Triage

This article is about the concept of triage as it occurs in medical emergencies and disasters. For other uses, see Triage (disambiguation).
Triage station, Suippes, France, World War I
Triage station at the Pentagon after the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 during the September 11, 2001 attacks.

Triage (/ˈtriːɑːʒ/ or /triːˈɑːʒ/) is the process of determining the priority of patients' treatments based on the severity of their condition. This rations patient treatment efficiently when resources are insufficient for all to be treated immediately. The term comes from the French verb trier, meaning to separate, sift or select.[1] Triage may result in determining the order and priority of emergency treatment, the order and priority of emergency transport, or the transport destination for the patient.

Triage may also be used for patients arriving at the emergency department, or telephoning medical advice systems,[2] among others. This article deals with the concept of triage as it occurs in medical emergencies, including the prehospital setting, disasters, and emergency room treatment.

The term triage may have originated during the Napoleonic Wars from the work of Dominique Jean Larrey. The term was used further during World War I by French doctors treating the battlefield wounded at the aid stations behind the front. Those responsible for the removal of the wounded from a battlefield or their care afterwards would divide the victims into three categories:[3][4]

For many emergency medical services (EMS) systems, a similar model may sometimes still be applied. In the earliest stages of an incident, such as when one or two paramedics exist to twenty or more patients, practicality demands that the above, more "primitive" model will be used. However once a full response has occurred and many hands are available, paramedics will usually use the model included in their service policy and standing orders.

As medical technology has advanced, so have modern approaches to triage, which are increasingly based on scientific models. The categorizations of the victims are frequently the result of triage scores based on specific physiological assessment findings. Some models, such as the START model may be algorithm-based. As triage concepts become more sophisticated, triage guidance is also evolving into both software and hardware decision support products for use by caregivers in both hospitals and the field.[5]

Types

This section is for concepts in triage. See other sections for specific triage tools, methods, and systems

Simple triage

Simple triage is usually used in a scene of an accident or "mass-casualty incident" (MCI), in order to sort patients into those who need critical attention and immediate transport to the hospital and those with less serious injuries. This step can be started before transportation becomes available.

Upon completion of the initial assessment by medical or paramedical personnel, each patient may be labelled which may identify the patient, display assessment findings, and identify the priority of the patient's need for medical treatment and transport from the emergency scene. At its most primitive, patients may be simply marked with coloured flagging tape or with marker pens. Pre-printed cards for this purpose are known as a triage tags.[6]

Tags

Many triage systems use triage tags with specific formats
Emergency Triage (E/T) Lights – particularly useful at night or under adverse conditions
Main article: Triage tag

A triage tag is a prefabricated label placed on each patient that serves to accomplish several objectives:

Triage tags may take a variety of forms. Some countries use a nationally standardized triage tag,[7] while in other countries commercially available triage tags are used, and these will vary by jurisdictional choice.[8] The most commonly used commercial systems include the METTAG,[9] the SMARTTAG,[10] E/T LIGHT tm[11] and the CRUCIFORM systems.[12] More advanced tagging systems incorporate special markers to indicate whether or not patients have been contaminated by hazardous materials, and also tear off strips for tracking the movement of patients through the process. Some of these tracking systems are beginning to incorporate the use of handheld computers, and in some cases, bar code scanners.

Advanced triage

For classifications, see the specific section for that topic.

In advanced triage, doctors and specially trained nurses may decide that some seriously injured people should not receive advanced care because they are unlikely to survive. It is used to divert scarce resources away from patients with little chance of survival in order to increase the chances for others with higher likelihoods.

The use of advanced triage may become necessary when medical professionals decide that the medical resources available are not sufficient to treat all the people who need help. The treatment being prioritized can include the time spent on medical care, or drugs or other limited resources. This has happened in disasters such as terrorist attacks, mass shootings, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, and rail accidents. In these cases some percentage of patients will die regardless of medical care because of the severity of their injuries. Others would live if given immediate medical care, but would die without it.

In these extreme situations, any medical care given to people who will die anyway can be considered to be care withdrawn from others who might have survived (or perhaps suffered less severe disability from their injuries) had they been treated instead. It becomes the task of the disaster medical authorities to set aside some victims as hopeless, to avoid trying to save one life at the expense of several others.

If immediate treatment is successful, the patient may improve (although this may be temporary) and this improvement may allow the patient to be categorized to a lower priority in the short term. Triage should be a continuous process and categories should be checked regularly to ensure that the priority remains correct given the patient's condition. A trauma score is invariably taken when the victim first comes into hospital and subsequent trauma scores are taken to account for any changes in the victim's physiological parameters. If a record is maintained, the receiving hospital doctor can see a trauma score time series from the start of the incident, which may allow definitive treatment earlier.

Continuous integrated triage

Continuous integrated triage is an approach to triage in mass casualty situations which is both efficient and sensitive to psychosocial and disaster behavioral health issues that affect the number of patients seeking care (surge), the manner in which a hospital or healthcare facility deals with that surge (surge capacity)[13] and the overarching medical needs of the event.

Continuous integrated triage combines three forms of triage with progressive specificity to most rapidly identify those patients in greatest need of care while balancing the needs of the individual patients against the available resources and the needs of other patients. Continuous integrated triage employs:

However any Group, Individual and/or Hospital Triage system can be used at the appropriate level of evaluation.

Reverse triage

Usually, triage refers to prioritising admission. A similar process can be applied to discharging patients early when the medical system is stressed. This process has been called "reverse triage".[16] During a "surge" in demand, such as immediately after a natural disaster, many hospital beds will be occupied by regular non-critical patients. In order to accommodate a greater number of the new critical patients, the existing patients may be triaged, and those who will not need immediate care can be discharged until the surge has dissipated, for example through the establishment of temporary medical facilities in the region.

Undertriage and overtriage

Undertriage is the underestimating the severity of an illness or injury. An example of this would be categorizing a Priority 1 (Immediate) patient as a Priority 2 (Delayed) or Priority 3 (Minimal). Historically, acceptable undertriage rates have been deemed 5% or less.

Overtriage is the overestimating of the severity of an illness or injury. An example of this would be categorizing a Priority 3 (Minimal) patient as a Priority 2 (Delayed) or Priority 1 (Immediate). Acceptable overtriage rates have been typically up to 50% in an effort to avoid undertriage. Some studies suggest that overtriage is less likely to occur when triaging is performed by hospital medical teams, rather than paramedics or EMTs.[17]

Outcomes

This section is for general concepts in triage-based treatment options and outcomes. For specific triage systems and methods see the sections dedicated to that topic

Palliative care

For those patients that have a poor prognosis and are expected to die regardless of the medical treatment available, palliative care such as painkillers may be given to ease suffering before they die.

Evacuation

In the field, triage sets priorities for evacuation or relocation to other care facilities.[18]

Alternative care facilities

Alternative care facilities are places that are set up for the care of large numbers of patients, or are places that could be so set up. Examples include schools, sports stadiums, and large camps that can be prepared and used for the care, feeding, and holding of large numbers of victims of a mass casualty or other type of event.[19] Such improvised facilities are generally developed in cooperation with the local hospital, which sees them as a strategy for creating surge capacity. While hospitals remain the preferred destination for all patients, during a mass casualty event such improvised facilities may be required in order to divert low-acuity patients away from hospitals in order to prevent the hospitals becoming overwhelmed.

Secondary (in-hospital) triage

In advanced triage systems, secondary triage is typically implemented by emergency nurses, skilled paramedics, or battlefield medical personnel within the emergency departments of hospitals during disasters, injured people are sorted into five categories.[20]

Some crippling injuries, even if not life-threatening, may be elevated in priority based on the available capabilities. During peacetime, most amputation injuries may be triaged "Red" because surgical reattachment must take place within minutes, even though in all probability the person will not die without a thumb or hand.

Specific systems

A triage sign at a Mexican emergency room indicating the waiting time for patients based on the severity of their condition

This section is for examples of specific triage systems and methods. For general triage concepts, see the sections for types of triage, treatment options, and outcomes.

Practical applied triage

During the early stages of an incident, first responders may be overwhelmed by the scope of patients and injuries. One valuable technique is the Patient Assist Method (PAM). The responders quickly establish a casualty collection point (CCP) and advise, either by yelling, or over a loudspeaker, that "anyone requiring assistance should move to the selected area (CCP)". This does several things at once, it identifies patients that are not so severely injured, that they need immediate help, it physically clears the scene, and provides possible assistants to the responders. As those who can move, do so, the responders then ask, "anyone who still needs assistance, yell out or raise your hands"; this further identifies patients who are responsive, yet maybe unable to move. Now the responders can rapidly assess the remaining patients who are either expectant, or are in need of immediate aid. From that point the first responder is quickly able to identify those in need of immediate attention, while not being distracted or overwhelmed by the magnitude of the situation. Using this method assumes the ability to hear. Deaf, partially deaf, or victims of a large blast injury may not be able to hear these instructions.

Scoring systems

Examples of scoring systems used:

S.T.A.R.T. model

S.T.A.R.T. (Simple Triage and Rapid Treatment) is a simple triage system that can be performed by lightly trained lay and emergency personnel in emergencies.[22] It is not intended to supersede or instruct medical personnel or techniques. It has been taught to California emergency workers for use in earthquakes. It was developed at Hoag Hospital in Newport Beach, California for use by emergency services. It has been field-proven in mass casualty incidents such as train wrecks and bus accidents, though it was developed for use by community emergency response teams (CERTs) and firefighters after earthquakes.

Triage separates the injured into four groups:

Triage also sets priorities for evacuation and transport as follows:

Hospital systems

Within the hospital system, the first stage on arrival at the emergency room is assessment by the hospital triage nurse. This nurse will evaluate the patient's condition, as well as any changes, and will determine their priority for admission to the Emergency Room and also for treatment.[23] Once emergency assessment and treatment are complete, the patient may need to be referred to the hospital's internal triage system.

For a typical inpatient hospital triage system, a triage nurse or physician will either field requests for admission from the ER physician on patients needing admission or from physicians taking care of patients from other floors who can be transferred because they no longer need that level of care (i.e. intensive care unit patient is stable for the medical floor). This helps keep patients moving through the hospital in an efficient and effective manner.

This triage position is often done by a hospitalist. A major factor contributing to the triage decision is available hospital bed space. The triage hospitalist must determine, in conjunction with a hospital's "bed control" and admitting team, what beds are available for optimal utilization of resources in order to provide safe care to all patients. A typical surgical team will have their own system of triage for trauma and general surgery patients. This is also true for neurology and neurosurgical services. The overall goal of triage, in this system, is to both determine if a patient is appropriate for a given level of care and to ensure that hospital resources are utilized effectively.

Conventional classifications

In an advanced triage process injured people are sorted into categories. Conventionally there are five classifications with corresponding colors and numbers although this may vary by region.[20]

Australia

The Australasian Triage Scale (abbreviated ATS and formally known as the National Triage Scale) is a triage system that is implemented in both Australia and New Zealand.[24][25] The scale has been in use since 1994.[26] The scale consists of 5 levels, with 1 being the most critical (resuscitation), and 5 being the least critical (nonurgent).[24]

Australasian Triage Scale
Level Description Should be seen by provider within
1 Resuscitation 0 minutes
2 Emergency 10 minutes
3 Urgent 30 minutes
4 Semi-Urgent 60 minutes
5 Nonurgent 120 minutes

Canada

In the mid-1980s, The Victoria General Hospital, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, introduced paramedic triage in its Emergency Department. Unlike all other centres in North America that employ physician and primarily nurse triage models, this hospital began the practice of employing Primary Care level paramedics to perform triage upon entry to the Emergency Department. In 1997, following the amalgamation of two of the city's largest hospitals, the Emergency Department at the Victoria General closed. The paramedic triage system was moved to the city's only remaining adult emergency department, located at the New Halifax Infirmary. In 2006, a triage protocol on whom to exclude from treatment during a flu pandemic was written by a team of critical-care doctors at the behest of the Ontario government.

For routine emergencies, many locales in Canada now employ the Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (CTAS) for all incoming patients.[27] The system categorizes patients by both injury and physiological findings, and ranks them by severity from 1–5 (1 being highest). The model is used by both paramedics and E/R nurses, and also for pre-arrival notifications in some cases. The model provides a common frame of reference for both nurses and paramedics, although the two groups do not always agree on scoring. It also provides a method, in some communities, for benchmarking the accuracy of pre-triage of calls using AMPDS (What percentage of emergency calls have return priorities of CTAS 1,2,3, etc.) and these findings are reported as part of a municipal performance benchmarking initiative in Ontario. Curiously enough the model is not currently used for mass casualty triage, and is replaced by the START protocol and METTAG triage tags.[28]

Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (CTAS)
Level Description Should be seen by provider within
1 Resuscitation 0 minutes
2 Emergency 15 minutes
3 Urgent 30 minutes
4 Less Urgent 60 minutes
5 Non Urgent 120 minutes

Finland

Triage at an accident scene is performed by a paramedic or an emergency physician, using the four-level scale of         Can wait,        Has to wait,        Cannot wait, and        Lost.

France

In France, the Prehospital triage in case of a disaster uses a four-level scale:

This triage is performed by a physician called médecin trieur (sorting medic).[29] This triage is usually performed at the field hospital (PMA–poste médical avancé, i.e. forward medical post). The absolute urgencies are usually treated onsite (the PMA has an operating room) or evacuated to a hospital. The relative urgencies are just placed under watch, waiting for an evacuation. The involved are addressed to another structure called the CUMP–Cellule d'urgence médico-psychologique (medical-psychological urgency cell); this is a resting zone, with food and possibly temporary lodging, and a psychologist to take care of the brief reactive psychosis and avoid post-traumatic stress disorder.

In the emergency room of a hospital, the triage is performed by a physician called MAO–médecin d'accueil et d'orientation (reception and orientation physician), and a nurse called IOA– infirmière d'organisation et d'accueil (organisation and reception nurse). Some hospitals and SAMU organisations now use the "Cruciform" card referred to elsewhere.

France has also a Phone Triage system for Medical Emergencies Phone Demands in its Samu Medical Regulation Centers through the 15 medical free national hot line. "Medical Doctor Regulator" decides what is to be the most efficient solution = Emergency Telemedecine or dispatch of an Ambulance, a General Practitioner or a Physician+ Nurse + Ambulance Man, Hospital based MICU (Mobile Intensive Care Unit).

Germany

Preliminary assessment of injuries is usually done by the first ambulance crew on scene, with this role being assumed by the first Notarzt arriving at the scene. As a rule, there will be no cardiopulmonary resuscitation, so patients who do not breathe on their own or develop circulation after their airways are cleared, will be tagged "deceased". Also, not every major injury automatically qualifies for a red tag. A patient with a traumatic amputation of the forearm might just be tagged yellow, have the bleeding stopped, and then be sent to a hospital when possible. After the preliminary assessment, a more specific and definite triage will follow, as soon as patients are brought to a field treatment facility. There, they will be disrobed and fully examined by an emergency physician. This will take approximately 90 seconds per patient.[30]

The German triage system also uses four, sometimes five colour codes to denote the urgency of treatment.[31] Typically, every ambulance is equipped with a folder or bag with coloured ribbons or triage tags. The urgency is denoted as follows:

Category Meaning Consequences Examples
T1 (I) Acute danger for life Immediate treatment, transport as soon as possible Arterial lesions, internal haemorrhage, major amputations
T2 (II) Severe injury Constant observation and rapid treatment, transport as soon as practical Minor amputations, flesh wounds, fractures and dislocations
T3 (III) Minor injury or no injury Treatment when practical, transport and/or discharge when possible Minor lacerations, sprains, abrasions
T4 (IV) No or small chance of survival Observation and if possible administration of analgesics Severe injuries, uncompensated blood loss, negative neurological assessment
Deceased Collection and guarding of bodies, identification when possible Dead on arrival, downgraded from T1-4, no spontaneous breathing after clearing of airway

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, triage in Accident & Emergency Departments is performed by experienced registered nurses, patients are divided into five triage categories: Critical, Emergency, Urgent, Semi-urgent and Non-urgent.[32]

Japan

In Japan, the triage system is mainly used by health professionals. The categories of triage, in corresponding color codes, are:

United Kingdom

In the UK, the commonly used triage system is the Smart Incident Command System,[33] taught on the MIMMS (Major Incident Medical Management (and) Support) training program.[34] The UK Armed Forces use this system on operations. This grades casualties from Priority 1 (needs immediate treatment) to Priority 3 (can wait for delayed treatment). There is an additional Priority 4 (expectant, likely to die even with treatment) but the use of this category requires senior medical authority.

In the UK and Europe, the triage process used is sometimes similar to that of the United States (see below), but the categories are different:[35]

United States

Triage in a multi-scale destruction, disaster, catastrophic, casualty event, such as following a tornado or an explosion in a populated area, first responders follow a similar triage category scale as the US military. The civilian medical industry uses a similar system for triage. Normally medical personnel aren't immediately available on scene. First responders are usually the first to arrive on scene. They could be police, fire rescue, paramedics, or community individuals with disaster training (CERT certified). They are trained to perform first aid, basic life saving and rescue techniques while performing the greatest good, for the greatest number of people. They will rapidly classify victims and sort them into 4 categories, treating quickly as they go. This system is intended to rapidly identify and classify victims for arriving transport or advanced care medical personnel such as doctors and nurses. The local National Guard and other military units responding would be using the military system of triage rather than civilian. The triage categories are general and the names may vary by region of the nation:

US military

A battlefield situation, however, requires medics and corpsmen to rank casualties for precedence in MEDEVAC or CASEVAC. The casualties are then transported to a higher level of care, either a Forward Surgical Team or Combat Support Hospital and re-triaged by a nurse or doctor. In a combat situation, the triage system is based solely on resources and ability to save the maximum number of lives within the means of the hospital supplies and personnel.

The triage categories (with corresponding color codes), in precedence, are:

Afterwards, casualties are given an evacuation priority based on need:

In a "naval combat situation", the triage officer must weigh the tactical situation with supplies on hand and the realistic capacity of the medical personnel. This process can be ever-changing, dependent upon the situation and must attempt to do the maximum good for the maximum number of casualties.[37]

Field assessments are made by two methods: primary survey (used to detect & treat life-threatening injuries) and secondary survey (used to treat non-life-threatening injuries) with the following categories:

Limitations of current practices

Notions of mass casualty triage as an efficient rationing process of determining priority based upon injury severity are not supported by research, evaluation and testing of current triage practices, which lack scientific and methodological bases. START and START-like (START) triage that use color-coded categories to prioritize provide poor assessments of injury severity[38][39][40][41][42][43][44] and then leave it to providers to subjectively order and allocate resources within flawed categories.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45] Some of these limitations include:

Research indicates there are wide ranges and overlaps of survival probabilities of the Immediate and Delayed categories, and other START limitations.[38][39][42][43][44] The same physiologic measures can have markedly different survival probabilities for blunt and penetrating injuries. For example, a START Delayed (second priority) can have a survival probability of 63% for blunt trauma[38] and a survival probability of 32% for penetrating trauma[39] with the same physiological measures – both with expected rapid deterioration, while a START Immediate (first priority) can have survival probabilities that extend to above 95% with expected slow deterioration.[38][39] Age categories exacerbate this. For example, a geriatric patient with a penetrating injury in the Delayed category can have an 8% survival probability, and a pediatric patient in the Immediate category can have a 98% survival probability.[42] Issues with the other START categories have also been noted.[47] In this context, color-coded tagging accuracy metrics are not scientifically meaningful.

Poor assessments, invalid categories, no objective methodology and tools for prioritizing casualties and allocating resources, and a protocol of worst first triage provide some challenges for emergency and disaster preparedness and response. These are clear obstacles for efficient triage and resource rationing, for maximizing savings of lives, for best practices and National Incident Management System (NIMS) compatibilities,[50][51][52] and for effective response planning and training.

Inefficient triage also provides challenges in containing health care costs and waste. Field triage is based upon the notion of up to 50% overtriage as being acceptable. There have been no cost-benefit analyses of the costs and mitigation of triage inefficiencies embedded in the healthcare system. Such analyses are often required for healthcare grants funded by taxpayers, and represent normal engineering and management science practice. These inefficiencies relate to the following cost areas:

Ethical implications

Because treatment is intentionally delayed or withheld from patients, advanced triage has ethical implications.

Bioethical concerns have historically played an important role in triage decisions, such as the allocation of iron lungs during the polio epidemics of the 1940s and of dialysis machines during the 1960s. As many health care systems in the developed world continue to plan for an expected influenza pandemic, bioethical issues regarding the triage of patients and the rationing of care continue to evolve. Similar issues may occur for paramedics in the field in the earliest stages of mass casualty incidents when large numbers of potentially serious or critical patients may be combined with extremely limited staffing and treatment resources.

Research continues into alternative care, and various centers propose medical decision-support models for such situations.[55] Some of these models are purely ethical in origin, while others attempt to use other forms of clinical classification of patient condition as a method of standardized triage.[56]

See also

References

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Look up triage in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  1. ↑ "Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Retrieved 2008-12-05.
  2. ↑ "NHS Direct website". Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  3. ↑ Iserson KV, Moskop JC (March 2007). "Triage in medicine, part I: Concept, history, and types". Annals of Emergency Medicine 49 (3): 275–81. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.05.019. PMID 17141139.
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  5. ↑ "Transforming Triage Technology (National Research Council of Canada website)". Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  6. ↑ "Webster's Online Dictionary". Retrieved 2008-12-02.
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  8. ↑ Nocera A, (Winter 2000). "Australian disaster triage: a colour maze in the Tower of Babel" (PDF). Australian Journal of Emergency Management: 35–40.
  9. ↑ "METTAG Corporate website". Retrieved 2008-12-05.
  10. ↑ "Smart Triage Tag, (TSG Associates Corporate website". Retrieved 2008-12-05.
  11. ↑ Beidel, Eric (December 2010). "Military Medics, First Responders Guided By Simple Light". nationaldefensemagazine.org.
  12. ↑ Lakha, Raj; Tony Moore (2006). Tolley's handbook of disaster and emergency management. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-6990-X.
  13. ↑ "Medical Surge Capacity and Capability" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-14. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
  14. ↑ Husted, Ernie (15 April 2011). "Principles of Triage During A Mass Casualty Incident: MASS, START, Id-me, RPM" (PDF). http://www.ohioresponds.gov. Ohio Responds. Retrieved 24 May 2014. External link in |website= (help)
  15. ↑ "National Disaster Life Support Foundation website". Retrieved 2008-12-04.
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  17. ↑ Turegano-Fuentes F, Perez-Diaz D, et al. (2008). "Overall Assessment of the Response to Terrorist Bombings in Trains, Madrid, 11 March 2004". European Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery 34 (5): 433–441. doi:10.1007/s00068-008-8805-2.
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  20. 1 2 Mehta S (April 2006). "Disaster and mass casualty management in a hospital: How well are we prepared?" (PDF). J Postgrad Med 52 (2).
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  22. ↑ Burstein, Jonathan L.; Hogan, David (2007). Disaster medicine. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 25. ISBN 0-7817-6262-6.
  23. ↑ {{cite: Visser, L., Montejano, A., Grossman, V. (2015). Fast Facts for the Triage Nurse. Springer Publishers: New York City. http://www.springerpub.com/fast-facts-for-the-triage-nurse.html }}
  24. 1 2 Aacharya RP, Gastmans C, Denier Y (2011). "Emergency department triage: an ethical analysis". BMC Emergency Medicine 11: 16. doi:10.1186/1471-227X-11-16. PMC 3199257. PMID 21982119. Retrieved 2011-12-09.
  25. ↑ "Policy on the Australasian Triage Scale" (PDF). Australasian College for Emergency Medicine. November 2000. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
  26. ↑ Christ M, Grossmann F, Winter D, Bingisser R, Platz E (December 2010). "Modern triage in the emergency department". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 107 (50): 892–8. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0892. PMC 3021905. PMID 21246025. Retrieved 2011-12-09.
  27. ↑ "Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians website)". Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  28. ↑ "METTAG Triage Tags". Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  29. ↑ David L. Hoyt; Wilson, William J.; Grande, Christopher M. (2007). Trauma. Informa Healthcare. ISBN 0-8247-2919-6.
  30. ↑ "Telemedical support of emergency prehospital care in mass casualty incidents" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-04.
  31. ↑ Beck A, Bayeff-Filloff M, Bischoff M, Schneider BM (November 2002). "[Analysis of the incidence and causes of mass casualty events in a southern Germany medical rescue area]". Unfallchirurg (in German) 105 (11): 968–73. doi:10.1007/s00113-002-0516-2. PMID 12402122.
  32. ↑ "Guide to Accident & Emergency (A&E) Service". Hospital Authority. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
  33. ↑ TSGassociates.co.uk
  34. ↑ "Major Incident Medical Management and Support Course" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-04.
  35. ↑ Jill Windle; Manchester Triage Group Staff; Mackway-Jones, Kevin; Marsden, Janet (2006). Emergency triage. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 0-7279-1542-8.
  36. ↑ "US Army Study Guide". Retrieved 2008-12-04.
  37. ↑ Koehler RH, Smith RS, Bacaner T (August 1994). "Triage of American combat casualties: the need for change". Mil Med 159 (8): 541–7. PMID 7824145.
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  39. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Sacco, W, Navin, M, Fiedler, K, et al. "A New Resource Constrained Triage Method Applied to Penetrating-Injured Victims." Journal of Trauma Vol. 63 No.2 August 2007 pp.316–325. http://journals.lww.com/jtrauma/pages/default.aspx
  40. 1 2 3 4 5 Navin, M, Sacco, W, and McGill, G. "Application of a New Resource-Constrained Triage Method to Military-Age Victims." Military Medicine Vol. 174 December 2009 pp.1247–1255. http://www.amsus.org/index.php/journal
  41. 1 2 3 4 Kahn, C, Schultz, C, Miller, C, and Anderson, C. "Does START Triage Work?: An Outcomes Assessment After a Disaster." Annals of Emergency Medicine Vol. 54 No. 3 pp.424–430. http://www.annemergmed.com
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Navin, M and Sacco, W. "Science and Evidence-Based Considerations for Fulfilling the SALT Triage Framework." Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness Vol. 4 No. 1 March 2010 pp.10–12. http://www.dmphp.org
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Navin, M, Sacco, W, and Waddell, R. "Operational Comparison of the Simple Triage and Rapid Treatment Method and the Sacco Triage Method in Mass Casualty Exercises." Journal of Trauma Vol. 69 No. 1 July 2010 pp. 215–225. http://journals.lww.com/jtrauma/pages/default.aspx
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 Navin, M, Sacco, W, and McCord, T. "Does START Triage Work? The Answer is Clear!" Annals of Emergency Medicine Vol.55 No. 6 June 2010 pp.579–580. http://www.annemergmed.com
  45. 1 2 3 4 Lindsey, J. New Triage Method Considers Available Resources. JEMS July 2005 pp.92-93. http://saccotriage.com/pdf/JEMS_7_05_New_Triage_v2.pdf
  46. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Navin, M and Waddell, R. Triage is Broken. EMS Magazine August 2005 pp.1–3. http://www.emsworld.com/article/10323785/triage-is-broken or http://saccotriage.com/pdf/Triage_is_Broken_8_05.pdf
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Learner, EB, Schwartz, RB, and Coule, PL et al. "Mass Casualty Triage: An Evaluation of the Data and Development of a Proposed National Guideline." Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness Vol. 2 September 2008 pp.525–534. http://www.dmphp.org/cgi/content/full/2/Supplement_1/S/25
  48. ↑ START Triage Wikipedia simple triage and rapid treatment
  49. ↑ Navin, M, Sacco, W and Waddell, R. Pennsylvania Triage Program Demonstrates Profound Inconsistencies of Current Protocols and Advantages of the Sacco Triage Method. Report to Pennsylvania Department of Health pp. 1–36. January 2004. http://saccotriage.com/pdf/PA_demonstration_program_distribution.pdf
  50. 1 2 US Department of Homeland Security. National Incident Management System. December 2008. http://www.fema.gov/national-incident-management-system
  51. ↑ Villani, D. Director, Department of Public Safety, Okaloosa County, Florida. letter to FEMA asking if START and STM are NIMS compatible. September 2007. http://saccotriage.com/pdf/Florida_official_letter_toFEMA.pdf
  52. ↑ Fluman, A. FEMA Letter to Dino Villani, former State of Florida EMS Director, summarizing FEMA Evaluation and Testing Program of STM NIMS compatibilities and operational effectiveness and suitability. December 2007. http://saccotriage.com/pdf/FEMAresponseNIMS.pdf
  53. ↑ Brown, D. "Crisis Seen in Nation's ER Care." The Washington Post June 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com
  54. ↑ Appelbaum, B. As U.S. "Agencies Put More Value on a Life, Businesses Fret." The New York Times. February 2011. http://www.nytimes.com
  55. ↑ "Who dies, who doesn't: docs decide flu pandemic guidelines (CBC News Item)". 2006-11-21. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  56. ↑ Christian MD, Hawryluck L, Wax RS, et al. (November 2006). "Development of a triage protocol for critical care during an influenza pandemic". CMAJ 175 (11): 1377–81. doi:10.1503/cmaj.060911. PMC 1635763. PMID 17116904.
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