Proto-Indo-Iranian language
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Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Indo-Iranic[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian/Indo-Iranic branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Indo-Iranian was a Satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, and the Nuristani languages.
Descriptive phonology
| Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Laryngeal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| dental/
alveolar |
post-
alveolar |
first | second | |||||
| Plosive | *p | *t | *ĉ | *č | *k | |||
| voiced | *b | *d | *ĵ | *ǰ | *g | |||
| aspirated | *bʰ | *dʰ | *ĵʰ | *ǰʰ | *gʰ | |||
| Fricative | *s | *š | *H | |||||
| voiced | (*z) | (*ž) | ||||||
| Nasal | *m | *n | ||||||
| Liquid | *l | *r *r̥ | ||||||
| Semivowel | *y | *w | ||||||
| High | *i *ī *u *ū |
|---|---|
| Low | *a *ā |
In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core.
Two palatal series
Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to contain two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[2] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the "primary"/"first" series (*ĉ *ĵ *ĵʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the "second(ary)" series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars *k⁽ʷ⁾ *g⁽ʷ⁾ *gʰ⁽ʷ⁾ in palatalizing contexts). The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[3][4]
| PII | Sanskrit | Proto-Iranian | Avestan | Old Persian | Nuristani |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ĉ | ś ([ɕ]) | *ts | s | θ | ċ ([ts]) / š |
| *ĵ | j ([ɟ]) | *dz | z | d | j ([dz]) / z |
| *ĵʰ | h ([ɦ]) | ||||
| *č | c | *č | č | č | č |
| *ǰ | j ([ɟ]) | *ǰ | ǰ | ǰ | ǰ / ž |
| *ǰʰ | h ([ɦ]) |
Laryngeal
Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic position. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Avestan as unwritten glottal stops.[5]
Accent
Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[6]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent, indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.
Historical phonology
The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.
A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:
- The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *k̂ *ĝ *ĝʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ĉ, *ĵ, *ĵʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[7]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *k̂m̥tóm | *ĉatám | śatám | satəm | centum | "hundred" |
| *ĝónu | *ĵā́nu | jā́nu | zānu | genu | "knee" |
| *ĝʰéi-mn̥ | *ĵʰimá- | himá- | zima- | hiems | "winter" / "snow" |
| *kʷó- | *ká- | ká- | kō | quis | "who?, what?" |
| *gʷou- | *gau- | go | gau- | bos, bovis | "cow" |
| *gʷʰormó- | *gʰarmá- | gharmá- | garəma- | formus | "warmth, heat" |
- The PIE syllabic liquids *l̥, *r̥ merge as *r̥.[8]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *wĺ̥kʷo- | *wŕ̥ka- | *vŕ̥ka- | vəhrka- | lupus | "wolf" |
- The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[8]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *k̂m̥tóm | *ĉatám | śatám | satəm | centum | "hundred" |
| *mn̥tó- | *matá | matá- | mens, mentis | "thinking" |
- Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dzdʰ.[9]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ubʰto- | *ubdʰa- | ubdaēna | "woven" / "made of woven material" | |
| *urdʰto- | *urdzdʰa- | vr̥ddʰá- | vrzda- | "complete/mature" |
| *augʰ-tá- | *augdʰá- | *óhate | *augda | "he said" |
- The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following *r *r̥ *u *k or *i. Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[8]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *wers- | *warš- | varṣman- | uerruca | "summit" | |
| *pr̥sto- | *pr̥šta- | pr̥ṣṭhá- | paršta | "back" / "backbone" | |
| *ǵeus- | *ĵauš- | joṣati | zaošō | gus-tus | "taste" |
| *kʷsep- | *kšap- (< *ksep) | kṣāp | xšap | "darkness" | |
| *wis- | *wiš- | viṣa- | viša- | uirus | "poison" |
| *nisdo- | *nižda- | nīḍa- | nidus | "nest" |
- Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[10]
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₂ok̂tṓ | *oĉtṓ | *aštā́ | aṣṭaú | ašta | octo | "eight" |
| *h₃mr̥ĝt- | *mr̥ĵd- | *mr̥žd- | mr̥ḍīká- | mərəžḍīka | "wiped away" / "pardon" | |
| *uĝʰtó- | *uĵʰtó- | *uždʰá- | ūḍhá- | uectus | "carried" |
- The sequence *ĉs was simplified to *šš.[11]
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₂ék̂s- | *áĉs- | *ášš- | ákṣa- | aši- | axis | "shoulder" / "axle" |
- The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[9]
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *kʷe | *ke | *ča | ca | ča | -que | "and" | |
| *gʷíh₃weti | *gíh₃weti | *ǰī́wati | jī́vati | jvaiti | uiu-ere | "lives" | |
| *gʷʰénti | *gʰénti | *ǰʰánti | hánti | jainti | fend-ere | "slays" |
- Brugmann's law: *o in an open syllable lengthens to *ō.[12]
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *deh₃tór-m | *deh₃tṓr-m | *dātā́ram | dātā́ram | dātāram | datorem | "giver" (acc. sg.) |
- The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *kʷe | *ča (< *če) | ca | ča | -que | "and" |
| *gʷʰormó- | *gʰarmá- | gharmá- | garəma- | formus | "heat" |
| *bʰréh₂tēr | *bʰrā́tār | bhrā́tā | brātā | frater | "brother" |
| *wōkʷs | *wākš | vāk | vāxš | vox | "voice" |
- In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[13][14]
- Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ph₂trei | *pitrai | pitre | piθrai | patri | "father" (dative singular) |
- Following a consonant and word-final
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *-medʰh₂ | *-madʰi | -mahi | -madi | (1st person plural middle ending) |
- The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[15]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ph₂tér | *pHtā́ | pitā́ | ptā | pater | "father" (nominative singular) |
- According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[16]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *bʰeh₂g- | *bʰag- ( < *bʰaHg- ) | bʰag- | baxša | "distribute" |
Subsequent sound changes
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.
| PIE | OInd/VS | Av | PIE | OInd/VS | Av | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *p | > | p | p | *ph̥atēr "father" | pitā́ "father" | pitar- "father" |
| *b | > | b | b | *bel- "strong" | bálam "strength" | - |
| *bʰ | > | bh | b | *bʰréhatēr "brother" | bhrā́tār- "brother" | brātar- "brother |
| *t | > | t | t | *tuhxóm "thou" | tuvám "thou" | tvəm "thou" |
| *d | > | d | d | *doru "wood" | dā́ru "wood" | dāru- "wood" |
| *dʰ | > | dh | d | *dʰohxneha- "grain" | dhānā́- "grain" | dāna- "grain" |
| *k̂ | > | ś | s | *dék̂m̥ "ten" | dáśa "ten" | dasa "ten" |
| *ĝ | > | j | z | *ĝónu "knee" | jā́nu "knee" | zānu- "knee" |
| *ĝʰ | > | h | z | *ĝʰimós "cold" | himá- "cold, frost" | zəmaka- "winterstorm" |
| *k | > | k ~ c | x ~ č | *kruharós "bloody" | krūrá- "bloody" | xrūra- "bloody" |
| *téket "may he run" | - | tačat̰ "may he run" | ||||
| *g | > | g ~ j | g ~ ǰ | *haéuges- "strength" | ójas- "strength" | aoǰah "strength" |
| *haugrós "strong" | ugrá- "strong" | ugra- "strong" | ||||
| *gʰ | > | gh ~ h | g ~ ǰ | *dl̥hxgʰós "long" | dīrghá- "long" | darəga- "long" |
| *dlehxghistos "longest" | - | draǰišta- "longest" | ||||
| *kʷ | > | k ~ c | k ~ č | *kʷós "who" | káḥ "who" | kō "who" |
| *kʷe "and" | ca "and" | ́ča "and" | ||||
| *gʷ | > | g ~ j | g ~ ǰ | *gʷou- "cow" | gav- "cow" | gau- "cow" |
| *gwih3uós "alive" | jīvá- "alive" | OPer: ǰīva
- "living" | ||||
| *gʷʰ | > | gh ~ h | g ~ ǰ | *gʷʰnénti "strike" (pl.) | ghnánti "strike" (pl.) | - |
| *gwhénti "strikes" | hánti "strikes" | ǰainti "strikes" | ||||
| *s | > | s | s ~ h | *septm̥ "seven" | saptá "seven" | hapta "seven" |
| *asti "is" | asti "is" | asti "is" | ||||
| *i̥ | > | y | y | *i̥ugóm "yoke" | yuga'm "yoke" | yuga- "yoke" |
| *u̥ | > | v | v | *u̥éĝheti "drives, rides" | váhati "drives" | vazaiti "travels" |
| *m | > | m | m | *méhatēr "mother" | mātár- "mother" | mātar- "mother" |
| *n | > | n | n | *nos "us" | nas "us" | nō "us" |
| *l | > | l ~ r | r | *kweleti "moves" | carati "moves" | caraiti "moves" |
| *r | > | r | r | *bhrehatēr "brother" | bhrā́tār- "brother" | brātar- "brother |
| *n̥ | > | a | a | *n̥- "un-" | a- "un-" | a- "un-" |
| *m̥ | > | a | a | *k̂m̥tóm "hundred" | s'atám "hundred" | satəm "hundred" |
| *l̥ | > | r̥ | ərər | *u̥l̥kwos "wolf" | vĺ̥ka- "wolf" | vəhrka- "wolf" |
| *r̥ | > | r̥ | ərər | *k̂r̥d- "heart" | hŕ̥d- "heart" | zərəd- "heart" |
| *i | > | i | i | *linékwti "leaves" | riṇákti "leaves" | irinaxti "releases" |
| *e | > | a | a | *dék̂m̥ "ten" | dáśa "ten" | dasa "ten" |
| *ē | > | ā | ā | *hanḗr "man" | nā "man" | nā "man" |
| *a | > | a | a | *haéĝeti "drives" | ájati "drives" | azaiti "drives" |
| *ā | > | ā | ā | *méhatēr "mother" | mātā́ "mother" | mātar- "mother" |
| *o | > | a ~ ā | a ~ ā | *ĝómbhos "tooth, peg" | jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk" | - |
| *ĝónu "knee" | jānu "knee" | zānu- "knee" | ||||
| *ō | > | ā | ā | *dhohxneha- "grain" | dhānā́- "grain" | dāna- "grain" |
| *u | > | u | u | *iugóm "yoke" | yugám "yoke" | yuga- "yoke" |
| *ū | > | ū | ū | *mū́s "mouse" | mū́ṣ- "mouse" | NPer mūs "mouse" |
| *h1 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h1ésti "is" | ásti "is" | asti "is" |
| *h2 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h2r̥tk̂os "bear" | r̥'kṣa- "bear" | arəša- "bear" |
| *h3 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h3ókws(i) "eye" | ákṣi "eye" | aši "eye" |
| *h4 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h4órĝhis "testicle" | - | ərəzi- "testicle" |
| Proto-Indo-Iranian | Old Iranian (OP, Av) | Old Indic/Vedic Sanskrit |
|---|---|---|
| *aĉwa- ("horse") | Av, OP aspa | aśva |
| *bʰag- | OP baj- (bāji; "tribute") | bhag- (bhaga) |
| *bʰrātr- ("brother") | OP brātar | bhrātṛ |
| *bʰūmī ("earth", "land") | OP būmi | bhūmī |
| *martya ("mortal, "man") | OP martya | martya |
| *māsa ("moon") | OP māha | māsa |
| *wāsara ("early") | OP vāhara ("spring") | vāsara ("morning") |
| *ṛta ("truth") | Av aša, OP arta | ṛta |
| *draugʰ- ("falsehood") | Av druj, OP draug- | druh- |
| *sauma "pressed (juice)" | Av haoma | soma |
See also
References
- ↑ The Global Prehistory of Human Migration by Peter Bellwood, Immanuel Ness
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 78-79
- ↑ Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London ; New York: Routledge,. p. 134. ISBN 0-415-06449-X.
- ↑ Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London ; New York: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
- ↑ Beekes (1988), p. 50
- ↑ Beekes, p. 55
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 74-75
- 1 2 3 Fortson, p. 182
- 1 2 Fortson, p. 181
- ↑ Burrow, p. 91
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 92-94
- ↑ Fortson, p. 183
- ↑ Beekes, pp, 85-86
- ↑ Lubotsky, p. 53
- ↑ get ref
- ↑ Beekes, pp. 88-89
- ↑ "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.
Bibliography
- Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08332-4.
- Burrow, T. (2001). The Sanskrit Language (1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (illustrated ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7.
- Lubotsky, A. M. (1988). The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08835-0.
- Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
- Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).