September 11 attacks

"9/11" redirects here. For the date, see September 11.

September 11 attacks
Part of Terrorism in the United States

A montage of eight images depicting, from top to bottom, the World Trade Center towers burning, the collapsed section of the Pentagon, the impact explosion in the south tower, a rescue worker standing in front of rubble of the collapsed towers, an excavator unearthing a smashed jet engine, three frames of video depicting airplane hitting the Pentagon.

Location
Date September 11, 2001 (2001-09-11)
8:46 a.m. – 10:28 a.m. (EDT)
Target
Attack type
Deaths 2,996  (2,977 victims + 19 hijackers)
Non-fatal injuries
 6,000+
Perpetrators
Number of participants
 19

The September 11 attacks (also referred to as 9/11)[nb 1] were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001. The attacks consisted of suicide attacks used to target symbolic U.S. landmarks.

Four passenger airliners—which all departed from airports on the U.S. East Coast bound for California—were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists to be flown into buildings. Two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. Within an hour and 42 minutes, both 110-story towers collapsed, with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex, including the 47-story 7 World Trade Center tower, as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, leading to a partial collapse in the Pentagon's western side. The fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, initially was steered toward Washington, D.C., but crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers. In total, the attacks claimed the lives of 2,996 people (including the 19 hijackers) and caused at least $10 billion in property and infrastructure damage[2][3] and $3 trillion in total costs.[4] It was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers[5] in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively.

Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on Al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which had harbored al-Qaeda. Many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaeda's leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he claimed responsibility for the attacks.[1] Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by members of the U.S. military in May 2011.

The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets, closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13. Many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, and the Pentagon was repaired within a year. On November 18, 2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was officially opened on November 3, 2014.[6][7] Numerous memorials have been constructed, including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City, the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County, Virginia, and the Flight 93 National Memorial in a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

Background

Al-Qaeda

Further information: Al-Qaeda and Jihad

The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets.[8] Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical.[9] In 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia.[10]

In a second fatwā in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War.[11] Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed. Muslim legal scholars "have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries", according to bin Laden.[11]

Osama bin Laden

1997 picture of Osama bin Laden

Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement.[1][12][13] Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16, 2001, stating, "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."[14] In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi and admits foreknowledge of the attacks.[15] On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, "It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam. ... It is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim umma (nation) has occurred", but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.[16] The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims.

Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004, in a taped statement, bin Laden publicly acknowledged al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the U.S. and admitted his direct link to the attacks. He said that the attacks were carried out because, "we are free ... and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours."[17] Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center.[13][18] Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, as they make preparations for the attacks.[19] The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9/11 attacks but he was on the FBI's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya.[20][21] After a 10-year manhunt, bin Laden was killed by American special forces in a compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan on May 2, 2011.[22][23]

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his capture in 2003

The journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that, in April 2002, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement, along with Ramzi bin al-Shibh.[24][25][26] The 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel".[27] Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber in that attack.[28][29]

Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003, in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA, then transported to Guantanamo Bay and interrogated using methods including waterboarding.[30][31] During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007, Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, stating he "was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z" and that his statement was not made under duress.[26][32]

Other al-Qaeda members

In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Abu Turab al-Urduni, and Mohammed Atef.[33] To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks.

On September 26, 2005, the Spanish high court sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.[34] On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.[35]

Also, in 2006, Moussaoui, who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker, was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy. He is serving a life sentence without parole in the United States.[36][37] Mounir el-Motassadeq, an associate of the Hamburg-based hijackers, is serving 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks.[38]

The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9/11 attacks.[39] Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, and Said Bahaji were all members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell.[40]

Motives

Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others, calling for the killing of Americans,[11] are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation.[41] In bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to America", he explicitly stated that al-Qaeda's motives for their attacks include:

After the attacks, bin Laden and al-Zawahiri released additional video tapes and audio tapes, some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks. Two particularly important publications were bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to America",[47] and a 2004 video tape by bin Laden.[48]

Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia".[49] In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In 1998, al-Qaeda wrote, "for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples."[50]

In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world.[51] One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.[52]

In the 1998 fatwā, al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade"[50] among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims."[50] The fatwā declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip, and in order for their [the Americans'] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim."[11][53]

Bin Laden claimed, in 2004, that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War.[54][55] Some analysts, including Mearsheimer and Walt, also claim that one motivation for the attacks was U.S. support of Israel.[43][51] In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.[56][57]

Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al-Qaeda, including western support of Islamic and non-Islamic authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan and northern Africa, and the presence of western troops in some of these countries.[58] Some authors suggest the "humiliation" resulting from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world – this discrepancy rendered especially visible by the globalization trend[59][60] and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued that 9/11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan-Islamic revolution.[61][62]

Planning of the attacks

ground zero and surrounding area as seen from directly above depicting where the two planes impacted the towers
Map showing the attacks on the World Trade Center (the planes are not drawn to scale)

The idea for the attacks came from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996.[63] At that time, bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan.[64] The 1998 African Embassy bombings and bin Laden's 1998 fatwā marked a turning point, as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States.[64]

In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot. A series of meetings occurred in early 1999, involving Mohammed, bin Laden, and his deputy Mohammed Atef.[64] Atef provided operational support for the plot, including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.[64] Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting some potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles because, "there was not enough time to prepare for such an operation".[65][66]

Diagram showing the attacks on the World Trade Center

Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support for the plot, and was involved in selecting participants.[67] Bin Laden initially selected Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In spring 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California, but both spoke little English, performed poorly with flying lessons, and eventually served as secondary – or "muscle" – hijackers.[68][69]

In late 1999, a group of men from Hamburg, Germany arrived in Afghanistan, including Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh.[70] Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the West.[71] New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al-Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot's license.[72] Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing.[73]

Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi.[74]:6–7 They soon left for Arizona, where Hanjour took refresher training.[74]:7 Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000.[74]:6 Bin al-Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa and remain as an illegal immigrant.[74]:4, 14 Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed.[74]:16 The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida.[74]:6

In spring 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States.[75] In July 2001, Atta met with bin al-Shibh in Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot, including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh also passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible.[76] Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members, or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.[73]

Intelligence before the attacks

In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate Khallad contacted Mihdhar, telling him to meet him in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance. The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi). While the agency feared that "Something nefarious might be afoot," it took no further action. The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence to the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al-Qaeda members, and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it did not share this information with the FBI. The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members, and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to Bangkok, but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting, but was told that "'This is not a matter for the FBI.'"[77]

By late June, senior counter-terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come," although the CIA believed that the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel.[78] In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert," telling them that "Something really spectacular is going to happen here... soon." He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the Defense Department to go to "Threat Condition Delta."[79][80] Clarke would later write that "Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States... in [the] FBI there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States... They had specific information about individual terrorists... None of that information got to me or the White House."[81]

On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's Counterterrorism Center (CTC), requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. However, the CIA never responded.[82]

The same day in July, Margarette Gillespie, an FBI analyst working in the CTC, was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting. She was not told of the participants' presence in the U.S. However, the CIA did give Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism, but did not tell her their significance. The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting to criminal investigators. When shown the photos, the FBI were refused more details on their significance, and also did not receive Mihdhar's date of birth or passport number.[83] In late August 2001, Gillespie told the INS, the State Department, the Customs Service, and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists, but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in the search for the duo, which hindered their efforts.[84]

Also in July, a Phoenix-based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters, Alec Station, and to FBI agents in New York, alerting them to "the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges." The agent, Kenneth Williams, suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training.[85] In July, Jordan alerted the U.S. that al-Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S.; "months later," Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack's codename was "The Big Wedding," and that it involved airplanes.[86]

On August 6, the CIA's Presidential Daily Brief, designated "For the President Only," was entitled "Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in U.S." The memo noted that "The FBI information... indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks."[87]

In mid-August, one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI to Zacarias Moussaoui, who had asked "suspicious questions." The FBI found that he was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan, and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa. However, their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause.[88]

The failures in intelligence-sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence sharing, combined with CIA and NSA reluctance in revealing "sensitive sources and methods" such as tapped phones.[89] Testifying before the 9/11 Commission in April 2004, then-Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the "single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents."[90] Clarke also wrote that "There were failures in the organizations... failures to get information to the right place at the right time..."[91]

Attacks

Flight paths of the four planes used on September 11

Early on the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 hijackers took control of four commercial airliners (two Boeing 757 and two Boeing 767) en route to California (three headed to LAX in Los Angeles, and one to SFO in San Francisco) after takeoffs from Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts; Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey; and Washington Dulles International Airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia.[92] Large planes with long flights were selected for hijacking because they would be heavily fueled.[93]

The four flights were:

Media coverage was extensive during the attacks and aftermath, beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center.[94]

Events

Plume of September 11 attack seen from space by NASA.[95]

At 8:46 a.m., five hijackers crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern façade of the World Trade Center's North Tower (1 WTC), and at 9:03 a.m., another five hijackers crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower (2 WTC).[96][97] Five hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m.[98] A fourth flight, United Airlines Flight 93, under the control of four hijackers, crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03 a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers. Flight 93's target is believed to have been either the Capitol or the White House.[93] Flight 93's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and passengers tried to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that Flights 11, 77, and 175 had been crashed into buildings that morning.[99] Once it became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain control of the plane, the hijackers rolled the plane and intentionally crashed it.[100][101]

Collapse of the Towers
The north face of Two World Trade Center (south tower) immediately after being struck by United Airlines Flight 175

Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin airphone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used mace, tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed.[102][103][104][105][106][107][108] Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers.[92][109] In their final report, the 9/11 Commission found the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted knives and blades.[110][111] A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake.[92]

Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire-induced structural failure.[112] The South Tower collapsed at 9:59 a.m. after burning for 56 minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel.[112] The North Tower collapsed at 10:28 a.m. after burning for 102 minutes.[112] When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building (7 WTC), damaging it and starting fires. These fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7 WTC collapsed at 5:21 p.m.[113][114] The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage.

Security camera footage of Flight 77 hitting the Pentagon.[115] The plane hits the Pentagon approximately 86 seconds after the beginning of this recording.

At 9:42 a.m., the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S., and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately.[116] All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico, and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days.[117] The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers. Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day, one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department's headquarters in Washington, D.C.[118] Another jet—Delta Air Lines Flight 1989—was suspected of having been hijacked, but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland, Ohio.[119]

In an April 2002 interview, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, who are believed to have organized the attacks, said Flight 93's intended target was the United States Capitol, not the White House.[120] During the planning stage of the attacks, Mohamed Atta, the hijacker and pilot of Flight 11, thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour (who hijacked and piloted Flight 77).[121] Mohammed said al-Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, but decided against it, fearing things could "get out of control".[122] Final decisions on targets, according to Mohammed, were left in the hands of the pilots.[121]

Casualties

The remains of 6, 7, and 1 WTC on September 17, 2001.

The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people and the injuries of 6,000+ others.[123] The death toll included 265 on the four planes (from which there were no survivors), 2,606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area, and 125 at the Pentagon.[124][125] Nearly all of those who perished were civilians with the exceptions of 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists who died in the attacks.[126][127] After New York, New Jersey lost the most state citizens, with the city of Hoboken having the most citizens that died in the attacks.[128] More than 90 countries lost citizens in the September 11 attacks.[129] The attacks of September 11, 2001, marked it the worst terrorist attack in world history and the deadliest foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.[3]

In Arlington County, Virginia, 125 Pentagon workers lost their lives when Flight 77 crashed into the western side of the building. Of these, 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel, many of them who worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy. The Army lost 47 civilian employees, six civilian contractors, and 22 soldiers, while the Navy lost six civilian employees, three civilian contractors, and 33 sailors. Seven Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) civilian employees were also among the dead in the attack, as well as an Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) contractor.[130][131][132] Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military official killed at the Pentagon.[133]

Statue of Liberty with background view of burning World Trade Center

In New York City, more than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact.[134] In the North Tower, 1,355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped and died of smoke inhalation, fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames, or were killed in the building's eventual collapse. The destruction of all three staircases in the tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape. 107 people below the point of impact died as well.[134]

In the South Tower, one stairwell, Stairwell A, was left intact after Flight 175 hit, allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact (including one man who saw the plane coming at him) and four more from the floors above to escape. New York City 911 operators who received calls from individuals inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result, told callers not to descend the tower on their own.[135] In total 630 people died in that tower, fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower.[134] Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced by some occupants deciding to start evacuating as soon as the North Tower was struck.[136]

Urban Search and Rescue Task Force German Shepherd dog works to uncover survivors at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center after the September 11, 2001 attacks.

At least 200 people fell or jumped to their deaths from the burning towers (as exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man), landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below.[137] Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked. No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment and thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.[138] A total of 411 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a chaplain and two paramedics.[139] The New York City Police Department (NYPD) lost 23 officers.[140] The Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) lost 37 officers.[141] Eight emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed.[142]

Cantor Fitzgerald L.P., an investment bank on the 101st–105th floors of the North Tower, lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.[143] Marsh Inc., located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees,[144][145] and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were also killed.[146] The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks. Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45 a.m.[147][148] Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings.[149]

Deaths (victims + hijackers)
New York City World Trade Center 2,606[124][150]
American 11 87 + 5[151]
United 175 60 + 5[152]
Arlington Pentagon 125[153]
American 77 59 + 5[154]
Near Shanksville United 93 40 + 4[155]
Total 2,977 + 19

Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed.[156] The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead".[157] Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building. In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill, where seventy-two more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims.[158][159][160] The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park, outside the New York City Medical Examiner’s facilities. It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9/11 museum. In July 2011, a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains, in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims.[160] On March 20, 2015, the 1,640th victim was identified. There are still 1,113 victims who have not been identified.[161]

Damage

World Trade Center site (Ground Zero) with an overlay showing the original building locations.
The Pentagon was damaged by fire and partly collapsed.

Along with the 110-floor Twin Towers, numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church.[162] The North Tower, South Tower, the Marriott Hotel (3 WTC), and 7 WTC were completely destroyed. The U.S. Customs House (6 World Trade Center), 4 World Trade Center, 5 World Trade Center, and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. The Deutsche Bank Building on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later, starting in 2007.[163][164] The two buildings of the World Financial Center also suffered damage.[163]

The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower, and was deconstructed.[165][166] The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks, and is being rebuilt.[167] Other neighboring buildings (including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building) suffered major damage but have been restored.[168] World Financial Center buildings, One Liberty Plaza, the Millenium Hilton, and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored.[169] Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.[162][170]

The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and ensuing fires, causing one section of the building to collapse.[171] As the airplane approached the Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building.[172][173] The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second.[174] Debris from the tail section penetrated furthest into the building, breaking through 310 feet (94 m) of the three outermost of the building's five rings.[174][175]

Rescue efforts

An injured victim is being loaded into a paramedic van with the burning Pentagon in the background
An injured victim of the Pentagon attack is evacuated.

The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units (half of the department) to the World Trade Center. Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians.[176][177][178] The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel, and deployed its aviation unit. Once on the scene, the FDNY, the NYPD, and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.[176][179] As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed.[179][180] With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders.

After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings; however, due to technical difficulties with malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. 9-1-1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.[177] Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002.[181]

Aftermath

George W. Bush gets a briefing on the attacks.

Immediate response

Three high-level politicians and a General, all displaying grim facial expressions, flank the main speaker.
Eight hours after the attacks, Donald Rumsfeld, then U.S. Secretary of Defense, declares "The Pentagon is functioning."

At 8:32 a.m., FAA officials were notified Flight 11 had been hijacked and they in turn notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). NORAD scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8:53 a.m.[182] Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials, NORAD had 9 minutes' notice that Flight 11 had been hijacked, and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed.[182] After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m.[182] At 10:20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. However, these instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action.[182][183][184][185] Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes, possibly ejecting at the last moment.[186]

For the first time in U.S. history, SCATANA was invoked,[187] thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.[188] The FAA closed American airspace to all international flights, causing about five hundred flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.[189]

The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects upon the American people.[190] Police and rescue workers from around the country took leaves of absence, traveling to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers.[191] Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.[192][193]

The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3,000 children losing a parent.[194] Subsequent studies documented children's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life, the protective environment in the aftermath of the attacks, and effects on surviving caregivers.[195][196][197]

Domestic reactions

At a joint session of Congress, President Bush pledges to defend America's freedom against the fear of terrorism, September 20, 2001 (audio only).

Following the attacks, President Bush's approval rating soared to 90%.[198] On September 20, 2001, he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and described his intended response to the attacks. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani's highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally.[199]

Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks, with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the families of victims. By the deadline for victim's compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed.[200]
Statement by President Bush in his Address to the Nation
George W. Bush's address to the people of the United States, September 11, 2001, 8:30 pm EDT.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks.[188] However, Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002.[201]

In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history, the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002, creating the Department of Homeland Security. Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act, saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes.[202] Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying it allows law enforcement to invade the privacy of citizens and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence.[203][204][205] In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism, the National Security Agency (NSA) was given broad powers. NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications, which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency "to eavesdrop on telephone and e-mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant".[206] In response to requests by various intelligence agencies, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking, obtaining, and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non-U.S. people from around the world.[207]

Hate crimes

A fireman looks up at the remains of the South Tower
A fireman stands behind rubble

Shortly after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at Washington's largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them "to be treated with respect."[208] However, numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks.[209][210][211] Sikhs were also targeted because Sikh males usually wear turbans, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple), and assaults on people, including one murder: Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in Mesa, Arizona.[211]

According to an academic study, people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, Arabs, and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin.[212] A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together, documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17. Various crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented.[213][214]

Muslim American response

Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called "upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families".[215] These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America, American Muslim Alliance, American Muslim Council, Council on American-Islamic Relations, Islamic Circle of North America, and the Shari'a Scholars Association of North America. Along with monetary donations, many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance, food, and shelter for victims.[216][217][218]

International reactions

The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.[219] Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity".[220] While the government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.[221][222] As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.[223]

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks, and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their Charter.[224] Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.[225][226] Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.[227][228]

British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.[229] A few days later, Blair flew to Washington to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to Congress, nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."[230] Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40,000 miles (60,000 km).[231]

Vladimir Putin and his wife attending a commemoration service for the victims of the September 11 attacks on November 16, 2001

Tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan following the attacks, fearing a response by the United States. Pakistan, already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts, closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17, 2001. Approximately one month after the attacks, the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al-Qaeda.[232] Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban, they permitted the coalition access to their military bases, and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al-Qaeda members.[233][234]

The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as "illegal enemy combatants". The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations.[235][236][237]

Military operations

See also: War on Terror

At 2:40 p.m. in the afternoon of September 11, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement. According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone, Rumsfeld asked for, "Best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H." (Saddam Hussein) "at same time. Not only UBL" (Osama bin Laden).[238] Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying, "Need to move swiftly – Near term target needs – go massive – sweep it all up. Things related and not."[239][240] In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to 9/11.[241]

A line of soldiers carrying equipment on their backs walking toward a transport helicopter in desert terrain
U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan

The NATO council declared the attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations which satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter. This marked the first invocation of Article 5, which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind.[242] Australian Prime Minister John Howard who was in Washington D.C. during the attacks invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty.[243] The Bush administration announced a War on Terror, with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al-Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks.[244] These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists, and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing.[245]

On September 14, 2001, the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists. Still in effect, it grants the President the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11th attacks, or who harbored said persons or groups.[246]

On October 7, 2001, the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces.[247] This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan on December 9, 2001 by U.S. led coalition forces.[248] Conflict in Afghanistan between the Taliban insurgency and the Afghan forces backed by NATO Resolute Support Mission is ongoing. The Philippines and Indonesia, among other nations with their own internal conflicts with Islamic terrorism, also increased their military readiness.[249][250]

Effects

Health issues

Survivors were covered in dust after the collapse of the towers.

Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens, were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the collapse of the Twin Towers.[251][252] Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at ground zero.[253][254] The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.[255]

Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown.[256] Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.[257] Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.[258] There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notable children's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse, and were living or working nearby.[259] A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.[260]

Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.[261] Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.[262] Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area.[263]

The United States Congress passed the James L. Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act on December 22, 2010, and President Barack Obama signed the act into law on January 2, 2011. It allocated $4.2 billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program, which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long-term health problems related to the 9/11 attacks.[264][265] The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9/11-related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program.[265]

According to a new study, pregnant women living near the World Trade Center during the 9/11 terror attacks experienced higher-than-normal negative birth outcomes. The study by Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs found that these mothers were more likely to give birth prematurely and deliver babies with low birth weights. Their babies were also more likely to be admitted to neonatal intensive care units after birth (especially baby boys), according to the study led by the Wilson School's Janet Currie and Hannes Schwandt.[266]

Economic

As shown in this table, the 9/11 attacks had a major effect on the economy of New York City (in red), compared to the United States' economy overall (in blue).

The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets.[267] The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17. Reopening, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) fell 684 points, or 7.1%, to 8921, a record-setting one-day point decline.[268] By the end of the week, the DJIA had fallen 1,369.7 points (14.3%), at the time its largest one-week point drop in history.[269] In 2001 dollars, U.S. stocks lost $1.4 trillion in valuation for the week.[269]

In New York City, about 430,000 job-months and $2.8 billion dollars in wages were lost in the three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors.[270] The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001, and $10.5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.[271] Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center, 18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced, resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages. Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans, federal government Community Development Block Grants, and Economic Injury Disaster Loans.[271] Some 31,900,000 square feet (2,960,000 m2) of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed.[272] Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover.[273] Studies of the economic effects of 9/11 show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.[274][275]

North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry.[276]

The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq,[277] as well as additional homeland security spending, totaling at least $5 trillion.[278]

Cultural

The impact of 9/11 extends beyond geopolitics into society and culture in general. Immediate responses to 9/11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family, higher church attendance, and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of flags.[279] The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists, and the attacks have subsequently been used as background, narrative or thematic elements in film, television, music and literature. Already-running television shows as well as programs developed after 9/11 have reflected post-9/11 cultural concerns.[280] 9/11 conspiracy theories have become social phenomena, despite lack of support from expert scientists, engineers, and historians.[281] 9/11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals; for some it strengthened, to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief; others started to question their faith or lost it entirely, because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion.[282][283]

The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof, as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation. Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel.[284]

Government policies toward terrorism

As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism.[285] In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement.[286] Canada passed the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act, that nation's first anti-terrorism law.[287] The United Kingdom passed the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005.[288][289] New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002.[290]

In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge, to monitor telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use by terror suspects, and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned sky marshals to flights. Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy.[291]

Investigations

FBI

A head shot of a man in his thirties looking expressionless toward the camera
Mohamed Atta, an Egyptian national, was the ringleader of the hijackers.

Immediately after the attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM, the largest criminal inquiry in the history of the United States. At its height, more than half of the FBI's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half-million leads.[292] The FBI concluded that there was "clear and irrefutable" evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks.[293]

The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston.[294] Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language (sic) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.[295] Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.[296][297] On September 27, 2001, they released photos of all 19 hijackers, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.[298] Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two from the United Arab Emirates, one from Egypt, and one from Lebanon.[299]

By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.[300] Two of the hijackers were known to have travelled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000[301] and hijacker Mohammed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan.[302] He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg.[303] One of the members of the Hamburg cell was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheik Mohammed who was identified as a member of al-Qaeda.[304]

Authorities in the United States and Britain also obtained electronic intercepts, including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers, which indicate that Mohammed Atef, a bin Laden deputy, was a key figure in the planning of the 9/11 attacks. Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan. In those conversations, the two referred to "an incident that would take place in America on, or around, September 11" and they discussed potential repercussions. In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan, bin Laden discussed the "scale and effects of a forthcoming operation." These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center or Pentagon, or other specifics.[305]

Origins of the 19 hijackers
Nationality Number
Saudi Arabia
15
United Arab Emirates
2
Egypt
1
Lebanon
1

CIA

The Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) conducted an internal review of the agency's pre-9/11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism. He criticized their failure to stop two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI.[306] In May 2007, senators from both major U.S. political parties drafted legislation to make the review public. One of the backers, Senator Ron Wyden said, "The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9/11."[307]

Congressional inquiry

In February 2002 the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community.[308] Their 832 page report released in December 2002[309] detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, in order to disrupt the plots.[310] The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non-classified sources.[311] Nevertheless, the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified.[310] In December 2002 the inquiry's chair Bob Graham (D-FL) revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States."[312] September 11th victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the Congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission.[310] September 11th victim families,[313] members of congress[314][315] and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents.[316][317]

9/11 Commission

The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission), chaired by Thomas Kean and Lee H. Hamilton, was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks.[318] On July 22, 2004, the Commission issued the 9/11 Commission Report. The report detailed the events of 9/11, found the attacks were carried out by members of al-Qaeda, and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks. Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former Senators, Representatives, and Governors, the commissioners explained, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management".[319] The Commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.[320]

Collapse of the World Trade Center

The exterior support columns from the lower level of the south tower remained standing after the building collapsed.

The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC. The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place, and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction.[321] The investigation into the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7 WTC was completed in August 2008.[322]

NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that, had this not occurred, the towers likely would have remained standing.[323] A 2007 study of the north tower's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that, since the plane's impact had stripped off much of the structure's thermal insulation, the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact.[324][325]

The director of the original investigation stated that, "the towers really did amazingly well. The terrorist aircraft didn’t bring the buildings down; it was the fire which followed. It was proven that you could take out two thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand."[326] The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors, making the floors sag. The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward. With the damage to the core columns, the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings, causing them to collapse. Additionally, the report found the towers' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones.[327] NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7 WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently "caused a critical support column to fail, initiating a fire-induced progressive collapse that brought the building down".[322]

Rebuilding

Rebuilt One World Trade Center nearing completion in July 2013

On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again."[328]

The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.[329] The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7 World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing.[330] The construction of One World Trade Center began on April 27, 2006, and reached its full height on May 20, 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting 1 WTC's height at 1,776 feet (541 m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.[331] One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.[6][332]

On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers are expected to be built one block east of where the original towers stood. Construction has begun on all three of these towers.[333]

Memorials

The Tribute in Light on September 11, 2014, on the thirteenth anniversary of the attacks, seen from Bayonne, New Jersey. The tallest building in the picture is the new One World Trade Center.

In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other.”[334]

One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light, an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers.[335] In New York, the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site.[336] The winning design, Reflecting Absence, was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.[337]

The Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008.[338][339] It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.[340] When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.[341]

In Shanksville, a permanent Flight 93 National Memorial is planned to include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site, bisected by the plane's path, while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims.[342] A temporary memorial is located 500 yards (457 m) from the crash site.[343] New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon.[344] It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008.[345] Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families, and by many other organizations and private figures.[346]

On every anniversary, in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon,[347] and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the President's spouse.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The expression "9/11" is pronounced "nine eleven". The slash is not part of the pronunciation. The name is frequently used in British English as well as in American English, although the dating conventions differ.

References

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 "Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11". CBC News. October 29, 2004. Retrieved 2011-09-01. Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States.
  2. ↑ "How much did the September 11 terrorist attack cost America?". 2004. Institute for the Analysis of Global Security. Retrieved 2014-04-30.
  3. 1 2 Matthew J. Morgan (August 4, 2009). The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that Changed Everything?. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 222. ISBN 0-230-60763-2.
  4. ↑ Carter, Shan; Cox, A. "One 9/11 Tally: $3.3 Trillion". Retrieved 2015-09-14.
  5. ↑ Congress. Congressional Record, Vol. 148, Pt. 7, May 23, 2002 to June 12, 2002. Government Printing Office. p. 9909. ISBN 978-0-16-076125-6. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
  6. 1 2 Moore, Jack (November 3, 2014). "World Trade Center Re-opens as Tallest Building in America". International Business Times. One World Trade Center. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  7. ↑ Smith, Aaron (November 3, 2014). "One World Trade Center opens today". CNN Money. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
  8. ↑ "Al-Qaeda's origins and links". BBC News. July 20, 2004. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  9. ↑ Gunaratna (2002), pp. 23–33.
  10. ↑ "Bin Laden's fatwā (1996)". PBS. Archived from the original on 2001-10-31. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  11. 1 2 3 4 "Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". PBS NewsHour. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 2013-11-28. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  12. ↑ "Pakistan inquiry orders Bin Laden family to remain". BBC. July 6, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  13. 1 2 "Full transcript of bin Laden's speech". Al Jazeera. November 2, 2004. Archived from the original on 2007-04-10. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  14. ↑ "Pakistan to Demand Taliban Give Up Bin Laden as Iran Seals Afghan Border". Fox News Channel. September 16, 2001. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  15. ↑ "Bin Laden on tape: Attacks 'benefited Islam greatly'". CNN. December 14, 2001. Archived from the original on 2007-12-27. Retrieved 2013-11-24. Reveling in the details of the fatal attacks, bin Laden brags in Arabic that he knew about them beforehand and says the destruction went beyond his hopes. He says the attacks "benefited Islam greatly".
  16. ↑ "Transcript: Bin Laden video excerpts". BBC News. December 27, 2001. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  17. ↑ Michael, Maggie (October 29, 2004). "Bin Laden, in statement to U.S. people, says he ordered Sept. 11 attacks". SignOnSanDiego.com. Associated Press. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  18. ↑ "Al-Jazeera: Bin Laden tape obtained in Pakistan". MSNBC. October 30, 2004. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  19. ↑ "Bin Laden 9/11 planning video aired". CBC News. September 7, 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  20. ↑ Clewley, Robin (September 27, 2001). "How Osama Cracked FBI's Top 10". Wired. Archived from the original on 2008-05-26. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  21. ↑ "USAMA BIN LADEN". FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
  22. ↑ Baker, Peter; Cooper, Helene (May 1, 2011). "Bin Laden Is Dead, President Obama Says". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  23. ↑ Cooper, Helene (May 1, 2011). "Obama Announces Killing of Osama bin Laden". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  24. ↑ "'We left out nuclear targets, for now'". The Guardian (London). March 4, 2003. Archived from the original on 2008-03-02. Retrieved 2011-09-03. Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel al-Jazeera is the only journalist to have interviewed Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the al-Qaeda military commander arrested at the weekend. Here he describes the two-day encounter with him and his fellow organiser of September 11, Ramzi bin al- Shibh: […] Summoning every thread of experience and courage, I looked Khalid in the eye and asked: 'Did you do it?' The reference to September 11 was implicit. Khalid responded with little fanfare: 'I am the head of the al-Qaeda military committee,' he began, 'and Ramzi is the coordinator of the Holy Tuesday operation. And yes, we did it.'
  25. ↑ Leonard, Tom; Spillius, Alex (October 10, 2008). "Alleged 9/11 mastermind wants to confess to plot". London: Telegraph. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  26. 1 2 "September 11 suspect 'confesses'". Al Jazeera. March 15, 2007. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  27. ↑ 9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 147.
  28. ↑ "White House power grabs". The Washington Times. August 26, 2009. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  29. ↑ Van Voris, Bob; Hurtado, Patricia (April 4, 2011). "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Terror Indictment Unsealed, Dismissed". BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on 2011-04-17. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  30. ↑ Shannon, Elaine; Weisskopf, Michael (March 24, 2003). "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Names Names". TIME. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  31. ↑ Nichols, Michelle (May 8, 2008). "US judge orders CIA to turn over 'torture' memo-ACLU". Reuters. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  32. ↑ "Key 9/11 suspect 'admits guilt'". BBC News. March 15, 2007. Retrieved 2012-04-10.
  33. ↑ "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" (PDF). United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. 2006. p. 24. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  34. ↑ "Spain jails 18 al-Qaeda operatives". The Age (Melbourne). September 27, 2005. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  35. ↑ Naughton, Philippe (June 1, 2006). "Spanish court quashes 9/11 conviction". The Times. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  36. ↑ Summers and Swan (2011), p. 489n.
  37. ↑ Youssef, Maamoun (May 24, 2006). "Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11". Washington Post. Associated Press.
  38. ↑ Summers and Swan (2011), p. 542n.
  39. ↑ "The Hamburg connection". BBC News. August 19, 2005.
  40. ↑ "Chapter of the 9/11 Commission Report detailing the history of the Hamburg Cell". 9/11 Commission.
  41. ↑ Gunarathna, pp. 61–62.
  42. ↑ bin Laden, Osama (November 24, 2002). "Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Observer (London). Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  43. 1 2
    • Mearsheimer (2007), p. 67.
    • Kushner (2003), p. 389.
    • Murdico (2003), p. 64.
    • Kelley (2006), p. 207.
    • Ibrahim (2007), p. 276.
    • Berner (2007), p. 80.
  44. ↑ Plotz, David (2001) What Does Osama Bin Laden Want?, Slate
  45. ↑
  46. ↑
  47. ↑ "Full transcript of bin Laden's "Letter to America"". The Guardian (London). November 24, 2002. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  48. ↑ bin Laden, Osama. "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2012-04-10. So I shall talk to you about the story behind those events and shall tell you truthfully about the moments in which the decision was taken, for you to consider
  49. ↑ Bergen (2001), p. 3.
  50. 1 2 3 "1998 Al Qaeda fatwā". Fas.org. February 23, 1998. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  51. 1 2 Yusufzai, Rahimullah (September 26, 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  52. ↑ Pape, Robert A. (2005). Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-8129-7338-0.
  53. ↑ See also the 1998 Al-Qaeda fatwā: "The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque [Mecca] from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim." Quoted from "Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". PBS NewsHour. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 2013-11-28. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  54. ↑ Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 211, 506n.
  55. ↑ Lawrence (2005), p. 239.
  56. ↑ online here)
  57. ↑ In his taped broadcast from January 2010, Bin Laden said "Our attacks against you [the United States] will continue as long as U.S. support for Israel continues. … The message sent to you with the attempt by the hero Nigerian Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab is a confirmation of our previous message conveyed by the heroes of September 11". Quoted from "Bin Laden: Attacks on U.S. to go on as long as it supports Israel", in Haaretz.com
  58. ↑ Rockmore, Tom (April 21, 2011). Before and After 9/11: A Philosophical Examination of Globalization, Terror. ISBN 978-1-4411-1892-9. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  59. ↑ Bernard Lewis, 2004. In Bernard Lewis's 2004 book The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, he argues that animosity toward the West is best understood with the decline of the once powerful Ottoman empire, compounded by the import of western ideas — Arab socialism, Arab liberalism and Arab secularism. During the past three centuries, according to this interpretation, the Islamic world has lost its dominance and its position of leadership in the world, and has fallen behind both the modern West and the rapidly modernizing Orient. The resulting widening gap poses increasingly severe problems, both practical and emotional, for which the rulers, thinkers, and rebels of Islam have not yet found effective answers.
  60. ↑ In an essay titled "The spirit of terrorism", Jean Baudrillard described 9/11 as the first global event that "questions the very process of globalization". Baudrillard. "The spirit of terrorism". Retrieved 2011-06-26.
  61. ↑ In an essay entitled "Somebody Else's Civil War", Michael Scott Doran argues the attacks are best understood as part of a religious conflict within the Muslim world and that Bin Laden's followers "consider themselves an island of true believers surrounded by a sea of iniquity". Hoping that U.S. retaliation would unite the faithful against the West, bin Laden sought to spark revolutions in Arab nations and elsewhere. Doran argues the Osama bin Laden videos attempt to provoke a visceral reaction in the Middle East and ensure that Muslim citizens would react as violently as possible to an increase in U.S. involvement in their region. ("Somebody Else's Civil War". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2009-12-05. Reprinted in Hoge, James F.; Rose, Gideon (2005). Understanding the War on Terror. New York: Norton. pp. 72–75. ISBN 978-0-87609-347-4.)
  62. ↑ In The Osama bin Laden I Know, Peter Bergen argues the attacks were part of a plan to cause the United States to increase its military and cultural presence in the Middle East, thereby forcing Muslims to confront the idea of a non-Muslim government and to eventually establish conservative Islamic governments in the region.(Bergen (2006), p. 229.)
  63. ↑ "Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning'". BBC News. September 22, 2003. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  64. 1 2 3 4 9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 5, pp ??
  65. ↑ Lichtblau, Eric (March 20, 2003). "Bin Laden Chose 9/11 Targets, Al Qaeda Leader Says". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  66. ↑ Wright (2006), p. 308.
  67. ↑ Bergen (2006), p. 283.
  68. ↑ Wright (2006), pp. 309–15.
  69. ↑ McDermott (2005), pp. 191–92.
  70. ↑ Bernstein, Richard (September 10, 2002). "On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  71. ↑ Wright (2006), pp. 304–07.
  72. ↑ Wright (2006), p. 302.
  73. 1 2 Jessee 2006, p. 371.
  74. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. June 16, 2004. Retrieved 2012-09-11.
  75. ↑ "Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. 2004. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  76. ↑ Irujo, Jose María (March 21, 2004). "Atta recibió en Tarragona joyas para que los miembros del 'comando' del 11-S se hiciesen pasar por ricos saudíes" (in Spanish). elpais.com. Retrieved 2012-04-10.
  77. ↑ Wright 2006, pp. 310-312.
  78. ↑ Clarke 2004, pp. 235-236.
  79. ↑ Wright 2006, p. 344.
  80. ↑ Clarke 2004, pp. 236-237.
  81. ↑ Clarke 2004, pp. 242-243.
  82. ↑ Wright 2006, p. 340.
  83. ↑ Wright 2006, pp. 340-343.
  84. ↑ Wright 2006, pp. 352-353.
  85. ↑ Wright 2006, p. 350.
  86. ↑ Yitzhak 2016, p. 218.
  87. ↑ "THE OSAMA BIN LADEN FILE: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 343". The National Security Archive. The National Security Archive. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
  88. ↑ Wright 2006, pp. 350-351.
  89. ↑ Wright 2006, pp. 342-343.
  90. ↑ Javorsek et al. 2015, p. 742.
  91. ↑ Clarke 2004, p. 238.
  92. 1 2 3 9/11 Commission Report, pp. 4–14.
  93. 1 2 "The Attack Looms". 9/11 Commission Report. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. 2004. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
  94. ↑ See, for example, news coverage by CNN: "Breaking News Videos from CNN.com". CNN.
  95. ↑ Jones, Jonathan. "The 9/11 attack seen from space – an image of impotence". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014.
  96. ↑ "Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 11" (PDF). National Transportation Safety Board. February 19, 2002.
  97. ↑ "Flight Path Study – United Airlines Flight 175" (PDF). National Transportation Safety Board. February 19, 2002.
  98. ↑ "Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77" (PDF). National Transportation Safety Board. February 19, 2002.
  99. ↑ Snyder, David (April 19, 2002). "Families Hear Flight 93's Final Moments". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2013-11-12.
  100. ↑ "Text of Flight 93 Recording". Fox News. April 12, 2006. Retrieved 2013-11-11.
  101. ↑ "The Flight 93 Story". National Park Service. Retrieved 2011-09-21.
  102. ↑ McKinnon, Jim (September 16, 2001). "The phone line from Flight 93 was still open when a GTE operator heard Todd Beamer say: 'Are you guys ready? Let's roll'". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved 2011-04-10.
  103. ↑ "Relatives wait for news as rescuers dig". CNN. September 13, 2001. Retrieved 2013-11-11.
  104. ↑ Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 58, 463n, 476n.
  105. ↑ Wilgoren, Jodi and Edward Wong (September 13, 2001). "On Doomed Flight, Passengers Vowed To Perish Fighting". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
  106. ↑ Serrano, Richard A. (April 11, 2006). "Moussaoui Jury Hears the Panic From 9/11". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
  107. ↑ Goo, Sara Kehaulani; Eggen, Dan (January 28, 2004). "Hijackers used Mace, knives to take over airplanes". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2013-11-12.
  108. ↑ Ahlers, Mike M. (January 27, 2004). "9/11 panel: Hijackers may have had utility knives". CBS News. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
  109. ↑ "Encore Presentation: Barbara Olson Remembered". Larry King Live (CNN). January 6, 2002. Retrieved 2011-09-01.
  110. ↑ "National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States". National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States. January 27, 2004. Retrieved 2008-01-24.
  111. ↑ Summers and Swan (2011), p. 343.
  112. 1 2 3 Miller, Bill (May 1, 2002). "Skyscraper Protection Might Not Be Feasible, Federal Engineers Say". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
  113. ↑ World Trade Center Building Performance Study, Ch. 5 WTC 7 – section 5.5.4
  114. ↑ Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7, p. xxxvii.
  115. ↑ "Flight 77, Video 2". Judicial Watch. Retrieved 2012-04-04.
  116. ↑ "Chapter 1: "We have some planes"" (PDF). 9/11 Commission Report. July 22, 2004.
  117. ↑ "Profiles of 9/11 – About 9/11". The Biography Channel. A&E Television Networks. Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  118. ↑ Miller, Mark (August 26, 2002). "Three hours that shook America: A chronology of chaos". Broadcasting & Cable. Reed Business Information. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  119. ↑ Adams, Marilyn; Levin, Alan and Morrison, Blake (August 13, 2002). "Part II: No one was sure if hijackers were on board". USA Today. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  120. ↑ Fouda and Fielding (2004), pp. 158–9.
  121. 1 2 Summers and Swan (2011), p. 323.
  122. ↑ "Al-Qaeda 'plotted nuclear attacks'". BBC News. September 8, 2002. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  123. ↑ "Winnipegger heads to NY for 9/11 memorial". CBC News. Sep 9, 2011. Retrieved 2013-11-13. A total of 2,996 people died: 19 hijackers and 2,977 victims.
  124. 1 2 "Accused 9/11 plotter Khalid Sheikh Mohammed faces New York trial". CNN. November 13, 2009. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  125. ↑ "First video of Pentagon 9/11 attack released". CNN. May 16, 2006. Archived from the original on 2006-09-24. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  126. ↑ Stone, Andrea (August 20, 2002). "Military's aid and comfort ease 9/11 survivors' burden". USA Today. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  127. ↑ September 11 Memorial
  128. ↑ Beveridge, Andrew. "9/11/01-02: A Demographic Portrait of the Victims In 10048". Gotham Gazette. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  129. ↑ U.S. Department of State. "A list of the countries whose citizens died as a result of the attacks on September 11, 2001" (PDF). U.S. Department of State, Office of International Information Programs. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
  130. ↑ "National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States". U.S. Congress. August 21, 2004. Retrieved September 8, 2006.
  131. ↑ Goldberg et al., pp. 208–212.
  132. ↑ "September 11, 2001 Pentagon Victims". patriotresource.com. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
  133. ↑ "Remembering the Lost". Timothy J. Maude, Lieutenant General, United States Army. Arlington National Cemetery. September 22, 2001. Retrieved April 16, 2001.
  134. 1 2 3 Sunder (2005), p. 48.
  135. ↑ National Commission on Terrorist Attacks (July 22, 2004). The 9/11 Commission Report (first edition) (PDF). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 294. ISBN 0-393-32671-3. Retrieved 2014-01-24.
  136. ↑ Sunder (2005), p. 46.
  137. ↑ Cauchon, Dennis; Moore, Martha (September 2, 2002). "Desperation forced a horrific decision". USATODAY. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  138. ↑ "Poor Info Hindered 9/11 Rescue". CBS News. May 18, 2004. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  139. ↑ "THE UNOFFICIAL HOME PAGE OF FDNY".
  140. ↑ "Post-9/11 report recommends police, fire response changes". USA Today. Associated Press. August 19, 2002. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  141. ↑ "Police back on day-to-day beat after 9/11 nightmare". CNN. July 21, 2002. Retrieved 2013-11-12.
  142. ↑ "EMT & Paramedics".
  143. ↑ "Cantor rebuilds after 9/11 losses". BBC. September 4, 2006. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  144. ↑ "Marsh & McLennan Companies 9/11 Memorial". Retrieved 2011-09-07.
  145. ↑ "Milestones of Marsh & McLennan Companies". Retrieved 2011-09-07.
  146. ↑ Siegel, Aaron (September 11, 2007). "Industry honors fallen on 9/11 anniversary". InvestmentNews. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  147. ↑ Averill (2005), chapter "Occupant Behavior, Egress, and Emergency Communications", pp ??
  148. ↑ Dwyer and Flynn (2005), p. 266.
  149. ↑ Dwyer, Jim; et al. (May 26, 2002). "Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  150. ↑ "Alleged 9/11 Plotters Face Trial Blocks From WTC Site". WIBW. November 13, 2009. Archived from the original on 2012-03-25. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
  151. ↑ "American Airlines Flight 11". CNN. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  152. ↑ "United Airlines Flight 175". CNN. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  153. ↑ "Pentagon". CNN. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  154. ↑ "American Airlines Flight 77". CNN. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  155. ↑ Roddy, Dennis B. (October 2001). "Flight 93: Forty lives, one destiny". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on 2006-11-30. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  156. ↑ "Source: Hijacking suspects linked to Afghanistan". CNN. September 30, 2001. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  157. ↑ "Ground Zero Forensic Work Ends". CBS News. February 23, 2005. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  158. ↑ Andrade, Mariano (August 25, 2011). "Scientists still struggle to identify 9/11 remains". Discovery News. Agence France Presse. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
  159. ↑ Lemre, Jonathan (August 24, 2011). "Remains of WTC worker Ernest James, 40, ID'd ten years after 9/11". New York Daily News. Retrieved 2012-04-10.
  160. 1 2 Cuza, Bobby (June 11, 2011). "9/11 A Decade Later: DNA Matching Efforts To Continue At WTC Site". NY1. Archived from the original on 2014-09-20. Retrieved 2011-09-21.
  161. ↑ "Mom of 9/11 victim: Identified remains 'finally put everything to rest'". CNN. Retrieved March 20, 2015.
  162. 1 2 "World Trade Center Building Performance Study". FEMA. May 2002. Archived from the original on 2010-09-18. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  163. 1 2 Summers and Swan (2011), p. 75.
  164. ↑ Chaban, Matt (February 9, 2011). "130 Liberty Finally Gone from Ground Zero". The New York Observer. Retrieved 2012-04-10.
  165. ↑ World Trade Center Building Performance Study – Bankers Trust Building, pp ??
  166. ↑ "The Deutsche Bank Building at 130 Liberty Street". Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  167. ↑ "Lower Manhattan – Fiterman Hall". LowerManhattan.info. July 1, 2007. Archived from the original on 2010-05-22. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  168. ↑ "Verizon Building Restoration". New York Construction (McGraw Hill). Archived from the original on 2010-05-22. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
  169. ↑ World Trade Center Building Performance Study – Peripheral Buildings, pp. ??
  170. ↑ Bloomfield, Larry (October 1, 2001). "New York broadcasters rebuild". Broadcast Engineering. Archived from the original on 2008-06-04. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  171. ↑ The Pentagon Building Performance Report, pp. ??
  172. ↑ Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77, pp. ??
  173. ↑ American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report, pp. ??
  174. 1 2 Goldberg (2007), p. 17.
  175. ↑ Maclean, John N (June 1, 2008). "America Under Attack: A chronicle of chaos and heroism at the Pentagon". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  176. 1 2 McKinsey Report, "Emergency Medical Service response", pp. ??
  177. 1 2 McKinsey Report, "Executive Summary", pp. ??
  178. ↑ McKinsey Report, Exhibit 7, "Fire Apparatus Deployment on September 11"
  179. 1 2 Alavosius and Rodriquez (2005), pp. 666–680.
  180. ↑ McKinsey Report, "NYPD", pp. ??
  181. ↑ "Ceremony closes 'Ground Zero' cleanup". CNN. May 30, 2002. Archived from the original on 2008-12-01. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
  182. 1 2 3 4 "We Have Some Planes" (PDF). The 911 Commission Report. 911 Commission. pp. 20–42. Retrieved 2011-09-09.
  183. ↑ "Cheney: Order To Shoot Down Hijacked 9/11 Planes 'Necessary'". Fox News. September 4, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-09.
  184. ↑ Schrader, Esther (June 18, 2004). "Cheney Gave Order to Shoot Down Jets". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2011-09-09.
  185. ↑ Greer, Gordon (2005). What Price Security?. iUniverse, Inc. p. 73. ISBN 0-595-35792-X. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
  186. ↑ Hendrix, Steve (September 8, 2011). "F-16 pilot was ready to give her life on Sept. 11". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-09-09.
  187. ↑ Flight Data Center (April 13, 2007). "NOTAMs/Flight Restrictions in Effect on 9/13/01" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. p. 15ff.
  188. 1 2 "Wartime". National Commission on Terrorists Attacks upon the United States. U.S. Congress. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  189. ↑ "Actions taken following September 11 terrorist attacks" (Press release). Transport Canada. December 11, 2001. Archived from the original on 2002-04-15. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  190. ↑ Stein, Howard F. (2003). "Days of Awe: September 11, 2001 and its Cultural Psychodynamics". Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press) 8 (2): 187–199. doi:10.1353/psy.2003.0047.
  191. ↑ "Asthma Rates Up Among Ground Zero Workers". CBS News. Associated Press. Sep 10, 2009. Retrieved 2013-09-11.
  192. ↑ Glynn, Simone A.; Busch, MP; Schreiber, GB; Murphy, EL; Wright, DJ; Tu, Y; Kleinman, SH; Nhlbi Reds Study, Group (2003). "Effect of a National Disaster on Blood Supply and Safety: The September 11 Experience". Journal of the American Medical Association 289 (17): 2246–2253. doi:10.1001/jama.289.17.2246. PMID 12734136.
  193. ↑ "Red Cross Woes". PBS. December 19, 2001. Archived from the original on September 5, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
  194. ↑ Coates, S.; Schechter, D. (2004). "Preschoolers' traumatic stress post-9/11: Relational and developmental perspectives". Psychiatric Clinics of North America 27 (3): 473–489. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2004.03.006. PMID 15325488.
  195. ↑ Schechter DS, Coates SW, First E (2002). Observations of acute reactions of young children and their families to the World Trade Center attacks. Journal of ZERO-TO-THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 22(3), 9–13.
  196. ↑ Coates SW, Rosenthal J, Schechter DS—Eds. (2003). September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds. New York: Taylor and Francis, Inc.
  197. ↑ Klein, T. P.; Devoe, E. R.; Miranda-Julian, C.; Linas, K. (2009). "Young children's responses to September 11th: The New York City experience". Infant Mental Health Journal 30: 1. doi:10.1002/imhj.20200.
  198. ↑ "Presidential Approval Ratings – George W. Bush". Gallup. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  199. ↑ Pooley, Eric (December 31, 2001). "Mayor of the World". Person of the Year 2001 (Time Magazine). Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  200. ↑ Barrett, Devlin (December 23, 2003). "9/11 Fund Deadline Passes". CBS News. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  201. ↑ "'Shadow Government' News To Congress". CBS News. March 2, 2002. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  202. ↑ "The USA PATRIOT Act: Preserving Life and Liberty". United States Department of Justice. Archived from the original on 2010-01-02. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  203. ↑ "Uncle Sam Asks: "What The Hell Is Going On Here?" in New ACLU Print and Radio Advertisements" (Press release). American Civil Liberties Union. September 3, 2003. Retrieved 2012-04-10.
  204. ↑ Eggen, Dan (September 30, 2004). "Key Part of Patriot Act Ruled Unconstitutional". Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  205. ↑ "Federal judge rules 2 Patriot Act provisions unconstitutional". CNN. September 26, 2007. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  206. ↑ VandeHei, Jim; Eggen, Dan (January 5, 2006). "Cheney Cites Justifications For Domestic Eavesdropping". Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  207. ↑ Savage, Charlie, and Laura Poitras, "How a Court Secretly Evolved, Extending U.S. Spies’ Reach", New York Times, 11 March 2014. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
  208. ↑ Freedman, Samuel G. (2012-09-07). "Six Days After 9/11, Another Anniversary Worth Honoring". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-03-12.
  209. ↑ "New York City Commission on Human Rights". Nyc.gov. Archived from the original on 2004-02-03. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  210. ↑ "Post-9/11, US policies created atmosphere of fear for South Asians". The Indian Express. August 25, 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  211. 1 2 "Hate crime reports up in wake of terrorist attacks". CNN. September 17, 2001. Archived from the original on 2005-11-27. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  212. ↑ "Many minority groups were victims of hate crimes after 9-11". Ball State University. October 9, 2003. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  213. ↑ "American Backlash: Terrorist Bring War Home in More Ways Than One" (PDF). SAALT. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-03. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  214. ↑ Thayil, Jeet (October 12, 2001). "645 racial incidents reported in week after September 11". India Abroad.
  215. ↑ American Muslim Leaders. "Muslim Americans Condemn Attack". ISNA. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  216. ↑ Beaulieu, Dan (September 12, 2001). "Muslim groups around world condemn the killing of innocents". Agence France Presse – English.
  217. ↑ Davis, Joyce M. (September 13, 2001). "Muslims condemn attacks, insist Islam not violent against innocents". Knight Ridder Washington Bureau.
  218. ↑ Witham, Larry (September 12, 2001). "Muslim groups decry attacks; No cause justifies the 'immoral' act, U.S. councils say". The Washington Times.
  219. ↑ Hertzberg, Hendrik (September 11, 2006). "Lost love". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 2010-08-30. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  220. ↑ "Attacks draw mixed response in Mideast". CNN. September 12, 2001. Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  221. ↑ Summers, Anthony; Swan, Robbyn (2011). The Eleventh Day: The Full Story of 9/11 and Osama bin Laden. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 403. ISBN 978-1-4000-6659-9.
  222. ↑ "The Kingdom and the Towers". Vanity Fair. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  223. ↑ "UK | Muslim community targets racial tension". BBC News. September 19, 2001. Retrieved 2012-04-11.
  224. ↑ "Security Council Condemns, 'In Strongest Terms', Terrorist Attacks on the United States". United Nations. September 12, 2001. Retrieved 2006-09-11. The Security Council today, following what it called yesterday’s "horrifying terrorist attacks" in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania, unequivocally condemned those acts, and expressed its deepest sympathy and condolences to the victims and their families and to the people and Government of the United States.
  225. ↑ Hamilton, Stuart (August 24, 2002). "September 11, the Internet, and the effects on information provision in Libraries" (PDF). 68th IFLA Council and Conference. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  226. ↑ "G8 counter-terrorism cooperation since September 11 backgrounder". Site Internet du Sommet du G8 d'Evian. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  227. ↑ Walsh, Courtney C (March 7, 2002). "Italian police explore Al Qaeda links in cyanide plot". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  228. ↑ "SE Asia unites to smash militant cells". CNN. May 8, 2002. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  229. ↑ "Blair's statement in full". BBC. 11 September 2001.
  230. ↑ Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People 20 September 2001
  231. ↑ "Tony Blair's allegiance to George Bush laid bare". Evening Standard. 27 October 2007.
  232. ↑ "U.S. President Bush's speech to United Nations". CNN. November 10, 2001. Archived from the original on 2006-06-15. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  233. ↑ "Musharraf 'bullied' into supporting US war on terror". Zee News. December 11, 2009. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  234. ↑ Khan, Aamer Ahmed (May 4, 2005). "Pakistan and the 'key al-Qaeda' man". BBC. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  235. ↑ "Euro MPs urge Guantanamo closure". BBC News. June 13, 2006. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  236. ↑ Mendez, Juan E. (March 13, 2002). "Detainees in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba; Request for Precautionary Measures, Inter-Am. C.H.R". University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  237. ↑ "USA: Release or fair trials for all remaining Guantánamo detainees". Amnesty International. May 2, 2008. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  238. ↑ Written, produced and directed by Michael Kirk, produced and reported by Jim Gilmore (March 24–25, 2008). "Bush's War". FRONTLINE. Transcript. Event occurs at 8:40. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  239. ↑ Roberts, Joel (September 4, 2002). "Plans For Iraq Attack Began On 9/11". CBS News. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  240. ↑ Borger, Julian (February 24, 2006). "Blogger bares Rumsfeld's post 9/11 orders". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2009-10-07.
  241. ↑ 9/11 Commission Report pp. 334-336
  242. ↑ "Statement by the North Atlantic Council". NATO. September 15, 2001. Retrieved 2011-09-04. Article 5: The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security.
  243. ↑ "ABC Conversations with Richard Fidler John Howard Interview Transcript" (PDF). ABC.net. September 2011.
  244. ↑ Bush, George (September 20, 2001). "Text: President Bush Addresses the Nation". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 4, 2015.
  245. ↑ "TERROR STRATEGY-2/11 -Counter_Terrorism_Strategy.pdf" (PDF). Central Intelligence Agency. February 2003. Retrieved July 4, 2015.
  246. ↑ "PLAW-107publ40.pdf" (PDF). U.S. Government Publishing Office. 107th Congress. September 18, 2001. Retrieved July 4, 2015.
  247. ↑ "Operation Enduring Freedom - Operations". GlobalSecurity.org. 2008. Retrieved July 5, 2015.
  248. ↑ "U.S. Military Operations in the Global War on Terrorism: Afghanistan, Africa, the Philippines, and Colombia" (PDF). The Air University. Retrieved July 5, 2015.
  249. ↑ Kuppuswamy, C.S. (November 2, 2005). "Terrorism in Indonesia : Role of the Religious Organisation". South Asia Analysis Group. Archived from the original on 2007-06-11. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  250. ↑ Banlaoi, Rommel (2006). "Radical Muslim Terrorism in the Philippines". In Tan, Andrew. Handbook on Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia. London: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  251. ↑ Gates, Anita (September 11, 2006). "Buildings Rise from Rubble while Health Crumbles". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  252. ↑ "What was Found in the Dust". New York Times. September 5, 2006. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  253. ↑ "New York: 9/11 toxins caused death". CNN. May 24, 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-06-18. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  254. ↑ DePalma, Anthony (May 13, 2006). "Tracing Lung Ailments That Rose With 9/11 Dust". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  255. ↑ Heilprin, John (June 23, 2003). "White House edited EPA's 9/11 reports". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  256. ↑ "Updated Ground Zero Report Examines Failure of Government to Protect Citizens". Sierra Club. 2006. Archived from the original on 2010-06-11. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  257. ↑ Smith, Stephen (April 28, 2008). "9/11 "Wall Of Heroes" To Include Sick Cops". CBS News. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  258. ↑ Shukman, David (September 1, 2011). "Toxic dust legacy of 9/11 plagues thousands of people". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  259. ↑ "CCCEH Study of the Effects of 9/11 on Pregnant Women and Newborns" (PDF). World Trade Center Pregnancy Study. Columbia University. 2006. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  260. ↑ Grady, Denise (April 7, 2010). "Lung Function of 9/11 Rescuers Fell, Study Finds". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  261. ↑ DePalma, Anthony (October 18, 2006). "Many Ground Zero Workers Gain Chance at Lawsuits". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  262. ↑ Neumeister, Larry (February 2, 2006). "Judge Slams Ex-EPA Chief Over Sept. 11". San Francisco Chronicle. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2008-05-24. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  263. ↑ Smith, Ben (September 18, 2006). "Rudy's black cloud. WTC health risks may hurt Prez bid". Daily News (New York). Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  264. ↑ "Bloomberg urges passage of 9/11 health bill". CNN. December 20, 2010. Archived from the original on March 27, 2012.
  265. 1 2 "World Trade Center Health Program FAQ". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2012-07-02.
  266. ↑ "9/11 dust cloud may have caused widespread pregnancy issues". HindustanTimes. Archived from the original on August 24, 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-22.
  267. ↑ Makinen, Gail (September 27, 2002). "The Economic Effects of 9/11: A Retrospective Assessment" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Library of Congress. p. 17. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  268. ↑ Barnhart, Bill (September 17, 2001). "Markets reopen, plunge". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2012-04-11.
  269. 1 2 Bob, Fernandez (September 22, 2001). "U.S. Markets Decline Again". KRTBN Knight Ridder Tribune Business News (The Philadelphia Inquirer).
  270. ↑ Dolfman, Michael L.; Wasser, Solidelle F. (2004). "9/11 and the New York City Economy". Monthly Labor Review 127.
  271. 1 2 Makinen, Gail (September 27, 2002). "The Economic Effects of 9/11: A Retrospective Assessment" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Library of Congress. p. 5. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  272. ↑ Hensell, Lesley (December 14, 2001). "Tough Times Loom For Manhattan Commercial Market". Realty Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  273. ↑ Parrott, James (March 8, 2002). "The Employment Impact of the September 11 World Trade Center Attacks: Updated Estimates based on the Benchmarked Employment Data" (PDF). The Fiscal Policy Institute. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  274. ↑ Fuerst, Franz (September 7, 2005). "Exogenous Shocks and Real Estate Rental Markets: An Event Study of the 9/11 Attacks and their Impact on the New York Office Market". Russell Sage Foundation. SSRN 800006.
  275. ↑ Russell, James S. (November 7, 2004). "Do skyscrapers still make sense? Revived downtowns and new business models spur tall-building innovation". Architectural Record. Archived from the original on August 8, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  276. ↑ Bhadra, Dipasis; Texter, Pamela (2004). "Airline Networks: An Econometric Framework to Analyze Domestic U.S. Air Travel". United States Department of Transportation. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  277. ↑ Heath, Thomas (May 3, 2011). "Bin Laden’s war against the U.S. economy". The Washington Post.
  278. ↑ Khimm, Suzy (May 3, 2011). "Osama bin Laden didn’t win, but he was ‘enormously successful’". The Washington Post.
  279. ↑ Bernardo J. Carducci (February 20, 2009). The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 200–. ISBN 978-1-4051-3635-8. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
  280. ↑ Quay, Sara; Damico, Amy (September 14, 2010). September 11 in Popular Culture: A Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-35505-9.
  281. ↑ Norman, Joshua (September 11, 2011). "9/11 conspiracy theories won't stop". CBS News (CBS Corporation).
  282. ↑ Huffington Post (August 29, 2011). "After 9/11, Some Run Toward Faith, Some Run The Other Way". Retrieved 2013-04-06.
  283. ↑ PBS Frontline. "Faith and Doubt at Ground Zero – The Question of God". Retrieved 2013-04-06.
  284. ↑ Brad Schmidt, Ph.d. "Anxiety After 9/11". Retrieved 2013-10-11.
  285. ↑ Scobell, Andrew (2004). "Terrorism in the Asia-Pacific: Threat and Response". The Journal of Asian Studies 63 (4): 1078–9. doi:10.1017/S0021911804002463. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  286. ↑ Miko, Francis; Froehlich, Christian (December 27, 2004). "Germany's Role in Fighting Terrorism: Implications for U.S. Policy" (PDF). Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  287. ↑ "Anti-terrorism Act". CBC News. February 27, 2007. Retrieved 2013-11-12.
  288. ↑ "Q and A: Anti-terrorism legislation". BBC News. October 17, 2003. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  289. ↑ Coates, Sam (November 10, 2005). "After all the fuss dies down, what really happened". The Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  290. ↑ "Terrorism Suppression Act 2002". New Zealand Government. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  291. ↑ Beck, Roger (2004). "20". Modern World History. Holt McDougal. pp. 657–8. ISBN 978-0-618-69012-1.
  292. ↑ "9/11 Investigation (PENTTBOM)". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 2012-04-11.
  293. ↑ "Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence Division, FBI Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence". Federal Bureau of Investigation. February 6, 2002. Archived from the original on 2008-05-24. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  294. ↑ Sperry, Paul. "Airline denied Atta Paradise Wedding Suit". World News Daily. Retrieved 2013-05-05.
  295. ↑ "Unraveling 9–11 Was in the Bags". Newsday. February 6, 2009. Retrieved 2012-04-11.
  296. ↑ Clarke, Richard A. (2004). Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terrorism. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-7432-6823-3.
  297. ↑ "FBI Announces List of 19 Hijackers". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  298. ↑ "The FBI Releases 19 Photographs of Individuals Believed to be the Hijackers of the Four Airliners that Crashed on September 11, 2001". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  299. ↑ Johnston, David (September 9, 2003). "TWO YEARS LATER: 9/11 TACTICS; Official Says Qaeda Recruited Saudi Hijackers to Strain Ties". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  300. ↑ "Piece by piece, the jigsaw of terror revealed". The Independent (London). September 30, 2001. Archived from the original on 2009-10-15. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  301. ↑ 9/11 Commission Report pp. 266-272
  302. ↑ The Manhunt Goes Global Time magazine 15 October 2001
  303. ↑ Tagliabue, John; Bonner, Raymond (September 29, 2001). "A Nation challenged: German Intelligence; German Data Led U.S. to Search For More Suicide Hijacker Teams". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  304. ↑ 9/11 Commission Report pp. 276-277
  305. ↑ "The proof they did not reveal". Sunday Times. October 7, 2001. Archived from the original on November 16, 2001.
  306. ↑ "Deep Background". American Conservative. April 1, 2005. Retrieved 2012-04-11.
  307. ↑ Shrader, Katherine (May 17, 2007). "Senators Want CIA to Release 9/11 Report". San Francisco Chronicle. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2007-10-17. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  308. ↑ Press Release of Intelligence Committee, Senate and House Intelligence Committees Announce Joint Inquiry into the September 11th Terrorist Attacks, February 14, 2002.
  309. ↑ "Congressional Reports: Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001". Archived from the original on August 7, 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
  310. 1 2 3 Athan G. Theoharis, editor, The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 222-224, 2006, ISBN 0-313-33282-7
  311. ↑ Ali Watkins, Senate intelligence panel could seek to declassify documents; it just doesn’t Archived September 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine., McClatchy Washington Bureau, August 12, 2013. Archived September 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
  312. ↑ Improving Intelligence, PBS interview with Sen. Bob Graham, December 11, 2002.
  313. ↑ Chris Mondics, Struggling to detail alleged Saudi role in 9/11 attacks, Philadelphia Inquirer, March 31, 2014.
  314. ↑ Paul Sperry, Inside the Saudi 9/11 coverup, New York Post, December 15, 2013.
  315. ↑ April 10, 2014 Letter to Barak Obama, signed by Representatives Walter B. Jones, Jr. and Stephen Lynch.
  316. ↑ Jake Tapper, Why hasn't Obama kept promise to declassify 28 pages of a report about 9/11?", CNN, September 8th, 2014.
  317. ↑ Lawrence Wright, The Twenty-Eight Pages, The New Yorker, September 9, 2014.
  318. ↑ "National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States". govinfo.library.unt.edu. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  319. ↑ "Foresight-and Hindsight". National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  320. ↑ Bennett, Brian (August 30, 2011). "Post-9/11 assessment sees major security gaps". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  321. ↑ "NIST's World Trade Center Investigation". National Institute of Standards and Technology. U.S. Department of Commerce. December 14, 2007. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  322. 1 2 "NIST WTC 7 Investigation Finds Building Fires Caused Collapse". The National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  323. ↑ National Construction Safety Team (September 2005). "Executive Summary". Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology (United States Department of Commerce). Retrieved 2011-04-10.
  324. ↑ Irfanoglu, A.; Hoffmann, C. M. (2008). "Engineering Perspective of the Collapse of WTC-I". Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities (American Society of Civil Engineers) 22: 62. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3828(2008)22:1(62). As the aircraft debris went through several stories in the tower, much of the thermal insulation on the core columns would have been scoured off. Under such conditions, the ensuing fire would be sufficient to cause instability and initiate collapse. From an engineering perspective, impact damage to the core structure had a negligible effect on the critical thermal load required to initiate collapse in the core structure.
  325. ↑ Tally, Steve (June 12, 2007). "Purdue creates scientifically based animation of 9/11 attack". Purdue News Service. Retrieved 2011-09-04. The aircraft moved through the building as if it were a hot and fast lava flow," Sozen says. "Consequently, much of the fireproofing insulation was ripped off the structure. Even if all of the columns and girders had survived the impact – an unlikely event – the structure would fail as the result of a buckling of the columns. The heat from an ordinary office fire would suffice to soften and weaken the unprotected steel. Evaluation of the effects of the fire on the core column structure, with the insulation removed by the impact, showed that collapse would follow whatever the number of columns cut at the time of the impact.
  326. ↑ Sigmund, Pete (September 25, 2002). "Building a Terror-Proof Skyscraper: Experts Debate Feasibility, Options". Retrieved 2012-04-11.
  327. ↑ "Translating WTC Recommendations Into Model Building Codes". National Institute of Standards and Technology. October 25, 2007. Archived from the original on 2011-03-10. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  328. ↑ Taylor, Tess (September 26, 2001). "Rebuilding in New York" (68). Architecture Week. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  329. ↑ Oglesby, Christy (September 11, 2002). "Phoenix rises: Pentagon honors 'hard-hat patriots'". CNN. Archived from the original on 2004-12-18. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  330. ↑ Bagli, Charles V. (September 22, 2006). "An Agreement Is Formalized on Rebuilding at Ground Zero". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  331. ↑ Badia, Erik; Sit, Ryan (May 10, 2013). "One World Trade Center gets spire, bringing it to its full 1,776-foot height". New York Daily News website. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
  332. ↑ Iyengar, Rishi (November 3, 2014). "One World Trade Center Opens Its Doors". TIME.com. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
  333. ↑ "Lower Manhattan: Current Construction". Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center. Archived from the original on 2011-09-14. Retrieved 2011-09-08.
  334. ↑ Sigmund, Pete. "Crews Assist Rescuers in Massive WTC Search". Construction Equipment Guide. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  335. ↑ "Tribute in light to New York victims". BBC News. March 6, 2002. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
  336. ↑ "About the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition". World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  337. ↑ "WTC Memorial Construction Begins". CBS News. Associated Press. March 6, 2006. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  338. ↑ Miroff, Nick (September 11, 2008). "Creating a Place Like No Other". The Washington Post (The Washington Post Company). Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  339. ↑ Miroff, Nick (September 12, 2008). "A Long-Awaited Opening, Bringing Closure to Many". The Washington Post (The Washington Post Company). Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  340. ↑ Dwyer, Timothy (May 26, 2007). "Pentagon Memorial Progress Is Step Forward for Families". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  341. ↑ "DefenseLINK News Photos – Pentagon's America's Heroes Memorial". Department of Defense. Archived from the original on November 30, 2009. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  342. ↑ "Sept. 11 Flight 93 Memorial Design Chosen". Fox News. Associated Press. September 8, 2005. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  343. ↑ "Flight 93 Memorial Project". Flight 93 Memorial Project / National Park Service. Archived from the original on 2008-04-11. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  344. ↑ Nephin, Dan (August 24, 2008). "Steel cross goes up near flight's 9/11 Pa. crash site". Associated Press. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
  345. ↑ Gaskell, Stephanie (August 25, 2008). "Pa. site of 9/11 crash gets WTC beam". New York Daily news. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  346. ↑ Fessenden, Ford (November 18, 2002). "9/11; After the World Gave: Where $2 Billion in Kindness Ended Up". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
  347. ↑ Newman, Andy (September 11, 2010). "At a Memorial Ceremony, Loss and Tension". The New York Times.

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Multimedia

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Tuesday, May 03, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.