Saint Patrick

"Patrick of Ireland" redirects here. For the 14th-century writer, see Master Patrick of Ireland. For other uses, see Saint Patrick (disambiguation).
Saint Patrick

A modern stained glass depiction of Saint Patrick, Cathedral of Christ the Light, Oakland, California
Born Great Britain
Venerated in Catholic Church
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Orthodox Church
Anglicanism
Lutheranism
Major shrine Armagh, Northern Ireland
Glastonbury Abbey, England
Feast 17 March (Saint Patrick's Day)
Patronage Ireland, Nigeria, Montserrat, Archdiocese of New York, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark, Boston, Rolla, Missouri (USA), Loíza, Puerto Rico, Murcia (Spain), Clann Giolla Phádraig, engineers, paralegals, Archdiocese of Melbourne; invoked against snakes, sins[1]

Saint Patrick (Latin: Patricius; Irish: Pádraig [ˈpˠaːd̪ˠɾˠəɟ]) was a fifth-century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Known as the "Apostle of Ireland", he is the primary patron saint of Ireland, along with saints Brigit of Kildare and Columba. He is also venerated in the Anglican Communion, the Old Catholic Church and in the Eastern Orthodox Church as equal-to-apostles and the Enlightener of Ireland.[2]

The dates of Patrick's life cannot be fixed with certainty but, on a widespread interpretation, he was active as a missionary in Ireland during the second half of the fifth century.[3] Early medieval tradition credits him with being the first bishop of Armagh, Primate of Ireland. Despite a lack of detail, and many legendary accretions to his story, early sources concur in regarding him as the founder of Christianity in Ireland, making a start at converting a society practising a form of Celtic polytheism, and he has been generally so regarded ever since, despite evidence of some earlier Christian presence in Ireland.

According to the Confessio of Patrick, when he was about 16, he was captured by Irish pirates from his home in Great Britain, and taken as a slave to Ireland, looking after animals, where he lived for six years before escaping and returning to his family. After becoming a cleric, he returned to northern and western Ireland. In later life, he served as a bishop, but little is known about the places where he worked. By the seventh century, he had already come to be revered as the patron saint of Ireland.

Saint Patrick's Day is observed on 17 March, which is said to be the date of his death.[4] It is celebrated inside and outside Ireland as a religious and cultural holiday. In the dioceses of Ireland, it is both a solemnity and a holy day of obligation; it is also a celebration of Ireland itself.

Sources

Two Latin works survive which are generally accepted to have been written by St. Patrick. These are the Declaration (Latin: Confessio)[5] and the Letter to the soldiers of Coroticus (Latin: Epistola),[6] from which come the only generally accepted details of his life.[7] The Declaration is the more biographical of the two. In it, Patrick gives a short account of his life and his mission. Most available details of his life are from subsequent hagiographies and annals, and these are now not accepted without detailed criticism.

Name

The only name that Patrick uses for himself in his own writings is Pātricius, which gives Old Irish Pátraic and Modern Irish Pádraig ([ˈpˠaːd̪ˠɾˠəɟ]), English Patrick and Welsh Padrig.

Hagiography records other names he is said to have borne. Tírechán's seventh-century Collectanea gives: "Magonus, that is, famous; Succetus, that is, god of war; Patricius, that is, father of the citizens; Cothirthiacus, because he served four houses of druids."[8] "Magonus" appears in the ninth century Historia Brittonum as Maun, descending from British *Magunos, meaning "servant-lad".[8] "Succetus", which also appears in Muirchú moccu Machtheni's seventh century Life as Sochet,[8] is identified by Mac Neill as "a word of British origin meaning swineherd".[9] Cothirthiacus also appears as Cothraige in the 8th century biographical poem known as Fiacc's Hymn and a variety of other spellings elsewhere, and is taken to represent a Primitive Irish *Qatrikias, although this is disputed. Harvey argues that Cothraige "has the form of a classic Old Irish tribal (and therefore place-) name", noting that Ail Coithrigi is a name for the Rock of Cashel, and the place-names Cothrugu and Catrige are attested in Counties Antrim and Carlow.[10]

Dating

The reputed burial place of St. Patrick in Downpatrick

The dates of Patrick's life are the subject of conflicting traditions. His own writings provide nothing that can be dated more precisely than the 5th century. Even though Patrick quotes in his writings from the Acts of the Apostles as they are rendered by the early fifth-century Bible-version known as the Vulgate, these quotations may have been added later to replace other quotation from an earlier Bible-version and can therefore not be used securely to fix Patrick's dates.[11] The Letter to Coroticus implies that the Franks were still pagans at the time of writing:[12] their conversion to Christianity is dated to the period 496–508.[13]

The Irish annals for the fifth century are not contemporary documents,[14] but were compiled in the mid-6th century at the earliest.[12] The annals date Patrick's arrival in Ireland to 432, but this date was probably artificially chosen to minimise the contribution of Palladius, who was known to have been sent to Ireland in 431, and maximise that of Patrick.[14] A variety of dates are given for his death. In 457 "the elder Patrick" (Irish: Patraic Sen) is said to have died: this may refer to the death of Palladius, who is said in the Book of Armagh to have also been called Patrick.[14] In 461/2 the annals say that "Here some record the repose of Patrick",;[15]:p. 19 in 492/3 they record the death of "Patrick, the arch-apostle (or archbishop and apostle) of the Scoti", on 17 March, at the age of 120.[15]:p. 31

While some modern historians[16] accept the earlier date of c. 460 for Patrick's death, scholars of early Irish history tend to prefer the later date of c. 493. Supporting the later date, the annals record that in 553 "the relics of Patrick were placed sixty years after his death in a shrine by Colum Cille" (emphasis added).[17] The death of Patrick's disciple Mochta is dated in the annals to 535 or 537,[17][18] and the early hagiographies "all bring Patrick into contact with persons whose obits occur at the end of the fifth century or the beginning of the sixth".[19] However, E. A. Thompson argues that none of the dates given for Patrick's death in the Annals is reliable.[20]

"Two Patricks" theory

Irish academic T. F. O'Rahilly proposed the "Two Patricks" theory [21] which suggests that many of the traditions later attached to Saint Patrick actually concerned Palladius, who Prosper of Aquitaine's Chronicle says was sent by Pope Celestine I as the first bishop to Irish Christians in 431. Palladius was not the only early cleric in Ireland at this time. The Irish-born Saint Ciarán of Saigir lived in the later fourth century (352–402) and was the first bishop of Ossory. Ciaran, along with saints Auxilius, Secundinus and Iserninus, are also associated with early churches in Munster and Leinster. By this reading, Palladius was active in Ireland until the 460s.[22]

Prosper associates Palladius' appointment with the visits of Germanus of Auxerre to Britain to suppress Pelagianism and it has been suggested that Palladius and his colleagues were sent to Ireland to ensure that exiled Pelagians did not establish themselves among the Irish Christians. The appointment of Palladius and his fellow-bishops was not obviously a mission to convert the Irish, but more probably intended to minister to existing Christian communities in Ireland.[23] The sites of churches associated with Palladius and his colleagues are close to royal centres of the period: Secundus is remembered by Dunshaughlin, County Meath, close to the Hill of Tara which is associated with the High King of Ireland; Killashee, County Kildare, close to Naas with links with the kings of Leinster, is probably named for Auxilius. This activity was limited to the southern half of Ireland, and there is no evidence for them in Ulster or Connacht.[24]

Although the evidence for contacts with Gaul is clear, the borrowings from Latin into Old Irish show that links with Roman Britain were many.[25] Iserninus, who appears to be of the generation of Palladius, is thought to have been a Briton, and is associated with the lands of the Uí Ceinnselaig in Leinster. The Palladian mission should not be contrasted with later "British" missions, but forms a part of them;[26] nor can the work of Palladius be uncritically equated with that of Saint Patrick, as was once traditional.[27]

Life

St. Patrick was born in Roman Britain. Calpurnius, his father, was a decurion and deacon, his grandfather Potitus a priest, from Banna Venta Berniae,[28] a location otherwise unknown,[29][30][31] though identified in one tradition as Glannoventa, modern Ravenglass in Cumbria, England; claims have been advanced for locations in both Scotland and Wales.[32][33] Patrick, however, was not an active believer. According to the Confession of St. Patrick, at the age of just sixteen Patrick was captured by a group of Irish pirates.[34] They brought him to Ireland where he was enslaved and held captive for six years. Patrick writes in The Confession[34] that the time he spent in captivity was critical to his spiritual development. He explains that the Lord had mercy on his youth and ignorance, and afforded him the opportunity to be forgiven of his sins and converted to Christianity. While in captivity, Saint Patrick worked as a shepherd and strengthened his relationship with God through prayer eventually leading him to convert to Christianity.[34]

After six years of captivity he heard a voice telling him that he would soon go home, and then that his ship was ready. Fleeing his master, he travelled to a port, two hundred miles away,[35] where he found a ship and with difficulty persuaded the captain to take him. After three days sailing they landed, presumably in Britain, and apparently all left the ship, walking for 28 days in a "wilderness", becoming faint from hunger before encountering a herd of wild boar; since this was shortly after Patrick had urged them to put their faith in God, his prestige in the group was greatly increased. After various adventures, he returned home to his family, now in his early twenties.[36] After returning home to Britain, Saint Patrick continued to study Christianity.

Patrick recounts that he had a vision a few years after returning home:

I saw a man coming, as it were from Ireland. His name was Victoricus, and he carried many letters, and he gave me one of them. I read the heading: "The Voice of the Irish". As I began the letter, I imagined in that moment that I heard the voice of those very people who were near the wood of Foclut, which is beside the western sea—and they cried out, as with one voice: "We appeal to you, holy servant boy, to come and walk among us." [37]

A. B. E. Hood suggests that the Victoricus of St. Patrick's vision may be identified with Saint Victricius, bishop of Rouen in the late fourth century, who had visited Britain in an official capacity in 396.[38] However, Ludwig Bieler disagrees.[39]

He studied in Europe principally at Auxerre, but is thought to have visited the Marmoutier Abbey, Tours and to have received the tonsure at Lérins Abbey. Saint Germanus of Auxerre ordained the young missionary.[40][41]

Acting on the vision, Patrick returned to Ireland as a Christian missionary.[34] According to J.B. Bury, his landing place was Wicklow, Co. Wicklow, at the mouth of the river Inver-dea, which is now called the Vartry.[42] J.B. Bury suggests that Wicklow was also the port through which Patrick made his escape after his six years captivity, though offers only circumstantial evidence to support this.[43] Tradition has it that St Patrick was not welcomed by the locals and was forced to leave to seek a more welcoming landing place further north. He rested for some days at the islands off the Skerries coast, one of which still retains the name of Inis-Patrick. The first sanctuary dedicated by St. Patrick was at Saul. Shortly thereafter Benin (or Benignus), son of the chieftain Secsnen, joined Patrick's group.[41]

Much of the Declaration concerns charges made against St. Patrick by his fellow Christians at a trial. What these charges were, he does not say explicitly, but he writes that he returned the gifts which wealthy women gave him, did not accept payment for baptisms, nor for ordaining priests, and indeed paid for many gifts to kings and judges, and paid for the sons of chiefs to accompany him. It is concluded, therefore, that he was accused of some sort of financial impropriety, and perhaps of having obtained his bishopric in Ireland with personal gain in mind.[44]

From this same evidence, something can be seen of St. Patrick's mission. He writes that he "baptised thousands of people".[45] He ordained priests to lead the new Christian communities. He converted wealthy women, some of whom became nuns in the face of family opposition. He also dealt with the sons of kings, converting them too.[46] The Confessio is generally vague about the details of his work in Ireland, though giving some specific instances. This is partly because, as he says at points, he was writing for a local audience of Christians who knew him and his work. There are several mentions of travelling around the island, and of sometimes difficult interactions with the chiefly elite. He does claim of the Irish:"Never before did they know of God except to serve idols and unclean things. But now, they have become the people of the Lord, and are called children of God. The sons and daughters of the leaders of the Irish are seen to be monks and virgins of Christ!"[47]

St. Patrick's position as a foreigner in Ireland was not an easy one. His refusal to accept gifts from kings placed him outside the normal ties of kinship, fosterage and affinity. Legally he was without protection, and he says that he was on one occasion beaten, robbed of all he had, and put in chains, perhaps awaiting execution.[48] Patrick says that he was also "many years later" a captive for 60 days, without giving details.[49]

Murchiú's life of Saint Patrick contains a supposed prophecy by the druids which gives an impression of how Patrick and other Christian missionaries were seen by those hostile to them:

Across the sea will come Adze-head,[50] crazed in the head,
his cloak with hole for the head, his stick bent in the head.
He will chant impieties from a table in the front of his house;
all his people will answer: "so be it, so be it."[51]

The second piece of evidence that comes from Patrick's life is the Letter to Coroticus or Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus, written after a first remonstrance was received with ridicule and insult. In this, St. Patrick writes[52] an open letter announcing that he has excommunicated Coroticus because he had taken some of St. Patrick's converts into slavery while raiding in Ireland. The letter describes the followers of Coroticus as "fellow citizens of the devils" and "associates of the Scots [of Dalriada and later Argyll] and Apostate Picts".[53] Based largely on an eighth-century gloss, Coroticus is taken to be King Ceretic of Alt Clut.[54] Thompson however proposed that based on the evidence it is more likely that Coroticus was a British Roman living in Ireland.[55] It has been suggested that it was the sending of this letter which provoked the trial which Patrick mentions in the Confession.[56]

Seventh-century writings

An early document which is silent concerning Patrick is the letter of Columbanus to Pope Boniface IV of about 613. Columbanus writes that Ireland's Christianity "was first handed to us by you, the successors of the holy apostles", apparently referring to Palladius only, and ignoring Patrick.[57] Writing on the Easter controversy in 632 or 633, Cummian—it is uncertain whether this is Cumméne Fota, associated with Clonfert, or Cumméne Find—does refer to Patrick, calling him "our papa", that is, pope or primate.[58]

Two works by late seventh-century hagiographers of Patrick have survived. These are the writings of Tírechán and the Vita sancti Patricii of Muirchú moccu Machtheni.[59] Both writers relied upon an earlier work, now lost, the Book of Ultán.[60] This Ultán, probably the same person as Ultan of Ardbraccan, was Tírechán's foster-father. His obituary is given in the Annals of Ulster under the year 657.[61] These works thus date from a century and a half after Patrick's death.

Tírechán writes, "I found four names for Patrick written in the book of Ultán, bishop of the tribe of Conchobar: holy Magonus (that is, "famous"); Succetus (that is, the god of war); Patricius (that is, father of the citizens); Cothirtiacus (because he served four houses of druids)."[62]

Muirchu records much the same information, adding that "[h]is mother was named Concessa."[63] The name Cothirtiacus, however, is simply the Latinized form of Old Irish Cothraige, which is the Q-Celtic form of Latin Patricius.[64]

The Patrick portrayed by Tírechán and Muirchu is a martial figure, who contests with druids, overthrows pagan idols, and curses kings and kingdoms.[65] On occasion, their accounts contradict Patrick's own writings: Tírechán states that Patrick accepted gifts from female converts although Patrick himself flatly denies this. However, the emphasis Tírechán and Muirchu placed on female converts, and in particular royal and noble women who became nuns, is thought to be a genuine insight into Patrick's work of conversion. Patrick also worked with the unfree and the poor, encouraging them to vows of monastic chastity. Tírechán's account suggests that many early Patrician churches were combined with nunneries founded by Patrick's noble female converts.[66]

The martial Patrick found in Tírechán and Muirchu, and in later accounts, echoes similar figures found during the conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity. It may be doubted whether such accounts are an accurate representation of Patrick's time, although such violent events may well have occurred as Christians gained in strength and numbers.[67]

Much of the detail supplied by Tírechán and Muirchu, in particular the churches established by Patrick, and the monasteries founded by his converts, may relate to the situation in the seventh century, when the churches which claimed ties to Patrick, and in particular Armagh, were expanding their influence throughout Ireland in competition with the church of Kildare. In the same period, Wilfred, Archbishop of York, claimed to speak, as metropolitan archbishop, "for all the northern part of Britain and of Ireland" at a council held in Rome in the time of Pope Agatho, thus claiming jurisdiction over the Irish church.[68]

Other presumed early materials include the Irish annals, which contain records from the Chronicle of Ireland. These sources have conflated Palladius and Patrick.[69] Another early document is the so-called First Synod of Saint Patrick. This is a seventh-century document, once, but no longer, taken as to contain a fifth-century original text. It apparently collects the results of several early synods, and represents an era when pagans were still a major force in Ireland. The introduction attributes it to Patrick, Auxilius, and Iserninus, a claim which "cannot be taken at face value."[70]

Legends

Patrick uses shamrock in an illustrative parable

St. Patrick depicted with shamrock in detail of stained glass window in St. Benin's Church, Kilbennan, County Galway, Ireland

Legend credits St. Patrick with teaching the Irish about the doctrine of the Holy Trinity by showing people the shamrock, a three-leafed plant, using it to illustrate the Christian teaching of three persons in one God.[71][72] This story first appears in writing in 1726, though it may be older. The shamrock has since become a central symbol for St Patrick's Day.

In pagan Ireland, three was a significant number and the Irish had many triple deities, a fact that may have aided St Patrick in his evangelisation efforts when he "held up a shamrock and discoursed on the Christian Trinity".[73][74] Patricia Monaghan says there is no evidence that the shamrock was sacred to the pagan Irish.[73] However, Jack Santino speculates that it may have represented the regenerative powers of nature, and was recast in a Christian context. Icons of St Patrick often depict the saint "with a cross in one hand and a sprig of shamrocks in the other".[75] Roger Homan writes, "We can perhaps see St Patrick drawing upon the visual concept of the triskele when he uses the shamrock to explain the Trinity".[76]

Patrick banishes all snakes from Ireland

The absence of snakes in Ireland gave rise to the legend that they had all been banished by St. Patrick[77] chasing them into the sea after they attacked him during a 40-day fast he was undertaking on top of a hill.[78] This hagiographic theme draws on the Biblical account of the staff of the prophet Moses. In Exodus 7:8–7:13, Moses and Aaron use their staffs in their struggle with Pharaoh's sorcerers, the staffs of each side morphing into snakes. Aaron's snake-staff prevails by consuming the other snakes.[79]

Image of St. Patrick banishing the snakes

However, all evidence suggests that post-glacial Ireland never had snakes.[80] "At no time has there ever been any suggestion of snakes in Ireland, so [there was] nothing for St. Patrick to banish", says naturalist Nigel Monaghan, keeper of natural history at the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin, who has searched extensively through Irish fossil collections and records.[78]

Patrick's walking stick grows into a living tree

Some Irish legends involve the Oilliphéist, the Caoránach, and the Copóg Phádraig. During his evangelising journey back to Ireland from his parent's home at Birdoswald, he is understood to have carried with him an ash wood walking stick or staff. He thrust this stick into the ground wherever he was evangelising and at the place now known as Aspatria (ash of Patrick) the message of the dogma took so long to get through to the people there that the stick had taken root by the time he was ready to move on.

Patrick speaks with ancient Irish ancestors

The twelfth-century work Acallam na Senórach tells of Patrick being met by two ancient warriors, Caílte mac Rónáin and Oisín, during his evangelical travels. The two were once members of Fionn mac Cumhaill's warrior band the Fianna, and somehow survived to Patrick's time. In the work St. Patrick seeks to convert the warriors to Christianity, while they defend their pagan past. The heroic pagan lifestyle of the warriors, of fighting and feasting and living close to nature, is contrasted with the more peaceful, but unheroic and non-sensual life offered by Christianity.

Folk piety

The version of the details of his life generally accepted by modern scholars, as elaborated by later sources, popular writers and folk piety, typically includes extra details such that Patrick, originally named Maewyn Succat, was born in 387 AD in (among other candidate locations, see above) Banna venta Berniae[81] to the parents Calpernius and Conchessa. At the age of 16 in 403 AD Saint Patrick was captured and enslaved by the Irish and was sent to Ireland to serve as a slave herding and tending sheep in Dalriada.[82] During his time in captivity Saint Patrick became fluent in the Irish language and culture. After six years, Saint Patrick escaped captivity after hearing a voice urging him to travel to a distant port where a ship would be waiting to take him back to Britain.[83] On his way back to Britain Saint Patrick was captured again and spent 60 days in captivity in Tours, France. During his short captivity within France, Saint Patrick learned about French monasticism. At the end of his second captivity Saint Patrick had a vision of Victoricus giving him the quest of bringing Christianity to Ireland.[84] Following his second captivity Saint Patrick returned to Ireland and, using the knowledge of Irish language and culture that he gained during his first captivity, brought Christianity and monasticism to Ireland in the form of more than 300 churches and over 100,000 Irish baptised.[85]

According to the Annals of the Four Masters, an early-modern compilation of earlier annals, his corpse soon became an object of conflict in the Battle for the Body of St. Patrick.

Alternative interpretations

A recent alternative interpretation of Patrick's departure to Ireland suggests that as the son of a decurion he would have been obliged by Roman law to serve on the town council (curia), but chose instead to abscond from the onerous obligations of this office by fleeing abroad, as many others in his position had done in what has become known as the 'flight of the curiales'.[86] However, according to Patrick's own account, it was the raiders who brought him to Ireland where he was enslaved and held captive for six years.[87] Roy Flechner also asserts the improbability of an escape from servitude and journey of the kind that Patrick purports to have undertaken. He also draws attention to the biblical allusions in Patrick's own account (e.g. the topos of freedom after six years of servitude in Exod. 21:2 or Jer. 34:14), which imply that perhaps parts of the account may not have been intended to be understood literally.[88]

Saint Patrick's crosses

Image of St. Patrick showing cross pattée on his robes

There are two main types of crosses associated with St. Patrick, the cross pattée and the saltire. The cross pattée is the more traditional association, while the association with the saltire dates from 1783 and the Order of St. Patrick.

Logo of Down District Council showing the cross pattée

The cross pattée has long been associated with St. Patrick, for reasons that are uncertain. One possible reason is that bishops' mitres in Ecclesiastical heraldry often appear surmounted by a cross pattée.[89][90] An example of this can be seen on the old crest of the Brothers of St. Patrick.[91] As St. Patrick was the founding bishop of the Irish church, the symbol may have become associated with him. St. Patrick is traditionally portrayed in the vestments of a bishop, and his mitre and garments are often decorated with a cross pattée.[92][93][94][95][96]

The cross pattée retains its link to St. Patrick to the present day. For example,it appears on the coat of arms of both the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Armagh[97] and the Church of Ireland Archdiocese of Armagh.[98] This is on account of St. Patrick being regarded as the first bishop of the Diocese of Armagh. It is also used by Down District Council which has its headquarters in Downpatrick, the reputed burial place at St. Patrick.

Saint Patrick's Saltire is a red saltire on a white field. It is used in the insignia of the Order of Saint Patrick, established in 1783, and after the Acts of Union 1800 it was combined with the Saint George's Cross of England and the Saint Andrew's Cross of Scotland to form the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. A saltire was intermittently used as a symbol of Ireland from the seventeenth century, but without reference to Saint Patrick.

Photograph of eight home-made badges composed of variously coloured crosses and saltires.
Traditional St. Patrick's Day badges from the early twentieth century, from the Museum of Country Life, Castlebar

It was formerly a common custom to wear a cross made of paper or ribbon on St Patrick's Day. Surviving examples of such badges come in many colours[99] and they were worn upright rather than as saltires.[100]

Thomas Dinely, an English traveller in Ireland in 1681, remarked that "the Irish of all stations and condicõns were crosses in their hatts, some of pins, some of green ribbon."[101] Jonathan Swift, writing to "Stella" of Saint Patrick's Day 1713, said "the Mall was so full of crosses that I thought all the world was Irish".[102] In the 1740s, the badges pinned were multicoloured interlaced fabric.[103] In the 1820s, they were only worn by children, with simple multicoloured daisy patterns.[103][104] In the 1890s, they were almost extinct, and a simple green Greek cross inscribed in a circle of paper (similar to the Ballina crest pictured).[105] The Irish Times in 1935 reported they were still sold in poorer parts of Dublin, but fewer than those of previous years "some in velvet or embroidered silk or poplin, with the gold paper cross entwined with shamrocks and ribbons".[106]

Saint Patrick's Bell

The Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell

The National Museum of Ireland in Dublin possesses a bell (Clog Phádraig)[107][108] first mentioned, according to the Annals of Ulster, in the Book of Cuanu in the year 552. The bell was part of a collection of "relics of Patrick" removed from his tomb sixty years after his death by Colum Cille to be used as relics. The bell is described as "The Bell of the Testament", one of three relics of "precious minna" (extremely valuable items), of which the other two are described as Patrick's goblet and "The Angels Gospel". Colum Cille is described to have been under the direction of an "Angel" for whom he sent the goblet to Down, the bell to Armagh, and kept possession of the Angel's Gospel for himself. The name Angels Gospel is given to the book because it was supposed that Colum Cille received it from the angel's hand. A stir was caused in 1044 when two kings, in some dispute over the bell, went on spates of prisoner taking and cattle theft. The annals make one more apparent reference to the bell when chronicling a death, of 1356: "Solomon Ua Mellain, The Keeper of The Bell of the Testament, protector, rested in Christ."

The bell was encased in a "bell shrine", a distinctive Irish type of reliquary made for it, as an inscription records, by King Domnall Ua Lochlainn sometime between 1091 and 1105. The shrine is an important example of the final, Viking-influenced, style of Irish Celtic art, with intricate Urnes style decoration in gold and silver. The Gaelic inscription on the shrine also records the name of the maker "U INMAINEN" (which translates to "Noonan"), "who with his sons enriched/decorated it"; metalwork was often inscribed for remembrance.

The bell itself is simple in design, hammered into shape with a small handle fixed to the top with rivets. Originally forged from iron, it has since been coated in bronze. The shrine is inscribed with three names, including King Domnall Ua Lochlainn's. The rear of the shrine, not intended to be seen, is decorated with crosses while the handle is decorated with, among other work, Celtic designs of birds. The bell is accredited with working a miracle in 1044 and having been coated in bronze to shield it from human eyes, for which it would be too holy. It measures 12.5 × 10 cm at the base, 12.8 × 4 cm at the shoulder, 16.5 cm from base to shoulder, 3.3 cm from shoulder to top of handle and weighs 1.7 kg.[110]

Saint Patrick and Irish identity

St. Patrick features in many stories in the Irish oral tradition and there are many customs connected with his feast day. The folklorist Jenny Butler[111] discusses how these traditions have been given new layers of meaning over time while also becoming tied to Irish identity both in Ireland and abroad. The symbolic resonance of the St. Patrick figure is complex and multifaceted, stretching from that of Christianity’s arrival in Ireland to an identity that encompasses everything Irish. In some portrayals, the saint is symbolically synonymous with the Christian religion itself. There is also evidence of a combination of indigenous religious traditions with that of Christianity, which places St Patrick in the wider framework of cultural hybridity. Popular religious expression has this characteristic feature of merging elements of culture. Later in time, the saint becomes associated specifically with Catholic Ireland and synonymously with Irish national identity. Subsequently, St. Patrick is a patriotic symbol along with the colour green and the shamrock. St. Patrick's Day celebrations include many traditions that are known to be relatively recent historically, but have endured through time because of their association either with religious or national identity. They have persisted in such a way that they have become stalwart traditions, viewed as the strongest "Irish traditions".

Sainthood and modern remembrance

The neo-gothic St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City, as seen from Rockefeller Center

17 March, popularly known as St. Patrick's Day, is believed to be his death date and is the date celebrated as his Feast Day.[112] The day became a feast day in the Catholic Church due to the influence of the Waterford-born Franciscan scholar Luke Wadding, as a member of the commission for the reform of the Breviary in the early part of the seventeenth century.[113]

For most of Christianity's first thousand years, canonisations were done on the diocesan or regional level. Relatively soon after the death of people considered very holy, the local Church affirmed that they could be liturgically celebrated as saints. As a result, St. Patrick has never been formally canonised by a Pope; nevertheless, various Christian churches declare that he is a Saint in Heaven (he is in the List of Saints). He is still widely venerated in Ireland and elsewhere today.[114]

St. Patrick is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) and with a commemoration on the calendar of Evangelical Lutheran Worship, both on 17 March. St. Patrick is also venerated in the Orthodox Church, especially among English-speaking Orthodox Christians living in Ireland, the UK and in the USA.[115] There are Orthodox icons dedicated to him.[116]

St. Patrick is said to be buried at Down Cathedral in Downpatrick, County Down, alongside St. Brigid and St. Columba, although this has never been proven. Saint Patrick Visitor Centre is a modern exhibition complex located in Downpatrick and is a permanent interpretative exhibition centre featuring interactive displays on the life and story of Saint Patrick. It provides the only permanent exhibition centre in the world devoted to Saint Patrick.[117]

Places associated with Saint Patrick

Slemish, County Antrim, traditonally associated with Saint Patrick's time as a shepherd slave.
Slemish, County Antrim
St Patrick's statue at Saul, County Down
St Patrick's Oratory at the top of Croagh Patrick, County Mayo
When captured by raiders, there are two theories as to where Patrick was enslaved. One theory is that he herded sheep in the countryside around Slemish. Another theory is that Patrick herded sheep near Killala Bay, at a place called Fochill.
It is claimed that Patrick founded his first church in a barn at Saul, which was donated to him by a local chieftain called Dichu. It is also claimed that Patrick died at Saul or was brought there between his death and burial. Nearby, on the crest of Slieve Patrick, is a huge statue of Saint Patrick with bronze panels showing scenes from his life.
Muirchu moccu Machtheni, in his highly mythologised seventh-century Life of Patrick, says that Patrick lit a Paschal fire on this hilltop in 433 in defiance of High King Laoire. The story says that the fire could not be doused by anyone but Patrick, and it was here that he explained the holy trinity using the shamrock.
It is claimed that Patrick climbed this mountain and fasted on its summit for the forty days of Lent. Croagh Patrick draws thousands of pilgrims who make the trek to the top on the last Sunday in July.
It is claimed that Patrick killed a large serpent on this lake and that its blood turned the water red (hence the name). Each August, pilgrims spend three days fasting and praying there on Station Island.
It is claimed that Patrick founded a church here and proclaimed it to be the most holy church in Ireland. Armagh is today the primary seat of both the Catholic Church in Ireland and the Church of Ireland, and both cathedrals in the town are named after Patrick.
It is claimed that Patrick was brought here after his death and buried in the grounds of Down Cathedral.
Stone found below St. Patrick's Well. St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, Ireland.

Other places named after Saint Patrick include:

In literature

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Saints by Cause". Retrieved 25 August 2006.
  2. ↑ Hutchison-Hall, John (Ellsworth) (2012). Orthodox Saints of the British Isles - Volume I (1 ed.). St. Eadfrith Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0615925806.
  3. ↑ "All About Saint Patrick's Day". Church Year. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
  4. ↑ "St. Patrick's Day". The History Channel. Retrieved 11 February 2010.
  5. ↑ MacAnnaidh, S. 2013. Irish History. Parragon Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4723-2723-9
  6. ↑ Both texts in original Latin, various translations and with images of all extant manuscript testimonies on the "Saint Patrick's Confessio HyperStack website". Royal Irish Academy Dictionary of Medieval Latin from Celtic Sources. Retrieved 14 September 2011.
  7. ↑ Macthéni, Muirchú maccu; White, Newport John Davis (1920). St. Patrick, his writings and life. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 31–51, 54–60. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  8. 1 2 3 David M. Dumville, Saint Patrick, AD 493-1993, The Boydell Press, 1993, p. 90
  9. ↑ Eoin Mac Neill, St. Patrick, Clonmore and Reynolds, 1964, p.87-88
  10. ↑ Anthony Harvey, "The Significance of Cothraige", Ériu Vol. 36, 1985, pp. 1-9
  11. ↑ See Flechner, 2011, pp. 125-26.
  12. 1 2 Ó Cróinín (1995), p. 26
  13. ↑ Stancliffe (2004)
  14. 1 2 3 Byrne 1973, pp. 78–79
  15. 1 2 Hennessy, W. M. (trans.) Annals of Ulster; otherwise, Annals of Senat, Vol. I. Alexander Thom & Co. (Dublin), 1887. Accessed 10 February 2013.
  16. ↑ See Dumville, pp. 116–12; Wood, p. 45 n. 5.
  17. 1 2 De Paor 1993, pp. 121–122
  18. ↑ Ó Cróinín 1995, p. 27
  19. ↑ Byrne 1973, p. 80
  20. ↑ Thompson, E. A., Who Was Saint Patrick?, The Boydell Press, 1999, pp. 166-175
  21. ↑ O'Rahilly, The two Patricks, Dublin 1942
  22. ↑ Byrne, pp. 78–79; De Paor (1993), pp. 6–7 & 88–89; Duffy (1997), pp. 16–17; Fletcher, p.300–306; Yorke (2006), p. 112
  23. ↑ There may well have been Christian "Irish" people in Britain at this time; Goidelic-speaking people were found on both sides of the Irish Sea, with Irish being spoken from Cornwall to Argyll. The influence of the Kingdom of Dyfed may have been of particular importance. See Charles-Edwards (2000), pp. 161–172; Dark, pp.188–190; Ó Cróinín, pp. 17–18; Thomas (1981), pp. 297–300
  24. ↑ Duffy (1997), pp. 16–17; Thomas (1981), p. 305
  25. ↑ Charles-Edwards (2000), pp. 184–187; Thomas (1981), pp. 297–300; Yorke (2006), pp. 112–114
  26. ↑ Charles-Edwards (2000), pp. 233–240
  27. ↑ O'Rahilly (1942). The two Patricks. Dublin.
  28. ↑ X.—An Inquiry as to the Birthplace of St. Patrick. By J.H. TURNER, M.A. p.268. Read before the Society, 8 January 1872. Archaeologica Scotica pp. 261–284. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Volume 5, 1890.
  29. ↑ De Paor glosses it as "[probably near] Carlisle" and Thomas argues at length for the areas of Birdoswald, twenty miles (32 km) east of Carlisle on Hadrian's Wall. There is a Roman town known as Bannaventa in Northamptonshire, but this is likely too far from the sea. See De Paor, pp. 88 & 96; Thomas 1981, pp. 310–314; Bury, p. 17.
  30. ↑ MacNeill, Eoin (1926). "Papers read for the Royal Irish Academy". Dublin: Hodges, Figgis: 118–140. Retrieved 17 March 2013 |contribution= ignored (help) – MacNeill argues for an origin in South Wales, noting that the western coasts of southern Scotland and northern England held little to interest a raider seeking quick access to booty and numerous slaves, while the southern coast of Wales offered both. In addition, the region was home to Uí Liatháin and possibly also Déisi settlers during this time, so Irish raiders would have had the contacts to tell them precisely where to go to quickly obtain booty and capture slaves. MacNeill also suggests a possible home town based on naming similarities, but allows that the transcription errors in manuscripts make this little more than an educated guess.
  31. ↑ The Catholic Encyclopedia states he was born in Kilpatrick, Scotland. "St. Patrick". 5 October 2011.
  32. ↑ "Who is Saint Patrick?". WebAnswers.com. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  33. ↑ "St. Patrick". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  34. 1 2 3 4 "Confession of St Patrick". 2013-04-07.
  35. ↑ "Confession of St. Patrick, Part 17". Christian Classics Ethereal Library at Calvin College. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  36. ↑ De Paor (1993), pp. 99–100; Charles-Edwards (2000), p. 229; Confessio; 17–19
  37. ↑ De Paor (1993), p. 100 De Paor glosses Foclut as "west of Killala Bay, in County Mayo", but it appears that the location of Fochoill (Foclut or Voclut) is still a matter of debate. See Charles-Edwards (2000), p. 215; Confessio; 17
  38. ↑ Hood 1978, p. 4
  39. ↑ Thomas, Charles. Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500, p.51, University of California Press, 1981, ISBN 9780520043923
  40. ↑ Bridgwater, William and Kurtz, Seymour. editors. (1963). "Saint Patrick". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Third Edition. NY: Columbia University Press, pp 1611-2.
  41. 1 2 Moran, Patrick Francis Cardinal. "St. Patrick." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 6 Nov. 2014
  42. ↑ Bury 1905, p. 81
  43. ↑ Bury 1905, p. 31
  44. ↑ Thomas 1981, pp. 337–341; De Paor (1993), pp. 104–107; Charles-Edwards (2000), pp. 217–219
  45. ↑ "Confession of St. Patrick, Part 50". Christian Classics Ethereal Library at Calvin College. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  46. ↑ Charles-Edwards (2000), pp. 219–225; Thomas 1981, pp. 337–341; De Paor (1993), pp. 104–107
  47. ↑ Confessio, section 41
  48. ↑ De Paor (1993), p. 107; Charles-Edwards (2000), p. 221–222
  49. ↑ Confessio; 21
  50. ↑ This is presumed to refer to St. Patrick's tonsure.
  51. ↑ After Ó Cróinín, p.32; De Paor (1993), p. 180 See also Ó Cróinín, pp. 30–33.
  52. ↑ "Letter To Coroticus, by Saint St. Patrick". Gilder Lehrman Center at Yale University. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
  53. ↑ Todd, James Henthorn (1863). "The Epistle on Coroticus". St. Patrick: Apostle of Ireland: a Memoir of His Life and Mission, with an Introductory Dissertation on Some Early Usages of the Church in Ireland, and Its Historical Position from the Establishment of the English Colony to the Present Day. Dublin: Hodges, Smith, & Co. (published 1864). pp. 383–385
  54. ↑ De Paor (1993), pp. 109–113; Charles-Edwards (2000), pp. 226–230
  55. ↑ Thompson, E. A. (1980). G. B. Caird, Henry Chadwick, eds. "St. Patrick and Coroticus". The Journal of Theological Studies 31: 12–27. doi:10.1093/jts/XXXI.1.12.
  56. ↑ Thomas 1981, pp. 339–343
  57. ↑ De Paor (1993), pp. 141–143; Charles-Edwards (2000), p. 182–183 Bede, writing a century later, refers to Palladius only.
  58. ↑ De Paor (1993), pp. 151–153; Charles-Edwards (2000), p. 182–183
  59. ↑ Both texts in original Latin and English translations and images of the Book of Armagh manuscript copy on the "Saint Patrick's Confessio HyperStack website". Retrieved 14 September 2011.
  60. ↑ Aideen O'Leary, "An Irish Apocryphal Apostle: Muirchú's Portrayal of Saint Patrick" The Harvard Theological Review 89.3 (July 1996), pp. 287–301, traces Muichù's sources and his explicit parallels of Patrick with Moses, the bringer of rechte Litre, the "letter of the Law"; the adversary, King Lóegaire, takes the role of Pharaoh.
  61. ↑ Annals of Ulster, AU 657.1: "Obitus... Ultán moccu Conchobair."
  62. ↑ De Paor 1993, p. 154
  63. ↑ De Paor 1993, pp. 175–177
  64. ↑ White, Newport J. D. (1920). "St. Patrick, His Writings and Life". New York: The Macmillan Co.: 110. Retrieved 17 March 2013
  65. ↑ Their works are found in De Paor, pp. 154–174 & 175–197 respectively.
  66. ↑ Charles-Edwards 2000, pp. 224–226
  67. ↑ Ó Cróinín, pp. 30–33. Ramsay MacMullen's Christianizing the Roman Empire (Yale University Press, 1984) examines the better-recorded mechanics of conversion in the Empire, and forms the basis of Ó Cróinín's conclusions.
  68. ↑ Charles-Edwards (2000), pp. 416–417 & 429–440
  69. ↑ The relevant annals are reprinted in De Paor (1993), pp. 117–130
  70. ↑ De Paor's conclusions at p. 135, the document itself is given at pp. 135–138.
  71. ↑ St. Patrick's Day Facts: Snakes, a Slave, and a Saint National Geographic Retrieved 10 February 2011
  72. ↑ Threlkeld, Caleb Synopsis stirpium Hibernicarum alphabetice dispositarum, sive, Commentatio de plantis indigenis præsertim Dublinensibus instituta. With An appendix of observations made upon plants, by Dr. Molyneux, 1726, cited in "shamrock, n.", The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. 1989
  73. 1 2 Monaghan, Patricia (1 January 2009). The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438110370. There is no evidence that the clover or wood sorrel (both of which are called shamrocks) were sacred to the Celts in any way. However, the Celts had a philosophical and cosmological vision of triplicity, with many of their divinities appearing in three. Thus when St. Patrick, attempting to convert the Druids on Beltane, held up a shamrock and discoursed on the Christian Trinity, the three-in-one god, he was doing more than finding a homely symbol for a complex religious concept. He was indicating knowledge of the significance of three in the Celtic realm, a knowledge that probably made his mission far easier and more successful than if he had been unaware of that number's meaning.
  74. ↑ Hegarty, Neil (24 April 2012). Story of Ireland. Ebury Publishing. ISBN 9781448140398. In some ways, though, the Christian mission resonated: pre-Christian devotion was characterized by, for example, the worship of gods in groups of three, by sayings collected in threes (triads), and so on - from all of which the concept of the Holy Trinity was not so very far removed. Against this backdrop the myth of Patrick and his three-leafed shamrock fits quite neatly.
  75. ↑ Santino, Jack (1995). All Around the Year: Holidays and Celebrations in American Life. University of Illinois Press. p. 80. ISBN 9780252065163.
  76. ↑ Homan, Roger (2006). The Art of the Sublime: Principles of Christian Art and Architecture. Ashgate Publishing. p. 37.
  77. ↑ Robinson, William Erigena. New Haven Hibernian Provident Society. St. Patrick and the Irish: an oration, before the Hibernian Provident Society, of New Haven, 17 March 1842. p. 8.
  78. 1 2 "Snakeless in Ireland: Blame Ice Age, Not St. Patrick – National Geographic News". Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  79. ↑ Hassig, Debra, The mark of the beast: the medieval bestiary in art, life, and literature (Taylor & Francis, 1999)
  80. ↑ "Snakeless in Ireland: Blame Ice Age, Not St. Patrick – National Geographic News". Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  81. ↑ "Saint Patrick, Bishop". SacredSpace.
  82. ↑ "Saint Patrick. Biography". The Biography Channel Website.
  83. ↑ Cusack, Margaret. "St. Patrick's Captivity".
  84. ↑ "Confession of St. Patrick". Christian Classics Ethereal Library.
  85. ↑ "The Religious Affiliation of St. Patrick who brought Christianity to Ireland".
  86. ↑ See Flechner, 2011, pp. 130-33.
  87. ↑ Was St Patrick a slave-trading Roman official who fled to Ireland? March 17, 2012 Dr Roy Flechner Cambridge Research News. Accessed 9 March 2016. This article was published in Tome: Studies in Medieval History and Law in Honour of Thomas Charles-Edwards, ed. F. Edmonds and P. Russell (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2011).
  88. ↑ See Flechner, 2011, pp. 127-28.
  89. ↑ Heraldic Dictionary – Crowns, Helmets, Chaplets & Chapeaux
  90. ↑ An Archbishop's Mitre | ClipArt ETC
  91. ↑ Patrician Brothers Crest
  92. ↑ Happy Saint Patrick's Day!
  93. ↑ St. Patrick
  94. ↑ Happy Saint Patrick's Day, 2011
  95. ↑ Our Stained Glass Windows – St. Patrick
  96. ↑ Optional Memorial of St. Patrick, bishop and confessor (Solemnity Aus, Ire, Feast New Zeal, Scot, Wales) – March 17, 2012 – Liturgical Calendar – Catholic Culture
  97. ↑ Archdiocese of Armagh
  98. ↑ The Church of Ireland Diocese of Armagh | For information about the Church of Ireland Diocese of Armagh
  99. ↑ Hayes-McCoy, p.40
  100. ↑ Morley, Vincent (27 September 2007). "St. Patrick's Cross". Retrieved 29 June 2009.
  101. ↑ Colgan, Nathaniel (1896). "The Shamrock in Literature: a critical chronology". Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland) 26: 349.
  102. ↑ Swift, Jonathan (2008). "Letter 61". Journal to Stella. eBooks@Adelaide. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  103. 1 2 The popular songs of Ireland, pp.7–9 collected and ed., with intr. and notes, By Thomas Crofton Croker Published 1839
  104. ↑ Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland Vol. 18, plate facing p.249 'Kilmalkedar'; fig.4 is "St. Patrick's Cross" [p.251] of children in S. of Irl. c. 1850s
  105. ↑ Colgan, p.351, fn.2
  106. ↑ "Irishman's Diary: The Patrick's Cross". The Irish Times (ProQuest). 13 March 1935. p. 4.
  107. ↑ "Clog Phádraig agus a Chumhdach [The Bell of St. Patrick and its Shrine]", Current Exhibitions, Dublin: NMI, 2015, retrieved 26 November 2015. (Irish)
  108. ↑ The bell was formerly known as "The Bell of St Patrick's Will" (Clog an eadhachta Phatraic),[109] in reference to a medieval forgery which purported to have been the saint's last will and testament.
  109. ↑ "Bell", Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., Vol. III, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1878, p. 536.
  110. ↑ Treasures of early Irish art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D.: from the collections of the National Museum of Ireland, Royal Irish Academy, Trinity College, Dublin, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), bell No. 45, shrine # 61; The Bellshrine of St. Patrick, Clan McLaughlan website
  111. ↑ Butler, Jenny (2012), "St. Patrick, Folklore and Irish National Identity" 84–101 in Heimo, Anne; Hovi, Tuomas; Vasenkari, Maria, ed. Saint Urho – Pyhä Urho – From Fakelore To Folklore, University of Turku: Finland. ISBN 978-951-29-4897-0
  112. ↑ Great Synaxaristes: (Greek) Ὁ Ἅγιος Πατρίκιος Ἀπόστολος τῆς Ἰρλανδίας. 17 Μαρτίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ.
  113. ↑ "The Catholic Encyclopedia: Luke Wadding". Retrieved 15 February 2007.
  114. ↑ "Ask a Franciscan: Saints Come From All Nations – March 2001 Issue of St. Anthony Messenger Magazine Online". Retrieved 25 August 2006.
  115. ↑ "St Patrick the Bishop of Armagh and Enlightener of Ireland". Retrieved 11 November 2007.
  116. ↑ "Icon of St. Patrick". Retrieved 17 March 2008.
  117. ↑ About Us The Saint Patrick Centre Retrieved 20 February 2011
  118. ↑ "Placenames NI – The Northern Ireland Place-Name Project". Placenamesni.org. Archived from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  119. ↑ "Bunachar Logainmneacha na hÉireann – Placenames Database of Ireland". logainm.ie. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  120. ↑ "Bunachar Logainmneacha na hÉireann – Placenames Database of Ireland". logainm.ie. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
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  122. ↑ "Bunachar Logainmneacha na hÉireann – Placenames Database of Ireland". logainm.ie. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  123. ↑ http://saintsplaces.gla.ac.uk/place.php?id=1332859396 University of Glasgow School of Humanities (Celtic & Gaelic)
  124. ↑ Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Sive Atlas Novus Volume V, Joan Blaeu, Amsterdam 1654
  125. ↑ Registrum Monasterii de Passelet, Paisley Abbey Register 1208, 1211, 1226, 1396
  126. ↑ A History of Elderslie by Derek P. Parker (1983), pp. vi, 3-4, 5
  127. ↑ "Bunachar Logainmneacha na hÉireann – Placenames Database of Ireland". logainm.ie. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  128. ↑ "Bunachar Logainmneacha na hÉireann – Placenames Database of Ireland". logainm.ie. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  129. ↑ "Saint Patrick's Cross Liverpool". Saintpatrickscrossliverpool.webs.com. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  130. ↑ "Patrick: Son of Ireland | Books". StephenLawhead.com. 23 August 2007. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2009.

Further reading

  • Brown, Peter (2003). The rise of Western Christendom : triumph and diversity, A.D. 200–1000 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22138-7 
  • Bury, John Bagnell (1905). "Life of St. Patrick and his Place in History". London 
  • Byrne, Francis J. (1973). Irish Kings and High-Kings. London: Batsford. ISBN 0-7134-5882-8 
  • Cahill, Thomas (1995). How the Irish Saved Civilization. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-41849-3 
  • Charles-Edwards, T. M. (2000). Early Christian Ireland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36395-0 
  • Dark, Ken (2000). Britain and the end of the Roman Empire. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2532-3 
  • De Paor, Liam (1993). Saint Patrick's World: The Christian Culture of Ireland's Apostolic Age. Dublin: Four Courts Press. ISBN 1-85182-144-9 
  • Duffy, Seán,, ed. (1997). Atlas of Irish History. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan. ISBN 0-7171-3093-2 
  • Dumville, David (1994). "The Death date of St. Patrick"". In Howlett, David. The Book of Letters of Saint Patrick the Bishop. Dublin: Four Courts Press. ISBN 1-85182-136-8 
  • Flechner, Roy (2011). "Patrick's Reasons for Leaving Britain". In Russell, Edmonds. Tome: Studies in Medieval Celtic History and Law in Honour of Thomas Charles-Edwards. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-661-2 
  • Fletcher, Richard (1997). The Conversion of Europe: From Paganism to Christianity 371–1386 AD. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-686302-7 
  • Hood, A. B. E (1978). St. Patrick: his Writings, and Muirchú's Life. London and Chichester: Phillimore. ISBN 0-85033-299-0 
  • Hughes, Kathleen (1972). Early Christian Ireland: Introduction to the Sources. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-16145-0 
  • Iannello, Fausto (2008). "Note storiche sull'Epistola ad Milites Corotici di San Patrizio". Atti della Accademia Peloritana dei Pericolanti, classe di Lettere, Filosofia e Belle Arti 84: 275–285 
  • Iannello, Fausto (2012), "Il modello paolino nell’Epistola ad milites Corotici di san Patrizio, Bollettino di Studi Latini 42/1: 43-63
  • Iannello, Fausto (2013), "Notes and Considerations on the Importance of St. Patrick's Epistola ad Milites Corotici as a Source on the Origins of Celtic Christianity and Sub-Roman Britain". Imago Temporis. Medium Aevum 7 2013: 97-137
  •  Moran, Patrick Francis Cardinal (1913). "St. Patrick". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 
  • McCaffrey, Carmel (2003). In Search of Ancient Ireland. Chicago: Ivan R Dee. ISBN 978-1-56663-525-7 
  • MacQuarrie, Alan (1997). The Saints of Scotland: Essays in Scottish Church History AD 450–1093. Edinburgh: John Donald. ISBN 0-85976-446-X 
  • Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí (1995). Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-01565-0 
  • O'Loughlin, Thomas (1999). "Saint Patrick: The Man and his Works". London: S.P.C.K 
  • O'Loughlin, Thomas (2000). "Celtic Theology". London: Continuum 
  • O'Loughlin, Thomas (2005). "Discovering Saint Patrick". New York: Orbis 
  • O'Loughlin, Thomas (2005). "The Capitula of Muirchu's Vita Patricii: do they point to an underlying structure in the text?". Analecta Bollandiana 123: 79–89 
  • O'Loughlin, Thomas (2007). Nagy, J. F., ed. The myth of Insularity and nationality in Ireland. Dublin: Four Courts Press. pp. 132–140 
  • O'Rahilly, T. F. (1942). "The Two Patricks: A Lecture on the History of Christianity in Fifth-Century Ireland". Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 
  • Stancliffe, Claire (2004). "Patrick (fl. 5th cent.)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 17 February 2007. 
  • Thomas, Charles (1981). Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500. London: Batsford. ISBN 0-7134-1442-1 
  • Thompson, E. A. (1980). G. B. Caird, Henry Chadwick, eds. "St. Patrick and Coroticus". The Journal of Theological Studies 31: 12–27. doi:10.1093/jts/XXXI.1.12. 
  • Wood, Ian (2001). The Missionary Life: Saints and the Evangelisation of Europe 400–1050. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-31213-2 
  • Yorke, Barbara (2006). The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-77292-3 

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