Mississippi civil rights workers' murders

Mississippi civil rights workers' murders
Location Neshoba County, Mississippi
Date June 21, 1964 (Central)
Target James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner (top to bottom)
Attack type
 Murder/Lynching
Deaths Three members of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

On the night of June 21–22, 1964, three civil rights workers were abducted and murdered in Neshoba County, Mississippi, an event which has since been called the Freedom Summer Murders. The civil rights workers were James Earl Chaney of Meridian, Mississippi, Andrew Goodman, and Michael "Mickey" Schwerner of New York City, New York, and were associated with the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) and its member organization, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). They had been working on the "Freedom Summer" campaign, attempting to prepare and register African Americans to vote after they had been disenfranchised since 1890.

The three young men were chased in their car, abducted, shot at close range, and buried in an earthen dam by members of the local White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, the Neshoba County Sheriff's Office, and the Philadelphia, Mississippi Police Department.

Initially classed and investigated as a missing persons case, the civil rights workers' car was not found until three days after their disappearance,[1] and their bodies discovered 44 days after their abduction and murder. The disappearance and feared murders of these activists sparked national outrage and a massive federal investigation led by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and filed as Mississippi Burning (MIBURN). After the state government refused to prosecute, the United States federal government charged 18 individuals with civil rights violations in 1967. Seven were convicted and received relatively minor sentences for their actions.

41 years after the murders took place, one perpetrator, Edgar Ray Killen, was charged by the state of Mississippi for his part in the crimes. He was convicted of three counts of manslaughter in 2005 and is serving a 60 year sentence.

Outrage over the activists' disappearances helped gain passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Background

The KKK and a "Fiery Cross"; image from the 1920s.

In the early 1960s Mississippi, as well as most of the South, defied federal direction regarding racial integration.[2][3] Recent Supreme Court rulings had upset the Mississippi establishment, and white Mississippian society responded with open hostility. Bombings, murders, vandalism, and intimidation were tactics used by white supremacists to discourage black Mississippians and any Northern supporters. In 1961 Freedom Riders, who challenged segregation of interstate buses and related facilities, were attacked along their route. In September 1962, the University of Mississippi riots had occurred to prevent James Meredith from starting at the school.

The Mississippi White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, a splinter group, was created and led by Samuel Bowers of Laurel, Mississippi. As the summer of 1964 approached, white Mississippians prepared for what they perceived as an invasion from the north. College students had been recruited to aid local activists conducting grassroots community organizing, voter registration education and drives in the state. Media reports exaggerated the number of youths expected.[4] One Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) representative is quoted saying nearly 30,000 individuals would visit Mississippi during the summer.[4] Such reports had a "jarring impact" upon white Mississippians and many responded by joining the White Knights.[4] More belligerent than other KKK groups, the White Knights soon attracted a following of nearly 10,000 white Mississippians.

In 1890 Mississippi had passed a new constitution, supported by additional laws, which effectively excluded most black Mississippians from registering or voting. This status quo had long been enforced by economic boycotts and violence. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) wanted to address this problem by setting up places called Freedom Schools and starting voting registration drives in the state. Freedom schools were established to educate, encourage, and register the disenfranchised black citizens.[5] CORE members James Chaney, from Mississippi, and Michael Schwerner from New York intended to set up a Freedom School for black people in Neshoba County to try to prepare them to pass the comprehension and literacy tests required by the state.

Missing persons poster created by the FBI in 1964, shows the photographs of Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner.

Registering others to vote

On Memorial Day 1964, Schwerner and Chaney spoke to the congregation at Mount Zion Methodist Church in Longdale, Mississippi, about setting up a Freedom School.[6] Schwerner implored the members to register to vote, saying, "you have been slaves too long, we can help you help yourselves".[6] The White Knights learned of Schwerner's voting drive in Neshoba County and soon developed a plot to hinder the work and ultimately destroy their efforts. The White Knights wanted to lure CORE workers to Neshoba County, so they attacked congregation members and torched the church, burning it to the ground.

On June 21, 1964, Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner met at the Meridian COFO headquarters before traveling to Longdale to investigate the destruction of the Mount Zion Church. Schwerner told COFO Meridian to search for them if they were not back by 4 p.m.; he said, "if we're not back by then start trying to locate us."[5]

Arrest and imprisonment

After visiting Longdale, the three civil rights workers decided not to take road 491 to return to Meridian.[5] The narrow country road was unpaved; abandoned buildings littered the roadside. They decided to head west on Highway 16 to Philadelphia, the seat of Neshoba County, then take southbound Highway 19 to Meridian, figuring it would be the faster route. The time was approaching three in the afternoon, and they were to be in Meridian by four.

The CORE station wagon had barely passed the Philadelphia city limits when one of its tires went flat, and Deputy Sheriff Cecil Ray Price turned on his dashboard-mounted red light and followed them.[5] The trio stopped near the Beacon and Main Street fork. With a long radio antenna mounted to his patrol car, Price called for officer Harry Wiggs and E. R. Poe of the Mississippi Highway Patrol.[5] Chaney was arrested for driving 65 mph in a 35 mph zone; Goodman and Schwerner were held for investigation. They were taken to the Neshoba County jail on Myrtle Street, a block from the courthouse.

In the Meridian office, workers became alarmed when the 4 p.m. deadline passed without word from the three activists. By 4:45 p.m., they notified the COFO Jackson office that the trio had not returned from Neshoba County.[5] The CORE workers called area authorities but did not learn anything; the contacted offices said they had not seen the civil rights workers.[5]

Masterminding the conspiracy

Parties To The Conspiracy; Top Row: Lawrence A. Rainey, Bernard L. Akin, Other "Otha" N. Burkes, Olen L. Burrage, Edgar Ray Killen. Bottom Row: Frank J. Herndon, James T. Harris, Oliver R. Warner, Herman Tucker , and Samuel H. Bowers.

Nine men, including Neshoba County Sheriff Lawrence A. Rainey, were later identified as parties to the conspiracy to murder the three workers.[7] Rainey denied he was ever a part of the conspiracy but he was accused of ignoring the offenses committed in Neshoba County. He has been accused of murdering several other black people. At the time of the murders, the 37-year-old Rainey insisted he was visiting his sick wife in a Meridian hospital and was later with family watching Bonanza.[8] As events unfolded, Rainey became emboldened with his newly found popularity in the Philadelphia, Mississippi, community. Known for his tobacco chewing habit, Rainey was photographed and quoted in Life magazine as saying: "Hey, let's have some Red Man," while other members of the conspiracy laughed while waiting for an arraignment to start.[9]

Fifty-year-old Bernard Akin had a mobile home business which he operated out of Meridian; he was a member of the White Knights.[7] Other N. Burkes, who usually went by the nickname of Otha, was a Philadelphia Police officer. The 71-year-old World War I veteran was a 25-year veteran on the city police force; he was reported to have a cruel disposition, especially toward black people.[10] At the time of the December 1964 arraignment, Burkes was awaiting an indictment for a different civil rights case. Olen L. Burrage, who was 34 at the time, owned a trucking company. Burrage's Old Jolly Farm is where the civil rights workers were found buried. Burrage, an honorably discharged U.S. Marine, is quoted as saying: "I got a dam big enough to hold a hundred of them."[11] Several weeks after the murders, Burrage told the FBI: "I want people to know I’m sorry it happened."[12] Edgar Ray Killen, a Baptist preacher and sawmill owner, decades later was convicted of orchestrating the murders.

Frank J. Herndon, 46, operated a Meridian drive-in called the "Longhorn";[7] he was the Exalted Grand Cyclops of the Meridian White Knights. James T. Harris, also known as Pete, was a White Knight investigator. The 30-year-old Harris was keeping tabs on the three civil rights workers' every move. Oliver R. Warner, known as Pops, was a Meridian grocery owner. Warner, 54, was a member of the White Knights. Herman Tucker lived in Hope, Mississippi, a few miles from the Neshoba County Fair grounds. Tucker, 36, was not a member of the White Knights, but he was a building contractor who worked for Burrage. The White Knights gave Tucker the assignment of getting rid of the CORE station wagon driven by the workers. White Knights Imperial Wizard Samuel H. Bowers, who served with the U.S. Navy during World War II, was not apprehended on December 4, 1964, but he was implicated the following year. Bowers, then 39, is credited with saying: "This is a war between the Klan and the FBI. And in a war, there have to be some who suffer."

On Sunday, June 7, 1964, nearly 300 White Knights met near Raleigh, Mississippi.[13] Bowers addressed the White Knights about the "nigger-communist invasion of Mississippi" expected to take place in a few weeks, in what CORE announced as Freedom Summer.[13] The men listened as Bowers said: "This summer the enemy will launch his final push for victory in Mississippi", and, "there must be a secondary group of our members, standing back from the main area of conflict, armed and ready to move. It must be an extremely swift, extremely violent, hit-and-run group."[13]

Lynch mob forms

Lynch Mob; Top Row, L-R: Cecil R. Price, Travis M. Barnette, Alton W. Roberts, Jimmy K. Arledge, Jimmy Snowden. Bottom Row, L-R: Jerry M. Sharpe, Billy W. Posey, Jimmy L. Townsend, Horace D. Barnette, James Jordan.

Although federal authorities believed there were many others who took part in the Neshoba County lynching, only ten men were charged with the physical murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner.[7] One of these was the county's deputy sheriff, who played a crucial role in implementing the conspiracy. Before his friend Lawrence A. Rainey was elected sheriff in 1963, Cecil R. Price worked as a salesman, bouncer, and fireman.[7] Price had no prior experience in local law enforcement. The 26-year-old Price was the only person who witnessed the entire event. He arrested the three men, released them the night of the murders, and chased them down state highway 19 toward Meridian, eventually re-capturing them at the intersection near House, Mississippi. Price and the other nine men escorted them north along highway 19 to Rock Cut Road, where they forced a stop and murdered the three civil rights workers.

Killen went to Meridian earlier that Sunday to organize and recruit men for the job to be carried out in Neshoba County.[14] Before the men left for Philadelphia, Travis M. Barnette, 36, went to his Meridian home to take care of a sick family member. Barnette owned a Meridian garage and was a member of the White Knights. Alton W. Roberts, 26, was a dishonorably discharged U.S. Marine who worked as a salesman in Meridian. Roberts, standing at 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) and weighing in at 270 lb (120 kg), was a formidable foe and renowned for his short temper. According to witnesses, Roberts shot both Goodman and Schwerner at point blank range. He also shot Chaney in the head after another accomplice, James Jordan, shot Chaney in the abdomen. Roberts is known for saying, "Are you that nigger lover?" to Schwerner, and shooting him after the latter responded, "Sir, I know just how you feel." Jimmy K. Arledge, 27, and Jimmy Snowden, 31, were both Meridian commercial drivers. Arledge, a high school drop-out, and Snowden, a U.S. Army veteran, were present during the murders. After the second arrest by Price, Arledge would drive the CORE station wagon from state highway 492 to Rock Cut Road.

Jerry M. Sharpe, Billy W. Posey, and Jimmy L. Townsend were all from Philadelphia. Sharpe, 21, ran a pulp wood supply house. Posey, 28, a Williamsville, Mississippi automobile mechanic, owned a 1958 red and white Chevrolet; the car was considered fast and was chosen over Sharpe's. The youngest was Townsend, 17; he left high school in 1964 to work at Posey's Phillips 66 garage. Horace D. Barnette, 25, was Travis' younger half-brother; he had a 1957 two-toned blue Ford Fairlane sedan.[7] Horace Barnette's car is the one the group took after Posey's car broke down. Officials say that James Jordan, 38, killed Chaney. He confessed his crimes to the federal authorities in exchange for a plea deal.

Pursuit on Highway 19

After Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner's release from the Neshoba County jail around 10 p.m., they were followed almost immediately by Deputy Sheriff Price in his 1957 white Chevrolet sedan patrol car.[15] Soon afterward, the civil rights workers left the city limits located along Hospital Road and headed south on state Highway 19. The workers arrived at Pilgrim's store, where they may have been inclined to stop and use the telephone, but the presence of a Mississippi Highway Safety patrol car, manned by Officer Wiggs and Poe, most likely dissuaded them. They continued south toward Meridian.

The lynch mob members, who were in Barnette's and Posey's cars, were drinking while arguing who would kill the three young men. Eventually Philadelphia Police Officer Burkes drove up to Horace D. Barnette's car and told the group: "They're going on 19 toward Meridian. Follow them!" After a quick rendezvous with Philadelphia police officer Richard Willis, Price was in pursuit of the three civil rights workers.

Posey's Chevrolet carried Roberts, Sharpe, and Townsend. The Chevy apparently had carburetor problems and was forced to the side of the highway. Sharpe and Townsend were ordered to stay with Posey's car and service it. Roberts transferred to Barnette's car, joining Arledge, Jordan, Posey, and Snowden.

Price eventually caught the CORE station wagon heading west toward Union, Mississippi, on state highway 492. Soon he stopped them and escorted the three civil right workers north on Highway 19, back in the direction of Philadelphia. The caravan turned west on County Road 515 (also known as Rock Cut Road), and stopped at the secluded intersection of County Road 515 and County Road 284 (32°39′40.45″N 89°2′4.13″W / 32.6612361°N 89.0344806°W / 32.6612361; -89.0344806). There all three were shot by Jordan and Roberts. Chaney was also beaten before his death.

Disposing of the evidence

Ford Station Wagon location near the Bogue Chitto River near Highway 21 (32°52′54.15″N 88°56′16.87″W / 32.8817083°N 88.9380194°W / 32.8817083; -88.9380194)

After the three men were shot, they were quickly loaded into their Ford station wagon and transported to Burrage's Old Jolly Farm dam located along Highway 21, a few miles southwest of Philadelphia. Herman Tucker, a heavy machinery operator, was at the dam waiting for the lynch mob's arrival. Earlier in the day, Burrage, Posey, and Tucker had met at Posey's gasoline station or Burrage's garage to discuss these burial details, and Tucker most likely was the one who covered up the bodies using a bulldozer that he owned. An autopsy of Andrew Goodman, showing fragments of red clay in his lungs and grasped in his fists, suggests he was probably buried alive alongside the already dead Chaney and Schwerner.[16]

After the all three were buried, Price told the group:

Well, boys, you've done a good job. You've struck a blow for the white man. Mississippi can be proud of you. You've let those agitating outsiders know where this state stands. Go home now and forget it. But before you go, I'm looking each one of you in the eye and telling you this: "The first man who talks is dead! If anybody who knows anything about this ever opens his mouth to any outsider about it, then the rest of us are going to kill him just as dead as we killed those three sonofbitches (sic) tonight. Does everybody understand what I'm saying. The man who talks is dead, dead, dead!"[17]

Eventually, Tucker was tasked with disposing of the CORE station wagon in Alabama. For reasons unknown, the station wagon was left near a river in northeast Neshoba County along Highway 21. It was soon set ablaze and abandoned.

Investigation and public attention

The station wagon on an abandoned logging road along Highway 21.
Unconvinced by the assurances of the Memphis-based agents, Sullivan elected to wait in Memphis ... for the start of the "invasion" of northern students ... Sullivan's instinctive decision to stick around Memphis proved correct. Early Monday morning, June 22, he was informed of the disappearance ... he was ordered to Meridian. The town would be his home for the next nine months.
— Cagin & Dray, We Are Not Afraid, 1988[18]

FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover initially ordered the FBI Office in Meridian, run by John Proctor, to begin a preliminary search after the three men were reported missing. That evening, U.S. Attorney General Robert Kennedy escalated the search and ordered 150 federal agents to be sent from New Orleans.[19] Two local Native Americans found the smoldering car that evening; by the next morning, that information had been communicated to Proctor. Joseph Sullivan of the FBI immediately went to the scene.[20] By the next day, the federal government had arranged for hundreds of sailors from the nearby Naval Air Station Meridian to search the swamps of Bogue Chitto.

J. Edgar Hoover was antipathetic to civil rights groups in general; he had long been worried that they were under too much communist influence. President Lyndon Johnson had to use indirect threats of political reprisal to force Hoover to investigate. During the investigation, searchers including Navy divers and FBI agents discovered the bodies of Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in the area (the first was found by a fisherman). They were college students who had disappeared in May 1964; they were found to have been kidnapped, beaten and killed by whites. Federal searchers also discovered 14-year-old Herbert Oarsby, and five other unidentified Mississippi blacks, whose disappearances in the recent past had not attracted attention outside their local communities.[21]

President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act as Martin Luther King, Jr. and others look on, July 2, 1964.

The disappearance of the three activists captured national attention. By the end of the first week, all major news networks were covering their disappearances. Johnson met with the parents of Goodman and Schwerner in the Oval Office. Walter Cronkite's CBS newscast broadcast on June 25, 1964, called the disappearances "the focus of the whole country's concern".[22] The FBI eventually offered a $25,000 reward (equivalent to $191,000 in 2015), which led to the breakthrough in the case.

Mississippi officials resented the outside attention. The Neshoba County Sheriff Lawrence Rainey said, "They're just hiding and trying to cause a lot of bad publicity for this part of the state." The Mississippi governor Paul Johnson dismissed concerns, saying the young men "could be in Cuba".[23]

The bodies of the CORE activists were found only after an informant (discussed in FBI reports only as "Mr. X") passed along a tip to federal authorities.[24] They were discovered underneath an earthen dam on Olen Burrage's 254 acres (103 ha; 0.397 sq mi) farm. Schwerner and Goodman had each been shot once in the heart; Chaney, a black man, had been beaten and shot three times.

The identity of "Mr. X" was revealed publicly 40 years after the original events, and revealed to be Maynard King, a Mississippi Highway Patrol officer close to the head of the FBI investigation. King died in 1966.[25][26]

In a famous eulogy for James Chaney, CORE leader Dave Dennis voiced his rage, anguish, and turmoil:[27]

I blame the people in Washington DC and on down in the state of Mississippi just as much as I blame those who pulled the trigger. ... I'm tired of that! Another thing that makes me even tireder though, that is the fact that we as people here in the state and the country are allowing it to continue to happen. ... Your work is just beginning. If you go back home and sit down and take what these white men in Mississippi are doing to us. ...if you take it and don't do something about it. ...then God damn your souls![21][28]
Protest outside the 1964 Democratic National Convention; some hold signs with portraits of slain civil rights workers, 24 August 1964

Lyndon B. Johnson and civil rights activists used the outrage over the activists' deaths to gain passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which he signed on July 2. This and the Selma to Montgomery marches of 1965 contributed to passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which Johnson signed on August 6 of that year.

Malcolm X used the delayed resolution of the case in his argument that the federal government was not protecting black lives, and African-Americans would have to defend themselves: "And the FBI head, Hoover, admits that they know who did it, they’ve known ever since it happened, and they’ve done nothing about it. Civil rights bill down the drain."[29][30]

By late November 1964 the FBI accused 21 Mississippi men of engineering a conspiracy to injure, oppress, threaten, and intimidate Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner. Most of the suspects were apprehended by the FBI on December 4, 1964.[31] The FBI detained the following individuals: B. Akin, E. Akin, Arledge, T. Barnette, Burkes, Burrage, Bowers, Harris, Herndon, Killen, Posey, Price, Rainey, Roberts, Sharpe, Snowden, Townsend, Tucker, and Warner. Two individuals who were not interviewed and photographed, H. Barnette and James Jordan, would later confess their roles during the murder.[32]

Sheriff Lawrence Rainey being escorted by two FBI agents to the federal courthouse in Meridian, Mississippi; October 1964

Because Mississippi officials refused to prosecute the killers for murder, a state crime, the federal government, led by prosecutor John Doar, charged 18 individuals under 18 U.S.C. §242 and §371 with conspiring to deprive the three activists of their civil rights (by murder). They indicted Sheriff Rainey, Deputy Sheriff Price and 16 other men. A U. S. Commissioner dismissed the charges six days later, declaring that the confession on which the arrests were based was hearsay. One month later, government attorneys secured indictments against the conspirators from a federal grand jury in Jackson. On February 24, 1965, however, Federal Judge William Harold Cox, an ardent segregationist, threw out the indictments against all conspirators other than Rainey and Price on the ground that the other seventeen were not acting "under color of state law." In March, 1966, the United States Supreme Court overruled Cox and reinstated the indictments. Defense attorneys then made the argument that the original indictments were flawed because the pool of jurors from which the grand jury was drawn contained insufficient numbers of minorities. Rather than attempt to refute the charge, the government summoned a new grand jury and, on February 28, 1967, won reindictments.[33]

1967 Federal trial

Trial in the case of United States versus Cecil Price et al. began on October 7, 1967 in the Meridian courtroom of Judge William Cox, who was known to be an opponent of the civil rights movement. A jury of seven white men and five white women was selected. Defense attorneys exercised peremptory challenges against all seventeen potential black jurors. A white man, who admitted under questioning by Robert Hauberg, the U.S. Attorney for Mississippi, that he had been a member of the KKK "a couple of years ago," was challenged for cause, but Cox denied the challenge.

The trial was marked by frequent crisis. Star prosecution witness James Jordan cracked under the pressure of anonymous death threats made against him and had to be hospitalized at one point. The jury deadlocked on its decision and Judge Cox employed the "Allen charge" to bring them to resolution. Seven defendants, mostly from Lauderdale County, were convicted. The convictions in the case represented the first ever convictions in Mississippi for the killing of a civil rights worker.[33]

Those found guilty on October 20, 1967, were Cecil Price, Klan Imperial Wizard Samuel Bowers, Alton Wayne Roberts, Jimmy Snowden, Billey Wayne Posey, Horace Barnett, and Jimmy Arledge. Sentences ranged from 3 to 10 years. After exhausting their appeals, the seven began serving their sentences in March 1970. None served more than six years. Sheriff Rainey was among those acquitted. Two of the defendants, E.G. Barnett, a candidate for sheriff, and Edgar Ray Killen, a local minister, had been strongly implicated in the murders by witnesses, but the jury came to a deadlock on their charges and the Federal prosecutor decided not to retry them.[19] On May 7, 2000, the jury revealed that in the case of Killen, they deadlocked after a lone juror stated she "could never convict a preacher".[34]

Further research and 2005 murder trial

Mt. Zion Church state history marker
"To many", a longtime resident once acknowledged, "it will always be June 21, 1964, in Philadelphia."
— Cagin & Dray, We Are Not Afraid, 1988[35]

For much of the next four decades, no legal action was taken on the murders. In 1989, on the 25th anniversary of the murders, the U.S. Congress passed a non-binding resolution honoring the three men; Senator Trent Lott and the rest of the Mississippi delegation refused to vote for it.[36]

The journalist Jerry Mitchell, an award-winning investigative reporter for the Jackson Clarion-Ledger, wrote extensively about the case for six years. In the late 20th century, Mitchell had earned fame by his investigations that helped secure convictions in several other high-profile Civil Rights Era murder cases, including the murders of Medgar Evers and Vernon Dahmer, and the Birmingham Church Bombing.

In the case of the civil rights workers, Mitchell was aided in developing new evidence, finding new witnesses, and pressuring the state to take action by Barry Bradford,[37] a high school teacher at Adlai E. Stevenson High School in Lincolnshire, Illinois, and three of his students, Allison Nichols, Sarah Siegel, and Brittany Saltiel. Bradford later achieved recognition for helping Mitchell clear the name of the civil rights martyr Clyde Kennard.[38]

Together the student-teacher team produced a documentary for the National History Day contest. It presented important new evidence and compelling reasons to reopen the case. Bradford also obtained an interview with Edgar Ray Killen, which helped convince the state to investigate. Partially by using evidence developed by Bradford, Mitchell was able to determine the identity of "Mr. X", the mystery informer who had helped the FBI discover the bodies and end the conspiracy of the Klan in 1964.[39]

Mitchell's investigation and the high school students' work in creating Congressional pressure, national media attention and Bradford's taped conversation with Killen prompted action.[40] In 2004, on the 40th anniversary of the murders, a multi-ethnic group of citizens in Philadelphia, Mississippi, issued a call for justice. More than 1,500 people, including civil rights leaders and Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour, joined them to support having the case re-opened.[41][42]

On January 6, 2005, a Neshoba County grand jury indicted Edgar Ray Killen on three counts of murder. When the Mississippi Attorney General prosecuted the case, it was the first time the state had taken action against the perpetrators of these murders. Rita Bender, Michael Schwerner's widow, testified in the trial.[43] On June 21, 2005, a jury convicted Killen on three counts of manslaughter; he was described as the man who planned and directed the killing of the civil rights workers.[44] Killen, then 80 years old, was sentenced to three consecutive terms of 20 years in prison. His appeal, in which he claimed that no jury of his peers would have convicted him in 1964 based on the evidence presented, was rejected by the Mississippi Supreme Court in 2007.[45]

Legacy and honors

Individual

See:

National

Ohio

Michigan

Mississippi

New York

Washington, D.C.

Cultural references

Numerous works portray or refer to the stories of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner, the aftermath of their murders and subsequent trial, and other related events of that summer.

Film

Fine art

Literature

Music

Concert drama

Songs

Television

See also

References

  1. ↑ ""Mississippi Burning" murders". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
  2. ↑ http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/mississippi/e1.html, American Radio Works. Retrieved 19, 2012.
  3. ↑ http://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Ready-Reference/New-York-Times-Chronology/Browse-by-Date/New-York-Times-Chronology-September-1962.aspx, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. September 21, 1962, Retrieved 19, 2012.
  4. 1 2 3 Whitehead, Don (September 1970). "Murder in Mississippi". Reader's Digest: 196.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "June 21, 1964". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. .
  6. 1 2 Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "June 21, 1964". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. 2.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books.
  8. ↑ Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "Rock Cut Road". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. 282.
  9. ↑ Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "The Forty-Four Days". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. pp. 377–378.
  10. ↑ Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "Rock Cut Road". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. 287.
  11. ↑ Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "Rock Cut Road". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. 283.
  12. ↑ "Olen Burrage Dies at 82; Linked to Killings in 1964".
  13. 1 2 3 Whitehead, Don (September 1970). "Murder in Mississippi". Reader's Digest: 194.
  14. ↑ Seth Cagin, Philip Dray (1988). "Rock Cut Road". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. 278.
  15. ↑ Seth Cagin, Philip Dray (1988). "Rock Cut Road". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. pp. 285–286.
  16. ↑ "A Mississippi Freedom Summer Pilgrimage: An Atrocity We Must Never Forget". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-12-14.
  17. ↑ Ball, Howard (2004). "COFO's Mississippi 'Freedom Summer' Project". Murder in Mississippi. University Press of Kansas. p. 62.
  18. ↑ Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "A Problem of Law Enforcement". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. 329.
  19. 1 2 "Neshoba Murders Case—A Chronology". Arkansas Delta Truth and Justice Center. Retrieved September 11, 2011.
  20. ↑ Linder, Douglas O. "The Mississippi Burning Trial". Retrieved September 19, 2011.
  21. 1 2 Lynching of Chaney, Schwerner & Goodman ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans
  22. ↑ Ball, Howard (2004). "COFO's Mississippi 'Freedom Summer' Project". Murder in Mississippi. University Press of Kansas. p. 64.
  23. ↑ "Civil Rights: Grim Discovery in Mississippi". Time. June 22, 2005. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
  24. ↑ Whitehead, Don (September 1970). "Murder in Mississippi". Reader's Digest: 214.
  25. ↑ "Who Is Mr X In The Mississippi Burning Case?". Speaking For A Change. Retrieved 2015-12-14.
  26. ↑ "Documents identify whistle-blower". The Clarion-Ledger. Retrieved 2015-12-14.
  27. ↑ Rhetoric, Religion and the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965, Volume 1, edited by Davis W. Houck, David E. Dixon (Baylor University Press, 2006), p. 774-779
  28. ↑ "The Eulogy" Freedom Summer (film), PBS American Experience website
  29. ↑ "Malcolm X at Oxford Union" BBC Radio 4
  30. ↑ Saladin Ambar, Malcolm X at Oxford Union: Racial Politics in a Global Era (Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 178
  31. ↑ Nevin, David (December 1964). "Day of Accusation in Mississippi". Life. pp. 36–37.
  32. ↑ Douglas O. Linder (2012). "Mississippi Burning Trial: A Chronology". University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law. Retrieved 2012-05-11.
  33. 1 2 "The Mississippi Burning Trial (U. S. vs. Price et al.)" by Douglas O. Linder, University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law
  34. ↑ Jerry Mitchell, The (Jackson, Miss.) Clarion-Ledger (February 4, 2014). "Congressional honor sought for Freedom Summer martyrs". USA Today. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
  35. ↑ Cagin, Seth; Philip Dray (1988). "Raise America Up". We Are Not Afraid. Bantam Books. p. 454.
  36. ↑ Ladd, Donna (29 May 2007). "Dredging Up the Past: Why Mississippians Must Tell Our Own Stories". Jackson Free Press. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
  37. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9ro-kYKYHc/
  38. ↑
  39. ↑ Mitchell, Jerry (December 2, 2007). "Documents Identify Whistle-blower", The Clarion-Ledger (Jackson, MS).
  40. ↑ "How Mississippi Burning Was Reopened". MississippiBurning.org. Archived from the original on September 24, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2011.
  41. ↑ Broder, David S. (January 16, 2005). "Mississippi Healing". The Washington Post.
  42. ↑ "Statement Asking for Justice in the June 21, 1964, Murders of James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner".,The Neshoba Democrat. June 24, 2004. Retrieved July 7, 2011.
  43. ↑ Dewan, Shaila (June 17, 2005). "Widow Recalls Ghosts of '64 at Rights Trial". The New York Times. Retrieved October 15, 2011.
  44. ↑ Dewan, Shaila (June 22, 2005). "Ex-Klansman Guilty of Manslaughter in 1964 Deaths". The New York Times.
  45. ↑ "Mississippi: Convictions Upheld". The New York Times. Associated Press. April 13, 2007.
  46. ↑ "Roots of Struggle" (PDF). Neshoba Justice. Retrieved July 12, 2014.
  47. ↑ Andrew Goodman#mediaviewer/File:Mt. Zion Methodist Churchstate history marker in Neshoba County (alternate view).JPG
  48. 1 2 3 "Neshoba County". Mississippi Historical Markers. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
  49. ↑ Kingson Bloom, Jennifer (October 30, 1994). "NEIGHBORHOOD REPORT: UPPER WEST SIDE; Residents Shrinking as Freedom Place Is Slowly Sinking". The New York TImes.
  50. ↑ "The story behind a little-known West Side street". Ephemeral New York. April 24, 2009.
  51. ↑ "Chimes concert to honor Schwerner, Chaney, Goodman". Cornell Chronicle. June 16, 2014.
  52. 1 2 3 Cole, Amy (June 20, 2014). "Free Screening of Freedom Summer at The Picture House". ArtsWestchester. Westchester Arts Council.
  53. ↑ "Screening of "Freedom Summer" At The Picture House on June 22". The Pelhams-PLUS. June 11, 2014.
  54. ↑ Summer in Mississippi. IMDb. 1965. Retrieved July 12, 2014.
  55. ↑ Harvey, Dennis (November 4, 2008). "Neshoba". Variety. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
  56. ↑ "Norman Rockwell: Murder in Mississippi (June 14 - August 31, 2014; The Donna and Jim Barksdale Galleries for Changing Exhibitions)". Mississippi Museum of Art.
  57. ↑ Esaak, Shelley. "Murder in Mississippi (Southern Justice), 1965". About.com. Retrieved July 7, 2011.
  58. ↑ Oestreich, James R. (September 20, 2008). "All the Way Through Fateful Day for L.B.J.". The New York Times. Retrieved March 27, 2010.
  59. ↑ Seeger, Pete. "Those Three Are on My Mind". Pete Seeger Appreciation Page. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  60. ↑ "Law & Order: 'Chosen'". TV.com.

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