Value-added tax (United Kingdom)

This article is about value-added tax in the United Kingdom. For other uses, see value-added tax.

Value-added tax[1] or value added tax[2] (VAT) is a consumption tax levied in the United Kingdom by the national government. It was introduced in 1973 and is the third largest source of government revenue after income tax and National Insurance. It is administered and collected by HM Revenue and Customs, primarily through the Value Added Tax Act 1994.

VAT is levied on most goods and services provided by registered businesses in the UK and some goods and services imported from outside the European Union.[3] There are complex regulations for goods and services imported from within the EU. The default VAT rate is the standard rate, 20% since 4 January 2011. Some goods and services are subject to VAT at a reduced rate of 5% (such as domestic fuel) or 0% (such as most food and children's clothing).[4] Others are exempt from VAT or outside the system altogether.

Under EU law, the standard rate of VAT in any EU state cannot be lower than 15%.[5][6] Each state may have up to two reduced rates of at least 5% for a restricted list of goods and services.[6] The European Council must approve any temporary reduction of VAT in the public interest.[5]

VAT is an indirect tax because the tax is paid to the government by the seller (the business) rather than the person who ultimately bears the economic burden of the tax (the consumer).[5] Opponents of VAT claim it is a regressive tax because the poorest people spend a higher proportion of their disposable income on VAT than the richest people.[7] Those in favour of VAT claim it is progressive as consumers who spend more pay more VAT.[5]

History

Between October 1940 and 1973 the UK had a consumption tax called Purchase Tax, which was levied at different rates depending on goods' luxuriousness.[5] Purchase Tax was applied to the wholesale price, initially at a rate of 331⁄3%. This was doubled in April 1942 to 662⁄3%, and further increased in April 1943 to a rate of 100%, before reverting in April 1946 to 331⁄3% again. Unlike VAT, Purchase Tax was applied at the point of manufacture and distribution, not at the point of sale. The rate of Purchase Tax at the start of 1973, when it gave way to VAT, was 25%.

On 1 January 1973 the UK joined the European Economic Community and as a consequence Purchase Tax was replaced by Value Added Tax on 1 April 1973.[5][8][9] The Conservative Chancellor Lord Barber set a single VAT rate (10%) on most goods and services.[5][8][9]

In July 1974, Labour Chancellor Denis Healey reduced the standard rate of VAT from 10% to 8% but introduced a new higher rate of 12.5% for petrol and some luxury goods.[5][8][10] In November 1974, Healey doubled the higher rate of VAT to 25%.[8] Healey reduced the higher rate back to 12.5% in April 1976.[8][10][11]

Conservative Chancellor Geoffrey Howe increased the standard rate of VAT from 8% to 15% and abolished the higher rate in June 1979.[5][8][12] The rate remained unchanged until 1991, when Conservative Chancellor Norman Lamont increased it from 15% to 17.5%.[5][8][12] The additional revenue was used to pay for a reduction in the hugely unpopular community charge.[12] During the 1992 general election the Conservatives promised not to extend the scope of VAT but in March 1993, Lamont announced that domestic fuel and power, which had previously been zero-rated, would have VAT levied at 8% from April 1994 and the full 17.5% from April 1995.[9][13] The planned introduction of VAT on domestic fuel and power went ahead in April 1994, but the increase from 8% to 17.5% in April 1995 was scuppered in December 1994, after the government lost the vote in parliament.[8][13]

In its 1997 general election manifesto, the Labour Party pledged to reduce VAT on domestic fuel and power to 5%.[14] After gaining power, the new Labour Chancellor Gordon Brown announced in June 1997 that the lower rate of VAT on domestic fuel and power would be reduced from 8% to 5% with effect from 1 September 1997.[15][16] In November 1997, Brown announced that the VAT on installation of energy saving materials would be reduced from 17.5% to 5% from 1 July 1998. Brown subsequently reduced VAT from 17.5% to 5% on sanitary protection products (from 1 January 2001); children's car seats (from 1 April 2001); conversion and renovation of certain residential properties (from 12 May 2001); contraceptives (from 1 July 2006); and smoking cessation products (from 1 July 2007).

In response to the late-2000s recession, Labour Chancellor Alistair Darling announced in November 2008 that the standard rate of VAT would be reduced from 17.5% to 15% with effect from 1 December 2008.[17][18] In December 2009, Darling announced that the standard rate of VAT would return to 17.5% with effect from 1 January 2010.[19][20]

In the run up to the 2010 general election there were reports that the Conservatives would raise VAT if they gained power.[21][22][23] The party denied the reports.[24][25] Following the election in May 2010, the Conservatives formed a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats. In the 2010 budget, described by PM David Cameron as an "emergency budget", Chancellor George Osborne announced that the standard rate of VAT would increase from 17.5% to 20% with effect from 4 January 2011.[26][27]

Before the 2015 general election Labour claimed that the Conservatives would raise VAT to 22.5% if they were re-elected and Osborne reputedly refused to deny the claim.[28][29] On 25 March 2015 Cameron pledged in the House of Commons that VAT would not be increased.[30][31]

Operation

All businesses that provide "taxable" goods and services and whose taxable turnover exceeds the threshold must register for VAT.[3] The threshold was £77,000 since April 2012,[32] and as of 2015 it is £82,000,[33] by far the highest VAT registration threshold in the world.[5] Businesses may choose to register even if their turnover is less than that amount. All registered businesses must charge VAT on the full sale price of the goods or services that they provide unless exempted or outside the VAT system. The default VAT rate is the standard rate, currently 20%.[3] Some goods and services are charged lower rates (reduced or zero).

Registered businesses must pay over to HMRC the VAT they have charged on their goods or service (known as output tax) but they may offset this with the VAT they have incurred on goods or services they have purchased (known as input tax).[34]

A separate scheme, called The Flat Rate Scheme is also run by HMRC. This scheme allows a VAT registered business with a turnover of less than £150,000 per annum to pay a fixed percentage of its turnover to HMRC every 3 months. The scheme is designed to reduce red tape for small business and allow new companies to keep some of the VAT they charge to their customers.[35]

Businesses selling exempt goods or supplies, such as banks, may not register for VAT or reclaim VAT that they have incurred on purchases.[3] Businesses that sell some exempt goods or supplies may not be able to reclaim the VAT on all of their purchases. However, businesses that sell zero-rated goods or supplies, such as food producers or bookseller, may reclaim all the VAT they have incurred on purchases.

Rates

There are currently three rates of VAT: standard (20%), reduced (5%) and zero (0%).[3] In addition some goods and services are exempt from VAT or outside the VAT system.[3]

The following are the rates applicable to some common goods and services:[36]

Standard rated
Alcoholic drinks
Biscuits (chocolate covered only)
Bottled water (inc. mineral water)
Calendars & diaries
Carbonated (fizzy) drinks
CDs, DVDs & tapes
Cereal bars
Chocolate
Clothes & footwear (not for children under 14)
Confectionery/sweets
Delivery charges (postage & packaging)
Electrical goods
Electricity, gas, heating oil & solid fuel (business)
Food & drinks supplied for consumption on the premises (at restaurants, cafes etc)
Hot take-away food & drinks (inc. burgers, hot dogs, toasted sandwiches)
Ice cream
Fruit juice & other cold drinks (not milk)
Nuts (shelled, roasted/salted)
Postal services (Royal Mail/other licensed operators)
Potato crisps
Prams & pushchairs
Road fuel (petrol/diesel)
Salt (non-culinary)
Stationery
Taxi fares
Tolls for bridges, tunnels & roads (privately operated)
Water (industrial)		 Reduced rated
Children's car seats
Electricity, gas, heating oil & solid fuel (domestic/residential/charity non-business)
Energy saving materials (permanently installed in residential/charity premises)
Maternity pads
Mobility aids for the elderly
Sanitary protection products
Smoking cessation products		 Zero rated
Aircraft (sale/charter)
Bicycle & motorcycle helmets
Biscuits (not chocolate covered)
Books, maps & charts (not ebooks)
Bread, rolls, baps & pita bread
Brochures, leaflets & pamphlets
Building services for disabled people
Cakes (including Chocolate teacake, Jaffa Cakes)
Canned & frozen food (not ice cream)
Cereals
Chilled/frozen ready meals, convenience foods
Clothes & footwear (for children under 14 only)
Construction & sale of new domestic buildings
Cooking oil
Donated goods sold at charity shops
Eggs
Equipment for disabled people (inc. blind/partially sighted)
Fish (inc. live fish)
Fruit & vegetables
Live animals for human consumption
Meat & poultry
Milk, butter, cheese
Newspapers, magazines & journals
Nuts & pulses (raw for human consumption)
Prescription medicine
Protective boots & helmets (industrial)
Public transport fares (bus, train & tube)
Salt (culinary)
Sandwiches (cold)
Sewerage (domestic & industrial)
Shipbuilding (15 tonnes or over)
Tea, coffee & cocoa
Transport in a vehicle, boat or aircraft (not fewer than ten passengers)
Water (household)		 Exempt
Antiques, works of art or similar
Burial or cremation (human)
Commercial land & buildings (selling/leasing/letting)
Cultural events operated by public bodies (museums, art exhibitions, zoos & performances)
Education, vocational training
Financial services (money transactions, loans/credits, savings/deposits, shares/bonds)
Funeral plan insurance
Gambling (betting, gaming, bingo, lottery)
Health services (doctors, dentists, opticians, pharmacists & other health professionals)
Insurance
Medical treatment & care
Membership subscriptions
Postage stamps
Sports activities & physical education
TV licence		 Outside
Goods & services sold outside the EU
Goods & services supplied by unregistered supplier
Statutory fees & services (MOT testing, congestion charge etc)
Tolls for bridges, tunnels and roads (operated by public authorities)
Voluntary donations to charity

Historical rates

Standard VAT rates since 1979:[37]

From To Standard rate
18/06/1979 18/03/1991 15%
19/03/1991 30/11/2008 17.5%
01/12/2008 31/12/2009 15%
01/01/2010 03/01/2011 17.5%
04/01/2011 20%

Revenue

VAT revenue since 1978/79 as a percentage of total government revenue:[38]

Year VAT (£bn) % Year VAT (£bn) % Year VAT (£bn) % Year VAT (£bn) %
1978/79 4.9 7.02% 1988/89 27.2 13.81% 1998/99 52.3 15.60% 2008/091 78.4 14.77%
1979/80 8.0 9.41% 1989/90 29.6 14.02% 1999/00 56.4 15.73% 2009/101 63.7 12.84%
1980/81 11.1 11.00% 1990/91 30.9 13.94% 2000/01 58.5 15.30% 2010/111 73.4 13.89%
1981/82 11.9 9.95% 1991/92 35.3 15.25% 2001/02 61.0 15.66% 2011/121 79.5 13.79%
1982/83 13.8 10.63% 1992/93 37.2 16.36% 2002/03 63.5 16.03% 2012/131 83.8 13.52%
1983/84 15.3 11.09% 1993/94 39.2 16.67% 2003/04 69.1 16.36% 2013/141 87.7 13.26%
1984/85 18.6 12.59% 1994/95 41.7 16.30% 2004/05 73.0 16.11%
1985/86 19.4 12.29% 1995/96 43.1 15.58% 2005/06 72.9 14.98%
1986/87 21.3 12.94% 1996/97 46.6 16.14% 2006/07 77.4 14.89%
1987/88 24.2 13.53% 1997/98 50.6 16.00% 2007/08 80.6 14.71%

1. Estimated

Avoidance, evasion and fraud

The UK government loses billions in revenue each year due to VAT avoidance, evasion and fraud. In 2006 the loss was estimated to be between £13bn and £18bn, equivalent to £1 for every £6 of VAT due.[39] The bulk of the lost revenue, about £1 in every £8 of VAT due, is due to evasion.[40] Evasion, which is illegal, occurs when registered businesses pay over to HMRC less than they should. This can be done by understating sales or overstating purchases. Evasion also occurs when businesses do not charge VAT on goods and services they provide even though they are legally obliged to. Cash-in-hand jobs by tradesmen may indicate VAT evasion.[41]

In recent years carousel fraud (also known as missing trader fraud) has increased. Criminal gangs trade goods, such as mobile phones, across EU countries.[42] They do not have to pay VAT, as imports from the EU are exempt. The fraud occurs when the criminals sell the goods with VAT in the UK but fail to pass the VAT to HMRC.[42] The goods are often repeatedly shipped round EU countries by criminal gang networks, hence the "carousel" name.[43] According to the HMRC, between £1.1bn and £1.9bn tax revenue was lost in 2004/05 due to carousel fraud.[43] The European Union Emission Trading Scheme has been plagued by carousel fraud.[44][45]

A loophole in VAT law – the Low Value Consignment Relief (LVCR) – means that goods imported from outside the EU and costing less than a set amount are not subject to VAT.[46] When the LVCR was introduced in 1983 it was set at about £5 but gradually rose to £18.[47] In March 2011 the government announced that the LVCR would reduce from £18 to £15 from 1 November 2011.[47] The LVCR has allowed online retailers of DVDs and CDs to avoid VAT by importing the goods from the Channel Islands, which are not part of the EU. Major retailers involved in this tax avoidance include Amazon, Asda, HMV, Play.com, Tesco, W H Smith and Woolworths.[48] The tax avoided each year due to LVCR was estimated to be £85M in 2005, £110M in 2008, £130M in 2010 and £140m in 2011.[46][47] From 1 April 2012 the relief was withdrawn in respect of goods imported to the UK from the Channel Islands.[49]

Criticism

Opponents of VAT claim VAT is regressive and is paid by all consumers whether they be rich or poor, young or old.[9] The poorest also spend a higher proportion of their disposable income on VAT than richest.[7] An Office for National Statistics report showed that in 2009/10 the poorest 20% spent 8.7% of their gross income on VAT whereas the richest 20% spent only 4.0% of their gross income on VAT.[50] Similarly, the poorest 20% spent 9.7% of their disposable income on VAT whereas the richest 20% spent only 5.2% of their disposable income on VAT.[50] Supporters of VAT claim VAT is progressive as consumers who spend more pay more VAT.[5] Note that VAT is not a progressive tax as commonly defined, i.e. a tax with a rate that increase as the taxable amount increases.[51][52][53][54]

The zero rating of food and allowing businesses to reclaim input VAT means that the government in effect subsidises the food industry.[5] Critics also argue that VAT is double taxation as consumers pay for goods and services using income that has already been taxed.[5] It is also argued that VAT is an inefficient tax owing to the numerous exemptions and concessions.[9]

It could also be argued that, compared to its predecessor Purchase Tax, VAT has encouraged the "throwaway society". Purchase Tax imposed high rates on new goods (especially luxury goods) but did not apply to repair services. VAT has increased the cost of repairs and encouraged consumers to replace goods rather than have them repaired. VAT also covers second-hand goods (which Purchase Tax did not) and has discouraged the re-use of goods through the second-hand market.

See also

References

  1. ↑ http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/value-added-tax
  2. ↑ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/value-added-tax?q=value+added+tax
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Introduction to VAT". HM Revenue and Customs.
  4. ↑ "The UK’s VAT Rate Explained". KashFlow. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Victor, Adam (31 December 2010). "VAT: a brief history of tax". The Guardian.
  6. 1 2 "VAT rates". European Commission.
  7. 1 2 "Poorest spend higher proportion on VAT than richest". BBC News. 31 October 2011.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Victor, Peter (30 July 1995). "A brief history of VAT". The Independent.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Wallop, Harry (13 April 2010). "General Election 2010: a brief history of the Value Added Tax". The Daily Telegraph.
  10. 1 2 "Budgets 1945 - 1979". BBC News.
  11. ↑ "Bygone budgets: April 1976". The Guardian. 3 March 1999.
  12. 1 2 3 "Budgets 1979 - 1992". BBC News.
  13. 1 2 "Budgets 1993 - 1995". BBC News.
  14. ↑ "Labour's 1997 pledges: Economics and employment". BBC News. 6 May 2002.
  15. ↑ "Bygone budgets: June 1997". The Guardian. 17 March 2000.
  16. ↑ "Cheaper Fuel Bills Announced". BBC News.
  17. ↑ Wallop, Harry (24 November 2008). "Pre-Budget report: VAT cut to 15pc but alcohol and tobacco taxes increased". The Daily Telegraph.
  18. ↑ Finch, Julia (24 November 2008). "Retailers welcome cut in VAT to 15%". The Guardian.
  19. ↑ "Shops given time over VAT price tag changes". BBC News. 9 December 2009.
  20. ↑ Finch, Julia (9 December 2009). "VAT to return to 17.5%, but no higher, says chancellor". The Guardian.
  21. ↑ Beattie, Jason (29 July 2009). "Tories secretly plotting to raise VAT to 20 per cent". Daily Mirror.
  22. ↑ Toby Helm; Anushka Asthana (4 April 2010). "George Osborne will have to raise rate of VAT, insists Ed Balls". The Guardian.
  23. ↑ Tamara Cohen; Jason Groves (29 April 2010). "Tories 'in secret plot to raise VAT to 19.5% in emergency June Budget'". Daily Mail.
  24. ↑ "Tories deny plan for 20% VAT rate". BBC News. 9 August 2009.
  25. ↑ "Ministers on defensive as tax row intensifies". BBC News. 1 April 2010.
  26. ↑ "Budget: Osborne's 'tough' package puts VAT up to 20%". BBC News. 22 June 2010.
  27. ↑ Larry Elliott; Hélène Mulholland (22 June 2010). "Budget 2010: VAT to rise to 20% as Osborne seeks to balance books by 2015". The Guardian.
  28. ↑ Mason, Rowena; Watt, Nicholas (24 March 2015). "George Osborne refuses five times to rule out VAT rise". The Guardian.
  29. ↑ Chorley, Matt (25 March 2015). "Osborne refuses to match Labour pledge not to increase VAT again after the election". Mail Online.
  30. ↑ Dominiczak, Peter (25 March 2015). "David Cameron rules out VAT increase in move that trips up Ed Miliband". The Daily Telegraph.
  31. ↑ Stewart, Heather (25 March 2015). "Cameron pledges no increase in VAT". The Guardian.
  32. ↑ "Budget 2012". HMRC.
  33. ↑ "HMRC".
  34. ↑ "VAT Output Tax Toolkit" (PDF). HM Revenue & Customs. July 2013. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
  35. ↑ "Flat Rate Scheme for VAT". HM Revenue & Customs. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
  36. ↑ "Rates of VAT on different goods and services". HM Revenue and Customs.
  37. ↑ "Standard VAT rates".
  38. ↑ "Composition of revenue". Institute for Fiscal Studies.
  39. ↑ Fraser, Douglas (31 October 2009). "Britain 'losing billions in VAT'". BBC News.
  40. ↑ Murphy, Richard (10 September 2010). "Are you cheating the taxman too?". The Guardian.
  41. ↑ "Don't pay cash in hand – pay your VAT". The Guardian. 16 November 2010.
  42. 1 2 "Carousel fraud checks 'shut' Sussex firm". BBC News. 10 June 2010.
  43. 1 2 "New clampdown on carousel fraud". BBC News. 21 July 2006.
  44. ↑ Mason, Rowena (30 December 2009). "'Carousel' frauds plague European carbon trading markets". Daily Telegraph.
  45. ↑ Inman, Phillip (11 January 2010). "Three Britons charged over €3m carbon-trading 'carousel fraud'". The Guardian.
  46. 1 2 Bowers, Simon (13 April 2010). "Tesco resurrects online VAT dodge despite Jersey's action to halt 'sham'". The Guardian.
  47. 1 2 3 "VAT relief for parcels entering UK 'reduced'". BBC News. 1 November 2011.
  48. ↑ Bowers, Simon (19 February 2010). "Boom in sales of tax-free CDs casts doubt on Treasury claims". The Guardian.
  49. ↑ "Treasury to close loophole that allows VAT-free DVDs". BBC News. 9 November 2011.
  50. 1 2 Andrew Barnard, Steve Howell and Robert Smith (2011). Effects of taxes and benefits on household income Statistical Bulletin - 2009/2010. Office for National Statistics. p. 14.
  51. ↑ Webster (4b): increasing in rate as the base increases (a progressive tax)
  52. ↑ American Heritage (6). Increasing in rate as the taxable amount increases.
  53. ↑ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Tax levied at a rate that increases as the quantity subject to taxation increases.
  54. ↑ Princeton University WordNet: (n) progressive tax (any tax in which the rate increases as the amount subject to taxation increases)

External links

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