Cosmetics

This article is about substances also known as "make-up" in English. For other uses, see Cosmetic (disambiguation).
"Make-up" redirects here. For other uses, see Make-up (disambiguation).
"Toilette" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Toilet.
Skillful blending of several effects: eyebrow plucking, simple black eye liner; good choice of lipstick colour; subtle use of rouge
Woman wearing several forms of cosmetics, including lipstick, eye liner, eye shadow and hair color
Makeup by an artist himself for an Indian classical dance
Assorted cosmetics and tools

Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are care substances used to enhance the appearance or odor of the human body. They are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources (such as coconut oil) and some being synthetics.[1]

In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates cosmetics,[2] defines cosmetics as "intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body's structure or functions." This broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category.[3]

Derivation of the name "Cosmetics"

Main article: History of cosmetics
Nefertiti bust showing the use of eye liner made of kohl
An 1889 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec painting of a woman applying facial cosmetics
Kissproof brand face powder from 1926, from the permanent collection of the Museo del Objeto del Objeto in Mexico City.

The word cosmetics derives from the Greek κοσμητικὴ τέχνη (kosmetikē tekhnē), meaning "technique of dress and ornament", from κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), "skilled in ordering or arranging"[4] and that from κόσμος (kosmos), meaning amongst others "order" and "ornament".[5]

History

Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago.[6] They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips and around the eyes.[7] Also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration.[8] Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin, 0.01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, but this dye resulted in serious illness. Lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales.[9] Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered.[10] According to one source, early major developments include:[1]

The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics[11][12] as the Ancient Romans did. Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9:30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described.

One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China and Japan. The fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Other anti-ageing effects come from increasing the presence of superoxide dismutase in the brain and liver; it is an enzyme that acts as a potent antioxidant throughout the body, particularly in the skin.[13]

Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history. For example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors.[14]

During the sixteenth century, the personal attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class.[15]

As of 2016, the world's largest cosmetics company is L'Oréal, which was founded by Eugene Schueller in 1909 as the French Harmless Hair Colouring Company (now owned by Liliane Bettencourt 26% and Nestlé 28%; the remaining 46% is traded publicly). The market was developed in the USA during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II and Estée Lauder just after.

During the 18th Century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel and caused skin to blacken. Heavy use was known to lead to death.

Beauty products are now widely available from dedicated internet-only retailers,[16] who have more recently been joined online by established outlets, including the major department stores and traditional bricks and mortar beauty retailers.

Although modern make-up has been traditionally used mainly by women, an increasing number of men are using cosmetics usually associated to women to enhance or cover their own facial features such as blemishes, dark circles, and so on. Concealer is commonly used by men. Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them.[17]

Types

Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally. They include but are not limited to products that can be applied to the face: skin-care creams, lipsticks, eye and facial makeup, towelettes, and colored contact lenses; to the body: deodorants, lotions, powders, perfumes, baby products, bath oils, bubble baths, bath salts, and body butters; to the hands/nails: fingernail and toe nail polish, and hand sanitizer; to the hair: permanent chemicals, hair colors, hair sprays and gels.

A subset of cosmetics is called "make-up", refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the user’s appearance. Many manufacturers distinguish between decorative cosmetics and care cosmetics.

Cosmetics that are meant to be used on the face and eye area are usually applied with a brush, a makeup sponge, or the fingertips.

Most cosmetics are distinguished by the area of the body intended for application.

Eye shadow being applied
Broadway actor Jim Brochu applies make-up before the opening night of a play.
The chin mask known as chutti for Kathakali, a performing art in Kerala, India, is considered the thickest makeup applied for any art form.

Cosmetics can be also described by the physical composition of the product. Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions; powders, both pressed and loose; dispersions; and anhydrous creams or sticks.

Makeup remover is a product used to remove the makeup products applied on the skin. It cleans the skin before other procedures, like applying bedtime lotion.

Products

Cleansing is a standard step in skin care routines. Skin cleaning include some or all of these steps or cosmetics:

Other products

There are two categories of personal care products. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act defines cosmetics as products intended to cleanse or beautify (for instance, shampoos and lipstick). A separate category exists for medications, which are intended to diagnose, cure, mitigate, treat, or prevent disease, or to affect the structure or function of the body (for instance, sunscreens and acne creams). Some products, such as moisturizing sunscreens and anti-dandruff shampoos, are regulated within both categories.[18][19]

Ingredients

A variety of organic compounds and inorganic compounds comprise typical cosmetics. Typical organic compounds are modified natural oils and fats as well as a variety of petrochemically derived agents. Inorganic compounds are processed minerals such as iron oxides, talc, and zinc oxide. The oxides of zinc and iron are classified as pigments, i.e. colorants that have no solubility in solvents.

Natural

Handmade and certified organic products are becoming more mainstream, due to the fact that certain chemicals in some skincare products may be harmful if absorbed through the skin. Products claimed to be organic should, in the U.S., be certified "USDA Organic".[20]

Mineral

The term "mineral makeup" applies to a category of face makeup, including foundation, eye shadow, blush, and bronzer, made with loose, dry mineral powders. These powders are often mixed with oil-water emulsions. Lipsticks, liquid foundations, and other liquid cosmetics, as well as compressed makeups such as eye shadow and blush in compacts, are often called mineral makeup if they have the same primary ingredients as dry mineral makeups. However, liquid makeups must contain preservatives and compressed makeups must contain binders, which dry mineral makeups do not. Mineral makeup usually does not contain synthetic fragrances, preservatives, parabens, mineral oil, and chemical dyes. For this reason, dermatologists may consider mineral makeup to be gentler to the skin than makeup that contains those ingredients.[21] Some minerals are nacreous or pearlescent, giving the skin a shining or sparking appearance. One example is bismuth oxychloride.[1]

Benefits of mineral-based makeup

Although the chemical constituent of cosmetics sometimes cause concerns, some chemicals are widely seen as beneficial. Titanium dioxide, found in sunscreens, and zinc oxide have anti-inflammatory properties, mineral makeups with those ingredients can have a calming effect on the skin, which is particularly important for those who suffer from inflammatory problems such as rosacea. Zinc oxide is anti-microbial,[22] so mineral makeups can be beneficial for people with acne.

Mineral makeup is noncomedogenic (as long as it does not contain talc) and offers a mild amount of sun protection (because of the titanium dioxide and zinc oxide).[23]

Because they do not contain liquid ingredients, mineral makeups have long shelf-lives.

Industry

Cosmetics at department store Farmers Centre Place in Hamilton, New Zealand

The manufacture of cosmetics is dominated by a small number of multinational corporations that originated in the early 20th century, but the distribution and sale of cosmetics is spread among a wide range of businesses. The worlds largest cosmetic companies are L'Oréal, Procter & Gamble, Unilever, Shiseido and Estée Lauder.[24] In 2005, the market volume of the cosmetics industry in the US, Europe and Japan was about EUR 70B/y.[1] In the United States, the cosmetic industry's size was US$42.8 billion in 2008.[25] In Germany, the cosmetic industry generated €12.6 billion of retail sales in 2008,[26] which makes the German cosmetic industry the third largest in the world, after Japan and the United States. German exports of cosmetics reached €5.8 billion in 2008, whereas imports of cosmetics totaled €3 billion.[26]

The worldwide cosmetics and perfume industry currently generates an estimated annual turnover of US$170 billion (according to Eurostaf – May 2007). Europe is the leading market, representing approximately €63 billion, while sales in France reached €6.5 billion in 2006, according to FIPAR (Fédération des Industries de la Parfumerie – the French federation for the perfume industry).[27] France is another country in which the cosmetic industry plays an important role, both nationally and internationally. According to data from 2008, the cosmetic industry has grown constantly in France for 40 consecutive years. In 2006, this industrial sector reached a record level of €6.5 billion. Famous cosmetic brands produced in France include Vichy, Yves Saint Laurent, Yves Rocher and many others.

Cosmetics at Life Pharmacy at Westfield Albany on the North Shore of Auckland, New Zealand

The Italian cosmetic industry is also an important player in the European cosmetic market. Although not as large as in other European countries, the cosmetic industry in Italy was estimated to reach €9 billion in 2007.[28] The Italian cosmetic industry is dominated by hair and body products and not makeup as in many other European countries. In Italy, hair and body products make up approximately 30% of the cosmetic market. Makeup and facial care, however, are the most common cosmetic products exported to the United States.

Due to the popularity of cosmetics, especially fragrances and perfumes, many designers who are not necessarily involved in the cosmetic industry came up with perfumes carrying their names. Moreover, some actors and singers (such as Celine Dion) have their own perfume line. Designer perfumes are, like any other designer products, the most expensive in the industry as the consumer pays for the product and the brand. Famous Italian fragrances are produced by Giorgio Armani, Dolce and Gabbana, and others.

Procter & Gamble, which sells CoverGirl and Dolce & Gabbana makeup, funded a study[29] concluding that makeup makes women seem more competent.[30] Due to the source of funding, the quality of this Boston University study is questioned.

Controversy

During the 20th century, the popularity of cosmetics increased rapidly.[31] Cosmetics are increasingly used by girls at a young age, especially in the United States.[32] Due to the fast-decreasing age of make-up users, many companies, from high-street brands like Rimmel to higher-end products like Estee Lauder, cater to this expanding market by introducing flavored lipsticks and glosses, cosmetics packaged in glittery, sparkly packaging and marketing and advertising using young models.[33] The social consequences of younger and younger cosmetics use has had much attention in the media over the last few years.

Criticism of cosmetics has come from a wide variety of sources including some feminists,[34] religious groups, animal rights activists, authors, and public interest groups.

Safety

In the United States: "Under the law, cosmetic products and ingredients do not need FDA premarket approval."[35] The EU and other regulatory agencies around the world have more stringent regulations.[36] The FDA does not have to approve or review cosmetics, or what goes in them, before they are sold to the consumers. The FDA only regulates against some colors that can be used in the cosmetics and hair dyes. The cosmetic companies do not have to report any injuries from the products; they also only have voluntary recalls of products.[37]

There has been a marketing trend towards the sale of cosmetics lacking controversial ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and parabens.[38] Numerous reports have raised concern over the safety of a few surfactants, including 2-butoxyethanol. SLS causes a number of skin problems, including dermatitis.[39][40][41][42][43]

Parabens can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis in individuals with paraben allergies, a small percentage of the general population.[44] Animal experiments have shown that parabens have a weak estrogenic activity, acting as xenoestrogens.[45]

Patch test

Synthetic fragrances are widely used in consumer products. Studies concluded from patch testing show synthetic fragrances are made of many ingredients which cause allergic reactions.[46]

Balsam of Peru was the main recommended marker for perfume allergy before 1977, which is still advised. The presence of Balsam of Peru in a cosmetic will be denoted by the INCI term Myroxylon pereirae.[47][48] In some instances, Balsam of Peru is listed on the ingredient label of a product by one of its various names, but it may not be required to be listed by its name by mandatory labeling conventions (in fragrances, for example, it may simply be covered by an ingredient listing of "fragrance").[49][50][51][52][53]

Cosmetics companies have been criticized for making pseudo-scientific claims about their products which are misleading or unsupported by scientific evidence.[54][55]

Animal testing

Cosmetics testing on animals is particularly controversial. Such tests involve general toxicity, eye and skin irritancy, phototoxicity (toxicity triggered by ultraviolet light), and mutagenicity.[56]

Cosmetics testing is banned in the Netherlands, Belgium, and the UK, and in 2002, after 13 years of discussion, the European Union (EU) agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of animal-tested cosmetics throughout the EU from 2009, and to ban all cosmetics-related animal testing. France, which is home to the world's largest cosmetics company, L'Oreal, has protested the proposed ban by lodging a case at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, asking that the ban be quashed.[57] The ban is also opposed by the European Federation for Cosmetics Ingredients, which represents 70 companies in Switzerland, Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy.[57]

Legislation

Europe

In the European Union the manufacture, labelling and supply of cosmetics and personal care products are Regulated by Regulation EC 1223/2009.[58] It applies to all the countries of the EU as well as Iceland, Norway and Switzerland. This regulation applies to single-person companies making or importing just one product as well as to large multinationals. Manufacturers and importers of cosmetic products must comply with the applicable regulations in order to sell their products in the EU. In this industry it is common fall back on a suitably qualified person, such as an independent third party inspection and testing company, to verify the cosmetics’ compliance with the requirements of applicable cosmetic regulations and other relevant legislation, including REACH, GMP, hazardous substances, etc.[59]

In the European Union, the circulation of cosmetic products and their safety has been a subject of legislation since 1976. One of the newest improvement of the regulation concerning cosmetic industry is a result of the ban animal testing. Testing cosmetic products on animals has been illegal in the European Union since September 2004, and testing the separate ingredients of such products on animals is also prohibited by law, since March 2009 for some endpoints and full since 2013.[60]

Cosmetic regulations in Europe are often updated to follow the trends of innovations and new technologies while ensuring product safety. For instance, all annexes of the Regulation 1223/2009 were aimed to address potential risks to human health. Under the EU cosmetic regulation, manufacturers, retailers and importers of cosmetics in Europe will be designated as “Responsible Person”.[61] This new status implies that the responsible person has the legal liability to ensure that the cosmetics and brands they manufacture or sell comply with the current cosmetic regulations and norms. The responsible person is also responsible of the documents contained in the Product Information File (PIF), a list of product information including data such as Cosmetic Product Safety Report, product description, GMP statement or product function.

United States

In 1938, the U.S. passed the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act authorizing the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to oversee safety via legislation in the cosmetic industry and its aspects in the United States.[62][63] The FDA joined with 13 other federal agencies in forming the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) in 1997, which is an attempt to ban animal testing and find other methods to test cosmetic products.[64]

Brazil

ANVISA (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, Brazilian Health Surveillance Agency) is the regulatory body responsible for cosmetic legislation and directives in the country. The rules apply to manufacturers, importers and retailers of cosmetics in Brazil, and most of them have been harmonized so they can apply to the entire Mercosur.

The current legislation restricts the use of certain substances such as pyrogallol, formaldehyde or paraformaldehyde and bans the use of others such as lead acetate in cosmetic products. All restricted and forbidden substances and products are listed in the regulation RDC 16/11 and RDC 162, 09/11/01.

More recently, a new cosmetic Technical Regulation (RDC 15/2013) was set up to establish a list of authorized and restricted substances for cosmetic use, used in products such as hair dyes, nail hardeners or used as product preservatives.

Most Brazilian regulations are optimized, harmonized or adapted in order to be applicable and extended to the entire Mercosur economic zone.

International

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published new guidelines on the safe manufacturing of cosmetic products under a Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regime. Regulators in several countries and regions have adopted this standard, ISO 22716:2007, effectively replacing existing guidance and standards. ISO 22716 provides a comprehensive approach for a quality management system for those engaged in the manufacturing, packaging, testing, storage, and transportation of cosmetic end products. The standard deals with all aspects of the supply chain, from the early delivery of raw materials and components until the shipment of the final product to the consumer.

The standard is based on other quality management systems, ensuring smooth integration with such systems as ISO 9001 or the British Retail Consortium (BRC) standard for consumer products. Therefore, it combines the benefits of GMP, linking cosmetic product safety with overall business improvement tools that enable organisations to meet global consumer demand for cosmetic product safety certification.[65]

In July 2012, since microbial contamination is one of the greatest concerns regarding the quality of cosmetic products, the ISO has introduced a new standard for evaluating the antimicrobial protection of a cosmetic product by preservation efficacy testing and microbiological risk assessment.

Careers

A professional make-up artist servicing a client

An account executive is responsible for visiting department and specialty stores with counter sales of cosmetics. They explain new products and "gifts with purchase" arrangements (free items given out upon purchase of cosmetics items costing over some set amount).

A beauty adviser provides product advice based on the client's skin care and makeup requirements. Beauty advisers can be certified by an Anti-Aging Beauty Institute.

Model Alek Wek receiving make-up from a professional.

A cosmetician is a professional who provides facial and body treatments for clients. The term cosmetologist is sometimes used interchangeably with this term, but the former most commonly refers to a certified professional. A freelance makeup artist provides clients with beauty advice and cosmetics assistance. They are usually paid by the hour by a cosmetic company, however they sometimes work independently.

Professionals in cosmetics marketing careers manage research focus groups, promote the desired brand image, and provide other marketing services (sales forecasting, allocation to retailers, etc.).

Many involved within the cosmetics industry often specialize in a certain area of cosmetics such as special effects makeup or makeup techniques specific to the film, media and fashion sectors.

See also

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Cosmetics and Your Health – FAQs". Womenshealth.gov. November 2004.
  3. ↑ Lewis, Carol. FDA. "Clearing up Cosmetic Confusion."
  4. ↑ κοσμητικός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  5. ↑ κόσμος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  6. ↑ Sarah Schaffer (2006), Reading Our Lips: The History of Lipstick Regulation in Western Seats of Power, Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard, retrieved 2014-06-05
  7. ↑ "The Slightly Gross Origins of Lipstick". InventorSpot. Retrieved 2010-02-09.
  8. ↑ Yona Williams. Ancient Indus Valley: Food, Clothing & Transportation.
  9. ↑ "What's That Stuff?". Chemical and Engineering News. Retrieved 2010-09-02.
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  11. ↑ Lesley Adkins, Roy A. Adkins, Handbook to life in Ancient Greece, Oxford University Press, 1998
  12. ↑ Bruno Burlando, Luisella Verotta, Laura Cornara, and Elisa Bottini-Massa, Herbal Principles in Cosmetics, CRC Press, 2010
  13. ↑ Reshetnikov SV, Wasser SP, Duckman I, Tsukor K. (2000). "Medicinal value of the genus Tremella Pers. (Heterobasidiomycetes) (review)". International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2 (3): 345–67. doi:10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v2.i3.10.
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  25. ↑ "Pell Research". Cosmetics Manufacturing Report.
  26. 1 2 "Cosmetic Industry". Retrieved 2010-08-04.
  27. ↑ "France continues to lead the way in cosmetics". Retrieved 2010-08-04.
  28. ↑ "Cosmetics – Europe (Italy) 2008 Marketing Research". Retrieved 2010-08-04.
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  36. ↑ "EUR-Lex – co0013 – EN – EUR-Lex". europa.eu.
  37. ↑ "cosmetics and your health." womensheatlh.gov.nd.web.4 nov 2004
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  39. ↑ Agner T (1991). "Susceptibility of atopic dermatitis patients to irritant dermatitis caused by sodium lauryl sulphate". Acta Derm. Venereol. 71 (4): 296–300. PMID 1681644.
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  51. ↑ Phyllis A. Balch (2002). Prescription for Herbal Healing. Penguin. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
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  57. 1 2 Osborn, Andrew & Gentleman, Amelia."Secret French move to block animal-testing ban", The Guardian, August 19, 2003. Retrieved February 27, 2008.
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  61. ↑ "EU Cosmetic Regulation 1223/2009", European Parliament & Council, 30 November 2009, Retrieved 7 April 2015
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  64. ↑ "Animal Testing". Retrieved 2010-08-04.
  65. ↑ ISO 22716 ISO Guidelines on Good Manufacturing Practices, Retrieved 09/27/2012

Further reading

External links

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