Political correctness

"Politically incorrect" redirects here. For the American television show, see Politically Incorrect. For other uses, see Politically incorrect (disambiguation).
"Politically Correct" redirects here. For other uses, see Politically Correct (disambiguation).

Political correctness (adjectivally: politically correct), commonly abbreviated to PC,[1] is a term which, in modern usage, is used to describe language, policies, or measures which are intended not to offend or disadvantage any particular group of people in society. In the media, the term is generally used as a pejorative, implying that these policies are excessive.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]

The term had only scattered usage before the early 1990s, usually as an ironic self-description, but entered more mainstream usage in the United States when it was the subject of a series of articles in The New York Times.[9][10][11][12][13][14] The phrase was widely used in the debate about Allan Bloom's 1987 book The Closing of the American Mind,[4][6][15][16] and gained further currency in response to Roger Kimball's Tenured Radicals (1990),[4][6][17][18] and conservative author Dinesh D'Souza's 1991 book Illiberal Education, in which he condemned what he saw as liberal efforts to advance self-victimization, multiculturalism through language, affirmative action, and changes to the content of school and university curricula.[4][5][17][19]

Commentators on the left have said that conservatives pushed the term in order to divert attention from more substantive matters of discrimination and as part of a broader culture war against liberalism.[17][20][21] They also argue that conservatives have their own forms of political correctness, which are generally ignored by conservative commenters.[22][23][24]

History

The term "politically correct" was used infrequently until the latter part of the 20th century. This earlier use did not communicate the social disapproval usually implied in more recent usage. In 1793, the term "politically correct" appeared in a U.S. Supreme Court judgment of a political lawsuit.[25] The term also had occasional use in other English-speaking countries.[26][27] William Safire states that the first recorded use of the term in the typical modern sense is by Toni Cade Bambara in the 1970 anthology The Black Woman.[28] The term probably entered use in the United Kingdom around 1975.[8]

Early-to-mid 20th century

In the early-to-mid 20th century, the phrase "politically correct" was associated with the dogmatic application of Stalinist doctrine, debated between Communist Party members and Socialists. This usage referred to the Communist party line, which provided for "correct" positions on many political matters. According to American educator Herbert Kohl, writing about debates in New York in the late 1940s and early 1950s,

The term "politically correct" was used disparagingly, to refer to someone whose loyalty to the CP line overrode compassion, and led to bad politics. It was used by Socialists against Communists, and was meant to separate out Socialists who believed in egalitarian moral ideas from dogmatic Communists who would advocate and defend party positions regardless of their moral substance.
— "Uncommon Differences", The Lion and the Unicorn Journal[3]

In March 1968, the French philosopher Michel Foucault is quoted as saying: "a political thought can be politically correct ('politiquement correcte') only if it is scientifically painstaking", referring to leftist intellectuals attempting to make Marxism scientifically rigorous rather than relying on orthodoxy.[29]

1970s

In the 1970s, the New Left began using the term "politically correct."[30] In the essay The Black Woman: An Anthology (1970), Toni Cade Bambara said that "a man cannot be politically correct and a [male] chauvinist, too." Thereafter, the term was often used as self-critical satire. Debra L. Shultz said that "throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives... used their term 'politically correct' ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts."[4][30][31] As such, PC is a popular usage in the comic book Merton of the Movement, by Bobby London, which then was followed by the term ideologically sound, in the comic strips of Bart Dickon.[30][32] In her essay "Toward a feminist Revolution" (1992) Ellen Willis said: "In the early eighties, when feminists used the term 'political correctness', it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti-pornography movement's efforts to define a 'feminist sexuality.'"[33]

Stuart Hall suggests one way in which the original use of the term may have developed into the modern one:

According to one version, political correctness actually began as an in-joke on the left: radical students on American campuses acting out an ironic replay of the Bad Old Days BS (Before the Sixties) when every revolutionary groupuscule had a party line about everything. They would address some glaring examples of sexist or racist behaviour by their fellow students in imitation of the tone of voice of the Red Guards or Cultural Revolution Commissar: "Not very 'politically correct', Comrade!"[34]

1980s

Critics, including Camille Paglia[35] and James Atlas,[36][37] have pointed to Allan Bloom's 1987 book The Closing of the American Mind[15] as the likely beginning of the modern debate — about what was soon named "political correctness" — in higher education.[4][6][16][38] Professor of English literary and cultural studies at CMU Jeffrey J. Williams wrote that the "assault on...political correctness that simmered through the Reagan years, gained bestsellerdom with Bloom's Closing of the American Mind." [39] According to Z.F. Gamson, "Bloom's Closing of the American Mind...attacked the faculty for 'political correctness'."[40] Prof. of Social Work at CSU Tony Platt goes further and says the "campaign against 'political correctness'" was launched by the book in 1987.[41]

A word search of six "regionally representative Canadian metropolitan newspapers", found only 153 articles in which the terms "politically correct" or "political correctness" appeared between 1 January 1987 and 27 October 1990.[12]

1990s

The October 1990 New York Times article by Richard Bernstein is described as influential in the term's development.[11][13][14][42][43] At this time, the term was mainly being used in academic contexts: "Across the country the term p.c., as it is commonly abbreviated, is being heard more and more in debates over what should be taught at the universities."[9] Nexis citations in "arcnews/curnews" reveal only seventy total citations in articles to "political correctness" for 1990; but one year later, Nexis records 1532 citations, with a steady increase to more than 7000 citations by 1994.[42][44] 7 months after the October article, in May 1991 The New York Times had a follow-up on the topic, according to which the term was increasingly being used in a wider public arena:

What has come to be called "political correctness," a term that began to gain currency at the start of the academic year last fall, has spread in recent months and has become the focus of an angry national debate, mainly on campuses, but also in the larger arenas of American life.
— "Political Correctness: New Bias Test?" - Robert D. McFadden[10]

The previously obscure far-left term became common currency in the lexicon of the conservative social and political challenges against progressive teaching methods and curriculum changes in the secondary schools and universities of the U.S.[5][45] Policies, behavior, and speech codes that the speaker or the writer regarded as being the imposition of a liberal orthodoxy, were described and criticized as "politically correct".[17] In May 1991, at a commencement ceremony for a graduating class of the University of Michigan, then U.S. President George H.W. Bush used the term in his speech: "The notion of political correctness has ignited controversy across the land. And although the movement arises from the laudable desire to sweep away the debris of racism and sexism and hatred, it replaces old prejudice with new ones. It declares certain topics off-limits, certain expression off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits."[46][47][48]

After 1991, its use as a pejorative phrase became widespread amongst conservatives in the US.[5] It became a key term encapsulating conservative concerns about the left in culture and political debate more broadly, as well as in academia. Two articles on the topic in late 1990 in Forbes and Newsweek both used the term "thought police" in their headlines, exemplifying the tone of the new usage, but it was Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus (1991) which "captured the press's imagination."[5] Similar critical terminology was used by D'Souza for a range of policies in academia around victimization, supporting multiculturalism through affirmative action, sanctions against anti-minority hate speech, and revising curricula (sometimes referred to as "canon busting").[5][49] These trends were at least in part a response to multiculturalism and the rise of identity politics, with movements such as feminism, gay rights movements and ethnic minority movements. That response received funding from conservative foundations and think tanks such as the John M. Olin Foundation, which funded several books such as D'Souza's.[4][17]

Herbert Kohl, in 1992, commented that a number of neoconservatives who promoted the use of the term "politically correct" in the early 1990s were former Communist Party members, and, as a result, familiar with the Marxist use of the phrase. He argued that in doing so, they intended "to insinuate that egalitarian democratic ideas are actually authoritarian, orthodox and Communist-influenced, when they oppose the right of people to be racist, sexist, and homophobic."[3]

During the 1990s, conservative and right-wing politicians, think-tanks, and speakers adopted the phrase as a pejorative descriptor of their ideological enemies – especially in the context of the Culture Wars about language and the content of public-school curricula. Roger Kimball, in Tenured Radicals, endorsed Frederick Crews's view that PC is best described as "Left Eclecticism", a term defined by Kimball as "any of a wide variety of anti-establishment modes of thought from structuralism and poststructuralism, deconstruction, and Lacanian analyst to feminist, homosexual, black, and other patently political forms of criticism."[18][39] Jan Narveson wrote that "that phrase was born to live between scare-quotes: it suggests that the operative considerations in the area so called are merely political, steamrolling the genuine reasons of principle for which we ought to be acting..."[2]

In the American Speech journal article "Cultural Sensitivity and Political Correctness: The Linguistic Problem of Naming" (1996), Edna Andrews said that the usage of culturally inclusive and gender-neutral language is based upon the concept that "language represents thought, and may even control thought".[50] Andrews' proposition is conceptually derived from the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis, which proposes that the grammatical categories of a language shape the ideas, thoughts, and actions of the speaker. Moreover, Andrews said that politically moderate conceptions of the language–thought relationship suffice to support the "reasonable deduction ... [of] cultural change via linguistic change" reported in the Sex Roles journal article "Development and Validation of an Instrument to Measure Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language" (2000), by Janet B. Parks and Mary Ann Robinson.

Liberal commentators have argued that the conservatives and reactionaries who used the term did so in effort to divert political discussion away from the substantive matters of resolving societal discrimination – such as racial, social class, gender, and legal inequality – against people whom the right-wing do not consider part of the social mainstream.[4][20][51][52][53][54][55] Commenting in 2001, one such British journalist,[56][57] Polly Toynbee, said "the phrase is an empty, right-wing smear, designed only to elevate its user", and, in 2010 "...the phrase "political correctness" was born as a coded cover for all who still want to say Paki, spastic, or queer..."[56][57][58][59] Another British journalist, Will Hutton,[60][61][62][63] wrote in 2001:

Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid–1980s, as part of its demolition of American liberalism.... What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism – by levelling the charge of "political correctness" against its exponents – they could discredit the whole political project.
— "Words Really are Important, Mr Blunkett"[21]

Glenn Loury described the situation in 1994 as such:

To address the subject of "political correctness," when power and authority within the academic community is being contested by parties on either side of that issue, is to invite scrutiny of one's arguments by would-be "friends" and "enemies." Combatants from the left and the right will try to assess whether a writer is "for them" or "against them."
— "Self-Censorship in Public Discourse: A Theory of "Political Correctness" and Related Phenomena"[64]

Modern usage

Media

See also: Media bias

In the US, the term has been widely used in the intellectual media, but in Britain, usage has been confined mainly to the popular press.[65] Many such authors and popular-media figures, particularly on the right, have used the term to critique what they see as bias in the media.[2][17] William McGowan argues that in his opinion journalists get stories wrong or ignore stories worthy of coverage, because of what McGowan perceives to be their liberal ideologies and their fear of offending minority groups.[66] Robert Novak, in his essay "Political Correctness Has No Place in the Newsroom", used the term to blame newspapers for adopting language use policies that he thinks tend to excessively avoid the appearance of bias. He argued that political correctness in language not only destroys meaning but also demeans the people who are meant to be protected.[67][68][69] Authors David Sloan and Emily Hoff claim that in the US journalists shrug off concerns about political correctness in the newsroom, equating the political correctness criticisms with the old "liberal media bias" label.[70]

Jessica Pinta and Joy Yakubu caution against political incorrectness in media and other uses, writing in the Journal of Educational and Social Research: "...linguistic constructs influence our way of thinking negatively, peaceful coexistence is threatened and social stability is jeopardized." What may result, they add as example "the effect of political incorrect use of language" in some historical occurrences:

Conflicts were recorded in Northern Nigeria as a result of insensitive use of language. In Kaduna for instance violence broke out on the 16th November 2002 following an article credited to one Daniel Isioma which was published in “This Day” Newspaper, where the writer carelessly made a remark about the Prophet Mohammed and the beauty queens of the Miss World Beauty Pageant that was to be hosted in the Country that year (Terwase n.d). In this crisis, He reported that over 250 people were killed and churches destroyed. In the same vein, crisis erupted on 18th February 2006 in Borno because of a cartoon of the Prophet Mohammed in Iyllands-posten Newspaper (Terwase n.d). Here over 50 people were killed and 30 churches burnt.
— "Language Use and Political Correctness for Peaceful Coexistence: Implications for Sustainable Development"[71]

Education

Much of the modern debate on the term was sparked by conservative critiques of liberal bias in academia and education, such as Allan Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind, Roger Kimball's Tenured Radicals and Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education;[4] and conservatives have used it as a major line of attack since.[5] University of Pennsylvania professor Alan Charles Kors and lawyer Harvey A. Silverglate connect speech codes in US universities to philosopher Herbert Marcuse. They claim that speech codes create a "climate of repression", arguing that they are based on "Marcusean logic". The speech codes, "mandate a redefined notion of "freedom", based on the belief that the imposition of a moral agenda on a community is justified", a view which, "requires less emphasis on individual rights and more on assuring "historically oppressed" persons the means of achieving equal rights." They claim:

Our colleges and universities do not offer the protection of fair rules, equal justice, and consistent standards to the generation that finds itself on our campuses. They encourage students to bring charges of harassment against those whose opinions or expressions "offend" them. At almost every college and university, students deemed members of "historically oppressed groups"--above all, women, blacks, gays, and Hispanics--are informed during orientation that their campuses are teeming with illegal or intolerable violations of their "right" not to be offended. Judging from these warnings, there is a racial or sexual bigot, to borrow the mocking phrase of McCarthy's critics, "under every bed."[72]

Kors and Silverglate later established the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE), which campaigns against infringement of rights of due process, rights of religion and speech, in particular "speech codes".[73] Similarly, a common conservative criticism of higher education in the United States is that the political views of the faculty are much more liberal than the general population, and that this situation contributes to an atmosphere of political correctness.[74]

Jessica Pinta and Joy Yakubu write that political correctness is useful in education, in the Journal of Educational and Social Research:

Political correctness is a useful area of consideration when using English language particularly in second language situations. This is because both social and cultural contexts of language are taken into consideration. Zabotkina (1989) says political correctness is not only an essential, but an interesting area of study in English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. This is because it presents language as used in carrying out different speech acts which provoke reactions as it can persuade, incite, complain, condemn, and disapprove. Language is used for communication and creating social linkages, as such must be used communicatively. Using language communicatively involves the ability to use language at the grammatical level, sociolinguistic level, discourse and strategic levels (Canale & Swain 1980). Understanding language use at these levels center around the fact that differences exist among people, who must communicate with one another, and the differences could be religious, cultural, social, racial, gender or even ideological. Therefore, using language to suit the appropriate culture and context is of great significance.
— "Language Use and Political Correctness for Peaceful Coexistence: Implications for Sustainable Development "[71]

Science

Groups who oppose certain generally accepted scientific views about evolution, second-hand tobacco smoke, AIDS, global warming, race, and other politically contentious scientific matters have said that PC liberal orthodoxy of academia is the reason why their perspectives of those matters have been rejected by the scientific community.[75] For example, in Lamarck's Signature: How Retrogenes are Changing Darwin's Natural Selection Paradigm (1999), Prof. Edward J. Steele said:

We now stand on the threshold of what could be an exciting new era of genetic research.... However, the 'politically correct' thought agendas of the neo–Darwinists of the 1990s are ideologically opposed to the idea of 'Lamarckian Feedback', just as the Church was opposed to the idea of evolution based on natural selection in the 1850s![76]

Zoologists Robert Pitman and Susan Chivers complained about popular and media negativity towards their discovery of two different types of killer whales, a "docile" type and a "wilder" type that ravages sperm whales by hunting in packs: "The forces of political correctness and media marketing seem bent on projecting an image of a more benign form (the Free Willy or Shamu model), and some people urge exclusive use of the name 'orca' for the species, instead of what is perceived as the more sinister label of "killer whale."[77]

Stephen Morris, an economist and a game theorist, built a game model on the concept of political correctness, where "a speaker (advisor) communicates with the objective of conveying information, but the listener (decision maker) is initially unsure if the speaker is biased. There were three main insights from that model. First, in any informative equilibrium, certain statements will lower the reputation of the speaker, independent of whether they turn out to be true. Second, if reputational concerns are sufficiently important, no information is conveyed in equilibrium. Third, while instrumental reputational concerns might arise for many reasons, a sufficient reason is that speakers wish to be listened to."[78][79][80][81] The Economist writes that "Mr Morris's model suggests that the incentive to be politically correct fades as society's population of racists, to take his example, falls."[79] He credits Glenn Loury with the basis of his work.[78]

Right-wing political correctness

"Political correctness" is a label typically used for left-wing terms and actions, but not for equivalent attempts to mold language and behavior on the right. However, the term "right-wing political correctness" is sometimes applied by commentators drawing parallels: in 1995, one author used the term "conservative correctness" arguing, in relation to higher education, that "critics of political correctness show a curious blindness when it comes to examples of conservative correctness. Most often, the case is entirely ignored or censorship of the Left is justified as a positive virtue. ... A balanced perspective was lost, and everyone missed the fact that people on all sides were sometimes censored."[22]

In 2003, Dixie Chicks, a U.S. country music group, criticized the then U.S. President George W. Bush for launching the war against Iraq.[82] They were criticized[83] and labeled "treasonous" by some U.S. right-wing commentators (including Ann Coulter and Bill O'Reilly).[23] Three years later, claiming that at the time "a virulent strain of right wing political correctness [had] all but shut down debate about the war in Iraq," journalist Don Williams wrote that "[the ongoing] campaign against the Chicks represents political correctness run amok" and observed, "the ugliest form of political correctness occurs whenever there's a war on."[23]

In 2003, French fries and French toast were renamed "Freedom fries" and "Freedom toast"[84] in three U.S. House of Representatives cafeterias in response to France's opposition to the proposed invasion of Iraq. This was described as "polluting the already confused concept of political correctness."[85] In 2004, then Australian Labor leader Mark Latham described conservative calls for "civility" in politics as "the new political correctness."[86]

In 2012, Paul Krugman wrote that "the big threat to our discourse is right-wing political correctness, which – unlike the liberal version – has lots of power and money behind it. And the goal is very much the kind of thing Orwell tried to convey with his notion of Newspeak: to make it impossible to talk, and possibly even think, about ideas that challenge the established order."[24]

As a conspiracy theory

Some radical right-wing groups in the West argue that "political correctness" and multiculturalism are part of a conspiracy with the ultimate goal of undermining Judeo-Christian western values. This theory, which holds that political correctness originates from the critical theory of the Frankfurt School as part of a conspiracy that its proponents call "Cultural Marxism", is generally known as the Frankfurt School conspiracy theory by academics.[87][88] The theory originated with Michael Minnicino's 1992 essay "New Dark Age: Frankfurt School and 'Political Correctness'", published in a Lyndon LaRouche movement journal.[89] In 2001, conservative commentator Patrick Buchanan wrote in The Death of the West that "political correctness is cultural Marxism", and that "its trademark is intolerance".[90]

False accusations

In the United States, left forces of "political correctness" have been blamed for censorship, with Time citing campaigns against violence on network television as contributing to a "mainstream culture [which] has become cautious, sanitized, scared of its own shadow" because of "the watchful eye of the p.c. police", even though in John Wilson's view protests and advertiser boycotts targeting TV shows are generally organized by right-wing religious groups campaigning against violence, sex, and depictions of homosexuality on television.[91]

In the United Kingdom, some newspapers reported that a nursery school had altered the nursery rhyme "Baa Baa Black Sheep" to read "Baa Baa Rainbow Sheep" and had banned the original.[92] But it was later reported that in fact the Parents and Children Together (PACT) nursery had the children "turn the song into an action rhyme.... They sing happy, sad, bouncing, hopping, pink, blue, black and white sheep etc."[93] This story was widely circulated and later extended to suggest that other language bans applied to the terms "black coffee" and "blackboard".[94] Private Eye magazine reported that similar stories had been published in the British press since The Sun first ran them in 1986.[95]

Satirical use

Political correctness is often satirized, for example in The PC Manifesto (1992) by Saul Jerushalmy and Rens Zbignieuw X,[96] and Politically Correct Bedtime Stories (1994) by James Finn Garner, which presents fairy tales re-written from an exaggerated politically correct perspective. In 1994, the comedy film PCU took a look at political correctness on a college campus.

Other examples include the television program Politically Incorrect, George Carlin’s "Euphemisms" routine, and The Politically Correct Scrapbook.[97] The popularity of the South Park cartoon program led to the creation of the term "South Park Republican" by Andrew Sullivan, and later the book South Park Conservatives by Brian C. Anderson.[98] In its Season 19, South Park has constantly been poking fun at the principle of political correctness, embodied in the show's new character, PC Principal.[99][100][101]

The Colbert Report's host Stephen Colbert often talked, satirically, about the "PC Police".[102][103]

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, as the 1997 handover drew nearer, greater control over the press was exercised by both owners and the Chinese state. This had a direct impact on news coverage of relatively sensitive political issues. The Chinese authorities exerted pressure on individual newspapers to take pro-Beijing stances on controversial issues.[104][105][106] Tung Chee-hwa's policy advisers and senior bureaucrats increasingly linked their actions and remarks to "political correctness." Zhaojia Liu and Siu-kai Lau, writing in The first Tung Chee-hwa administration : the first five years of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, said that "Hong Kong has traditionally been characterized as having freedom of speech and freedom of press, but that an unintended consequence of emphasizing political 'correctness' is to limit the space for such freedom of expression."[107]

Use in research

According to ThinkProgress, the "ongoing conversation about P.C. often relies on anecdotal evidence rather than data,"[108] but some research has been done. In 2014, researchers at Cornell University reported that political correctness increased creativity in mixed-sex work teams,[109] saying "the effort to be P.C. can be justified not merely on moral grounds but also by the practical and potentially profitable consequences."[108]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "'politically correct', definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary". dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
  2. 1 2 3 Friedman, Marilyn; Narveson, Jan (1995). Political correctness : for and against. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0847679861. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
  3. 1 2 3 Kohl, Herbert (1992). "Uncommon Differences: On Political Correctness, Core Curriculum and Democracy in Education". The Lion and the Unicorn 16 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1353/uni.0.0216. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Schultz, Debra L. (1993). "To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the 'Political Correctness' Debates in Higher Education" (PDF). New York: National Council for Research on Women.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Whitney, D. Charles and Wartella, Ellen (1992). "Media Coverage of the "Political Correctness" Debate". Journal of Communication 42 (2). doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00780.x.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Roberts, Peter (1997). "Paulo Freire and political correctness". Educational Philosophy and Theory: Incorporating ACCESS 29 (2). doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.1997.tb00022.x.
  7. ↑ Duignan, Peter; Gann, L.H. (1995). Political correctness. Stanford, [Calif.]: Hoover Institution - Stanford University. ISBN 0817937439. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  8. 1 2 Hughes, Geoffrey (2011). "Origins of the Phrase". Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. John Wiley & Sons. "1975 - Peter Fuller". ISBN 978-1-4443-6029-5.
  9. 1 2 Bernstein, Richard (28 October 1990). "IDEAS & TRENDS; The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct". The New York Times.
  10. 1 2 McFadden, Robert D. (5 May 1991). "Political Correctness: New Bias Test?". The New York Times.
  11. 1 2 Berman, edited by Paul (1992). Debating P.C. : the controversy over political correctness on college campuses. p. Introduction. ISBN 0307801780.
  12. 1 2 Heteren, Annette Gomis van (1997). Political correctness in context : the PC controversy in America. Almeria: Universidad de Almería, Servicio de Publicaciones. p. 148. ISBN 8482400835.
  13. 1 2 Smith, Dorothy E. (1999). Writing the social : critique, theory, and investigations (Repr. ed.). Toronto (Ont.): University of Toronto press. p. 175. ISBN 0802081355. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  14. 1 2 Schwartz, Howard S. (1997). "Psychodynamics of Political Correctness". Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 33 (2): 133–149. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
  15. 1 2 Bellow, Allan Bloom ; foreword by Saul (1988). The closing of the American mind (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0671657151.
  16. 1 2 Robinson, Sally (2000). Marked men white masculinity in crisis. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 17, 55–86. ISBN 023150036X.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p26
  18. 1 2 Kimball, Roger (1990). Tenured radicals : how politics has corrupted our higher education (1st ed.). New York: Harper & Row - Originally from The University of Michigan. ISBN 0060161906.
  19. ↑ D'Souza, Dinesh (1991). Illiberal education : the politics of race and sex on campus. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0684863847. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  20. 1 2 Messer-Davidow, Ellen (1995). "Manufacturing the Attack on Liberalized Higher Education: The Humanities and Society in the 1990s".
  21. 1 2 Will Hutton, “Words really are important, Mr Blunkett” The Observer, Sunday 16 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.
  22. 1 2 "Conservative Correctness" chapter, in Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on Higher Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p. 57
  23. 1 2 3 "Don Williams Insights – Dixie Chicks Were Right". Retrieved 9 November 2007.
  24. 1 2 Krugman, Paul (26 May 2012). "The New Political Correctness". New York Times. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
  25. ↑ In the 18th century, the term "politically correct" occurs in the case of Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 419 (1793). Associate Justice James Wilson, of the U.S. Supreme Court comments: "The states, rather than the People, for whose sakes the States exist, are frequently the objects which attract and arrest our principal attention... Sentiments and expressions of this inaccurate kind prevail in our common, even in our convivial, language. Is a toast asked? 'The United States', instead of the 'People of the United States', is the toast given. This is not politically correct." Chisholm v State of GA, 2 US 419 (1793) Findlaw.com – Accessed 6 February 2007.
  26. ↑ 18 August 1804. "(London) Courier". p. 2. In your paper on Monday [...] you offered some observations to your readers which were evidently well-meant though they were not politically correct
  27. ↑ "Australian Mail And New Zealand Express". newspaperarchive.com. 1861-06-15. Retrieved 2015-11-29. For to call it " a new colony " is only politically correct - the stress should be laid on the word "colony".
  28. ↑ Safire, William (2008). Safire's political dictionary (Rev. ed.). New York [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0195343344.
  29. ↑ Foucault, Michel (March 1968). "Foucault répond à Sartre". La Quinzaine littéraire (46). Retrieved 15 January 2015.
  30. 1 2 3 Ruth Perry, (1992), "A Short History of the Term 'Politically Correct'", in Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding, by Patricia Aufderheide, 1992
  31. ↑ Schultz citing Perry (1992) p.16
  32. ↑ Joel Bleifuss (February 2007). "A Politically Correct Lexicon". In These Times.
  33. ↑ Ellen Willis, "Toward a Feminist Revolution", in No More Nice Girls: Countercultural Essays (1992) Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0-8195-5250-X, p. 19.
  34. ↑ Hall, Stuart (1994). "Some 'Politically Incorrect' Pathways Through PC" (PDf). S. Dunant (ed.) The War of the Words: The Political Correctness Debate. pp. 164–184.
  35. ↑ Paglia, Camille (July 1997). "Ask Camille". Salon.com. Archived from the original on 11 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  36. ↑ Atlas, James (1988-01-03). "CHICAGO'S GRUMPY GURU". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
  37. ↑ Atlas, James (1990). The book wars. Knoxville, Tenn.: Whittle Direct Books. ISBN 9780962474538.
  38. ↑ Kamiya, Gary (22 January 1995). "Civilization & Its Discontents". The Examiner Magazine. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  39. 1 2 Williams, Jeffrey (2013). PC Wars: Politics and Theory in the Academy. Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 1136656235. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  40. ↑ Gamson, Z.F. (1997). "The Stratification of the Academy". Academic Labor - Duke University Press 51: 67–73. doi:10.2307/466647. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  41. ↑ Platt, Tony. "Desegregating Multiculturalism: Problems in the Theory and Pedagogy of Diversity Education" (PDF). Pedagogies for Social Change 29 (4 (90)). Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  42. 1 2 Valdes, edited by Francisco; Culp,, Jerome McCristal; Harris, Angela P. (2002). Crossroads, directions, and a new critical race theory. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 59, 65. ISBN 1566399300.
  43. ↑ Anthony Browne (2006). "The Retreat of Reason: Political Correctness and the Corruption of Public Debate in Modern Britain". Civitas. ISBN 1903386500
  44. ↑ Cho, Sumi (1997). "Essential Politics". Harvard Lat. Law Review 433.
  45. ↑ D'Souza 1991; Berman 1992; Schultz 1993; Messer Davidow 1993, 1994; Scatamburlo 1998
  46. ↑ U.S. President H.W. Bush, at the University of Michigan (4 May 1991), Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor, 4 May 1991. George Bush Presidential Library.
  47. ↑ Meaghan, Morris (2013). New Keywords a Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN 1118725417.
  48. ↑ edited; Aufderheide, with an introduction by Patricia (1992). Beyond PC : toward a politics of understanding. Saint Paul, Minn.: Graywolf Press. p. 227. ISBN 1555971644.
  49. ↑ In The New York Times newspaper article "The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct", the reporter Richard Bernstein said that:
    The term "politically correct", with its suggestion of Stalinist orthodoxy, is spoken more with irony and disapproval than with reverence. But, across the country the term "P.C.", as it is commonly abbreviated, is being heard more and more in debates over what should be taught at the universities.
    — The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct, NYT (28 October 1990) Bernstein, Richard (28 October 1990). "IDEAS & TRENDS; The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct – The New York Times". Retrieved 22 May 2010.
    Bernstein also reported about a meeting of the Western Humanities Conference in Berkeley, California, on the subject of "Political Correctness" and Cultural Studies that examined "what effect the pressure to conform to currently fashionable ideas is having on scholarship". Western Humanities Conference
  50. ↑ Cultural Sensitivity and Political Correctness: The Linguistic Problem of Naming, Edna Andrews, American Speech, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Winter, 1996), pp.389–404.
  51. ↑ Lauter, Paul (1993). "'Political Correctness' and the Attack on American Colleges".
  52. ↑ Stimpson, Catharine R. (29 May 1991). "New 'Politically Correct' Metaphors Insult History and Our Campuses.".
  53. ↑ James, Axtell (1998). The Pleasures of Academe: A Celebration & Defense of Higher Education.
  54. ↑ Scatamburlo, Valerie L. (1998). Soldiers of Misfortune: The New Right's Culture War and the Politics of Political Correctness.
  55. ↑ Glassner, Barry (5 Jan 2010). The Culture of Fear: Why Americans Are Afraid of the Wrong Things: Crime, Drugs, Minorities, Teen Moms, Killer Kids, Mutant Microbes, Plane Crashes, Road Rage, & So Much More.
  56. 1 2 Tomlinson, Sally (2008). Race and education : policy and politics in Britain ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Maidenhead [u.a]: Open Univ. Press. p. 161. ISBN 0335223079.
  57. 1 2 Dekker, Teun J. (2013). Paying Our High Public Officials: Evaluating the Political Justifications of Top Wages in the Public Sector. Routledge Research in Public Administration and Public Policy. p. 119. ISBN 1135131260.
  58. ↑ Polly Toynbee, "Religion Must be Removed from all Functions of State", The Guardian, Sunday 12 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.
  59. ↑ Toynbee, Polly (28 April 2009). "This Bold Equality Push is just what We Needed. In 1997". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 22 May 2010.
  60. ↑ Hutton, Will (2015). How Good We Can Be: Ending the Mercenary Society and Building a Great Country. Hachette UK. p. 80. ISBN 140870532X.
  61. ↑ Albrow, Martin (1997). The global age state and society beyond modernity (1st ed.). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press. p. 215. ISBN 0804728704.
  62. ↑ "The Economist: Will Hutton, p. 81". Economist Newspaper Limited. The Economist. 2002.
  63. ↑ Gyuris, Ferenc (2014). The Political Discourse of Spatial Disparities Geographical Inequalities Between Science and Propaganda. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 68. ISBN 3319015087.
  64. ↑ Loury, G. C. (1 October 1994). "Self-Censorship in Public Discourse: A Theory of "Political Correctness" and Related Phenomena" (PDF). Rationality and Society 6 (4): 428–461. doi:10.1177/1043463194006004002. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  65. ↑ Lea, John (2010). Political Correctness and Higher Education: British and American Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 1135895880. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  66. ↑ McGowan, William (2003). Coloring the news : how political correctness has corrupted American journalism ([New postscript]. ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: Encounter Books. ISBN 1893554600.
  67. ↑ Gorham, Joan (1996). Mass Media. Dushkin Publishing Group. - Indiana University. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  68. ↑ Novak, Robert (March 1995). "Political Correctness Has No Place in the Newsroom". USA TODAY. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  69. ↑ Sloan, David; Mackay, Jenn (2007). Media Bias. McFarland. p. 112. ISBN 0786455055.
  70. ↑ Sloan, David; Hoff, Emily (1998). Contemporary media issues. Northport: Vision Press - Indiana University. p. 63. ISBN 1885219105. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  71. 1 2 Pinta, Jessica; Yakubu, Joy (2014). "Language Use and Political Correctness for Peaceful Coexistence: Implications for Sustainable Development". Journal of Educational and Social Research 4 (5). Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  72. ↑ Kors, A. C.; Silverglate, H (November 1998). "Codes of silence – who's silencing free speech on campus – and why". Reason Magazine. Archived from the original on 2004-08-03. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
  73. ↑ Leo, John (Winter 2007). "Free Inquiry? Not on Campus". City Journal (Manhattan Institute for Policy Research). Retrieved 2008-03-25.
  74. ↑ Hess, Frederick M.; Maranto, Robert; Redding, Richard E. (2009). The politically correct university : problems, scope, and reforms. Washington, D.C.: AEI Press. ISBN 0844743178.
  75. ↑ Bethell, Tom (2005). The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science. Washington, D.C: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0-89526-031-X.
  76. ↑ Robert V. Blanden; Steele, Edward David; Lindley, Robyn A. (1999). Lamarck’s Signature: How Retrogenes are Changing Darwin's Natural Selection Paradigm. Reading, Mass: Perseus Books. ISBN 0-7382-0171-5.
  77. ↑ Cummings, Michael S. (2001). Beyond political correctness : social transformation in the United States. Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 1588260062. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  78. 1 2 Morris, Stephen (April 2001). "Political Correctness" (PDF). Journal of Political Economy 109 (2): 231–265. doi:10.1086/319554. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  79. 1 2 "The PC crowd - A look at the economics of political correctness". The Economist. 14 June 2001. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  80. ↑ Kuvalekar, Aditya (20 January 2015). "Here’s How Political Correctness Will Affect Policy Making". Swarajya. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  81. ↑ Bershidsky, Leonid (7 August 2015). "Trump's Risky Bet Against Political Correctness". Bloomberg. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  82. ↑ At a concert in London, on 10 March 2003, Natalie Maines introduced the song "Travelin' Soldier" by saying, "Just so you know, we're on the good side with y'all. We do not want this war … we're ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas." "'Shut Up And Sing': Dixie Chicks' Big Grammy Win Caps Comeback From Backlash Over Anti-War Stance". Democracy Now!. 15 February 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2007.
  83. ↑ Campbell, Duncan (25 April 2003). "'Dixie sluts' fight on with naked defiance". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
  84. ↑ "An Order of Fries, Please, but Do Hold the French".
  85. ↑ "Freedom fries and French toast".
  86. ↑ "The New Political Correctness: Speech By Mark Latham [26 August 2002]". Australianpolitics.com. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
  87. ↑ Richardson, John E. "‘Cultural-Marxism’ and the British National Party: a transnational discourse". In Copsey, Nigel; Richardson, John E. Cultures of Post-War British Fascism.
  88. ↑ Jamin, Jérôme (2014). "Cultural Marxism and the Radical Right". In Shekhovtsov, A.; Jackson, P. The Post-War Anglo-American Far Right: A Special Relationship of Hate. The Post-War Anglo-American Far Right: A Special Relationship of Hate (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan). pp. 84–103. doi:10.1057/9781137396211.0009. ISBN 978-1-137-39619-8. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
  89. ↑ Jay, Martin (2010), "Dialectic of Counter-Enlightenment: The Frankfurt School as Scapegoat of the Lunatic Fringe". Salmagundi (Fall 2010-Winter 2011, 168–169): 30–40.
  90. ↑ Buchanan, Patrick. The Death of the West, p. 89
  91. ↑ Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p.7
  92. ↑ Blair, Alexandra (7 March 2006). "Why black sheep are barred and Humpty can't be cracked". London: The Times. Retrieved 5 October 2007.
  93. ↑ "Nursery opts for 'rainbow' sheep". BBC News. 7 March 2006. Retrieved 6 October 2007.
  94. ↑ "Teen Ink – Bah, Bah, Rainbow Sheep". Retrieved 6 October 2007.
  95. ↑ "Obsolete: Baa Baa Rainbow Bollocks.". Retrieved 6 October 2007.
  96. ↑ "TidBits: The PC Manifesto". Fiction.net. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
  97. ↑ "Book – Buy Now". Capc.co.uk. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
  98. ↑ Anderson, Brian C. (Autumn 2003). "We're Not Losing the Culture Wars Anymore". Retrieved 9 November 2007.
  99. ↑ Caffrey, Dan. "PC Principal rides the line between hero and villain on the season finale of South Park". avclub.com. AV Club. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  100. ↑ Bell, Crystal. "‘South Park’ Perfectly Showed How To Do A Caitlyn Jenner Joke Right". mtv.com. MTV. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  101. ↑ Coombs, Alexa Moutevelis. "‘South Park’ Brilliantly Mocks PC Culture". newsbusters.org. Newsbuster. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  102. ↑ Steinberg, Dan (27 March 2014). "Colbert Report on Redskins’ new foundation". The Washington Post. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  103. ↑ D'addario, Daniel. "Stephen Colbert jokes about #CancelColbert: "The system worked!"". salon.com. Salon. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  104. ↑ Lai, Carol. P (2007). Media in Hong Kong: Press Freedom and Political Change, 1967-2005. Routledge. p. 137. ISBN 113414508X. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  105. ↑ Chan, Joseph M.; Lee, Francis L.F. (2013). Media and Politics in Post-Handover Hong Kong. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 4. ISBN 1317968786.
  106. ↑ Goodstadt, Leo F. (2014). Poverty in the Midst of Affluence: How Hong Kong Mismanaged Its Prosperity. Hong Kong University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9888208225.
  107. ↑ Siu-kai, edited by Lau (2002). The first Tung Chee-hwa administration : the first five years of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. p. 298. ISBN 962996015X. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  108. 1 2 Hellerstein, Erica (January 14, 2016). "The Phony Debate About Political Correctness". ThinkProgress. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
  109. ↑ Catt, Mary (November 4, 2014). "PC workplace boosts creativity in male-female teams". Cornell Chronicle. Cornell.edu. Retrieved March 19, 2016.

Further reading

External links

Look up politically correct in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Monday, May 02, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.