pacific Islands". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006.
  62. ↑ Allen, James A. and Krauss, Ken W. (2006). "Influence of propagule flotation longevity and light availability on establishment of introduced mangrove species in Hawai'i". Pacific Science 60 (3): 367–376. doi:10.1353/psc.2006.0015. hdl:10125/22572.
  63. ↑ Hawaiian Alien Plant Studies - URL retrieved November 28, 2006.
  64. ↑ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis (p.2) Island Press, Washington, DC. World Resources Institute ISBN 1-59726-040-1
  65. ↑ Botkin, D. and E. Keller (2003) Environmental Science: Earth as a living planet (p.2) John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-38914-5
  66. ↑ Hamilton, S. (2013) Assessing the Role of Commercial Aquaculture in Displacing Mangrove Forest. Bulletin of Marine Science 89(2): 585-601
  67. ↑ "2010a. ""World Atlas of Mangroves" Highlights the Importance of and Threats to Mangroves: Mangroves among World's Most Valuable Ecosystems." Press release. Arlington, Virginia". The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
  68. ↑ "Thailand - Trang Province - Taking Back the Mangroves with Community Management | The EcoTipping Points Project". Ecotippingpoints.org. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  69. ↑ "Tree News, Spring/Summer 2005,Publisher Felix Press". Treecouncil.org.uk. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  70. ↑ "Oceanium de Dakar". Oceanium.blogspot.com. 2011-01-26. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  71. 1 2 Warne, Kennedy (February 2007). "Mangroves: Forests of the Tide". National Geographic. Tim Laman, photographer. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
  72. 1 2 Sato, Gordon; Abraham Fisseha; Simon Gebrekiros; Hassan Abdul Karim; Samuel Negassi; Martin Fischer; Emanuel Yemane; Johannes Teclemariam & Robert Riley (2005). "A novel approach to growing mangroves on the coastal mud flats of Eritrea with the potential for relieving regional poverty and hunger". Wetlands 25 (3): 776–779. doi:10.1672/0277-5212(2005)025[0776:ANATGM]2.0.CO;2.
  73. ↑ "Pelican_Cays_Review" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-02-08.
  74. ↑ Cherrington, E.A., Ek, E., Cho, P., Howell, B.F., Hernandez, B.E., Anderson, E.R., Flores, A.I., Garcia, B.C., Sempris, E., and D.E. Irwin. 2010. "Forest Cover and Deforestation in Belize: 1980-2010." Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean. Panama City, Panama. 42 pp. Archived July 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  75. ↑ Government of Belize (GOB). 2003. "Forests Act Subsidiary Laws." Chapter 213 in: Substantive Laws of Belize. Revised Edition 2003. Government Printer: Belmopan, Belize. 137 pp. Archived March 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
  76. ↑ "Microsoft Word - Coastal Capital Belize final" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-06-23.

Indonesia Center for Environmental Law (IECL), was founded in 1993 by Mas Achmad Santosa, Mochamad Zaidun, Sandra Moniaga, Benny K. Harman, and Wahyuni Baha. The main goal of the organization is to defend public interest regarding the peoples right to the resources of the environment. The organization was developed during a period where the government was high economic development within Indonesia was very much oriented to

References

  • Saenger, Peter (2002). Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture, and Conservation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. ISBN 1-4020-0686-1.
  • Thanikaimoni, Ganapathi (1986). Mangrove Palynology UNDP/UNESCO and the French Institute of Pondicherry, ISSN 0073-8336 (E).
  • Tomlinson, Philip B. (1986). The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-25567-8.
  • Teas, H. J. (1983). Biology and Ecology of Mangroves. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-6193-948-8.
  • Plaziat, J.C.; et al. (2001). "History and biogeography of the mangrove ecosystem, based on a critical reassessment of the paleontological record". Wetlands Ecology and Management 9 (3): 161–179. 
  • Sato, Gordon; Riley, Robert; et al. Growing Mangroves With The Potential For Relieving Regional Poverty And Hunger WETLANDS, Vol. 25, No. 3 – September 2005
  • Jayatissa, L. P.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Koedam, N. (2002). "A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 138: 29–43. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2002.00002.x. 
  • Warne, K. (February 2007). "Forests of the Tide". National Geographic pp. 132–151
  • Ellison, Aaron M. (2000). "Mangrove Restoration: Do We Know Enough?". Restoration Ecology 8 (3): 219–229. doi:10.1046/j.1526-100x.2000.80033.x. 
  • Agrawala, Shardul; Hagestad; Marca; Koshy, Kayathu; Ota, Tomoko; Prasad, Biman; Risbey, James; Smith, Joel; Van Aalst, Maarten. 2003. Development and Climate Change in Fiji: Focus on Coastal Mangroves. Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, Cedex 16, France.
  • Barbier, E.B., Sathirathai, S., 2001. Valuing Mangrove Conservation in Southern Thailand. Contemporary Economic Policy. 19 (2) 109–122.
  • Bosire, J.O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Jayatissa, L.P., Koedam, N., Lo Seen, D., Nitto, Di D. 2005. How Effective were Mangroves as a Defense Against the Recent Tsunami? Current Biology Vol. 15 R443-R447.
  • Bowen, Jennifer L., Valiela, Ivan, York, Joanna K. 2001. Mangrove Forests: One of the World's Threatened Major Tropical Environments. Bio Science 51:10, 807–815.
  • Jin-Eong, Ong. 2004. The Ecology of Mangrove Conservation and Management. Hydrobiologia. 295:1-3, 343–351.
  • Glenn, C. R. 2006. "Earth's Endangered Creatures"
  • Lewis, Roy R. III. 2004. Ecological Engineering for Successful Management and Restoration of Mangrove Forest. Ecological Engineering. 24:4, 403–418.
  • Kuenzer, C., Bluemel A., Gebhardt, S., Vo Quoc, T., and S. Dech. 2011. "Remote Sensing of Mangrove Ecosystems: A Review". Remote Sensing 3: 878-928; doi:10.3390/rs3050878
  • Lucien-Brun H. 1997. Evolution of world shrimp production: Fisheries and aquaculture. World Aquaculture. 28:21–33.
  • Twilley, R. R., V.H. Rivera-Monroy, E. Medina, A. Nyman, J. Foret, T. Mallach, and L. Botero. 2000. Patterns of forest development in mangroves along the San Juan River estuary, Venezuela. Forest Ecology and Management.
  • Murray, M.R.; Zisman, S.A.; Furley, P.A.; Munro, D.M.; Gibson, J.; Ratter, J.; Bridgewater, S.; Mity, C.D.; Place, C.J. (2003). "The Mangroves of Belize: Part 1. Distribution, Composition and Classification". Forest Ecology and Management 174: 265–279. doi:10.1016/s0378-1127(02)00036-1. 
  • Vo Quoc, T.; Kuenzer, C.; Vo Quang, M.; Moder, F.; Oppelt, N. (2012). "Review of Valuation Methods for Mangrove Ecosystem Services". Journal of Ecological Indicators 23: 431–446. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.04.022. 

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mangrove.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Saturday, May 07, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.