Polyketide synthase

Polyketide synthases (PKSs) are a family of multi-domain enzymes or enzyme complexes that produce polyketides, a large class of secondary metabolites, in bacteria, fungi, plants, and a few animal lineages. The biosyntheses of polyketides share striking similarities with fatty acid biosynthesis.[1][2]

The PKS genes for a certain polyketide are usually organized in one operon in bacteria and in gene clusters in eukaryotes.

Classification

PKSs can be classified into three groups:

Type I PKSs are further subdivided:

Iterative PKSs (IPKSs) can be still further subdivided:

Modules and domains

Biosynthesis of the doxorubicin precursor, є-rhodomycinone. The polyketide synthase reactions are shown on top.

Each type I polyketide-synthase module consists of several domains with defined functions, separated by short spacer regions. The order of modules and domains of a complete polyketide-synthase is as follows (in the order N-terminus to C-terminus):

Domains:

The polyketide chain and the starter groups are bound with their carboxy functional group to the SH groups of the ACP and the KS domain through a thioester linkage: R-C(=O)OH + HS-protein <=> R-C(=O)S-protein + H2O.

Stages

The growing chain is handed over from one thiol group to the next by trans-acylations and is released at the end by hydrolysis or by cyclization (alcoholysis or aminolysis).

Starting stage:

Elongation stages:

Termination stage:

Pharmacological relevance

Polyketide synthases are an important source of naturally occurring small molecules used for chemotherapy.[3] For example, many of the commonly used antibiotics, such as tetracycline and macrolides, are produced by polyketide synthases. Other industrially important polyketides are sirolimus (immunosuppressant), erythromycin (antibiotic), lovastatin (anticholesterol drug), and epothilone B (anticancer drug).[4]

Ecological significance

Only about 1% of all known molecules are natural products, yet it has been recognized that that almost two thirds of all drugs currently in use are at least in part derived from a natural source.[5] This bias is commonly explained with the argument that natural products have co-evolved in the environment for long time periods and have therefore been pre-selected for active structures. Polyketide synthase products include lipids with antibiotic, antifungal, antitumor, and predator-defense properties; however, many of the polyketide synthase pathways that bacteria, fungi and plants commonly use have not yet been characterized.[6][7] Methods for the detection of novel polyketide synthase pathways in the environment have therefore been developed. Molecular evidence supports the notion that many novel polyketides remain to be discovered from bacterial sources.[8][9]

See also

References

  1. Khosla, C.; Gokhale, R. S.; Jacobsen, J. R.; Cane, D. E. (1999). "Tolerance and Specificity of Polyketide Synthases". Annual Review of Biochemistry 68: 219–253. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.68.1.219. PMID 10872449.
  2. Jenke-Kodama, H.; Sandmann, A.; Müller, R.; Dittmann, E. (2005). "Evolutionary Implications of Bacterial Polyketide Synthases". Molecular Biology and Evolution 22 (10): 2027–2039. doi:10.1093/molbev/msi193. PMID 15958783.
  3. Koehn, F. E.; Carter, G. T. (2005). "The evolving role of natural products in drug discovery". Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 4 (3): 206–220. doi:10.1038/nrd1657. PMID 15729362.
  4. Wawrik, B.; Kerkhof, L.; Zylstra, G. J.; Kukor, J. J. (2005). "Identification of Unique Type II Polyketide Synthase Genes in Soil". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71 (5): 2232–2238. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.5.2232-2238.2005. PMC 1087561. PMID 15870305.
  5. Von Nussbaum, F.; Brands, M.; Hinzen, B.; Weigand, S.; Häbich, D. (2006). "Antibacterial Natural Products in Medicinal Chemistry—Exodus or Revival?". Angewandte Chemie International Edition 45 (31): 5072–5129. doi:10.1002/anie.200600350. PMID 16881035.
  6. Castoe, T. A.; Stephens, T.; Noonan, B. P.; Calestani, C. (2007). "A novel group of type I polyketide synthases (PKS) in animals and the complex phylogenomics of PKSs". Gene 392 (1–2): 47–58. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2006.11.005. PMID 17207587.
  7. Ridley, C. P.; Lee, H. Y.; Khosla, C. (2008). "Chemical Ecology Special Feature: Evolution of polyketide synthases in bacteria". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (12): 4595–4600. doi:10.1073/pnas.0710107105. PMC 2290765. PMID 18250311.
  8. Metsä-Ketelä, M.; Salo, V.; Halo, L.; Hautala, A.; Hakala, J.; Mäntsälä, P.; Ylihonko, K. (1999). "An efficient approach for screening minimal PKS genes from Streptomyces". FEMS microbiology letters 180 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1016/S0378-1097(99)00453-X. PMID 10547437.
  9. Wawrik, B.; Kutliev, D.; Abdivasievna, U. A.; Kukor, J. J.; Zylstra, G. J.; Kerkhof, L. (2007). "Biogeography of Actinomycete Communities and Type II Polyketide Synthase Genes in Soils Collected in New Jersey and Central Asia". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73 (9): 2982–2989. doi:10.1128/AEM.02611-06. PMC 1892886. PMID 17337547.

External links

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