World Bank

Not to be confused with World Bank Group.
World Bank

World Bank logo
Motto Working for a World Free of Poverty
Formation July 1944 (1944-07)
Type Monetary International Financial Organization
Legal status Treaty
Purpose Crediting
Headquarters Washington, D.C., United States
Region
 Worldwide
Membership
 188 countries (IBRD)[1]
173 countries (IDA)[2]
Key people
 Jim Yong Kim, president
Parent organization
 World Bank Group
Website worldbank.org

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans[3] to developing countries for capital programs. It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group, which is part of the United Nations system.

The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty. However, according to its Articles of Agreement, all its decisions must be guided by a commitment to the promotion of foreign investment and international trade and to the facilitation of Capital investment.[4][5]

World Bank Group

The World Bank is different from the World Bank Group, an extended family of five international organizations:

History

John Maynard Keynes (right) and Harry Dexter White, the "founding fathers" of both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).[6]

The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, along with three other institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American.[7] The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other.

The Gold Room at the Mount Washington Hotel where the IMF and World Bank were established

Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations.[8]:52–54

1944–1974

Before 1974, the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small. The Bank's staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.[8]:56–60

The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Bank's president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile. The loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed. The French government complied with this diktat and removed the Communist coalition government. Within hours, the loan to France was approved.[9]:288, 290–291

When the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries. Until 1968, its loans were earmarked for the construction of income-producing infrastructure, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan. In 1960, the International Development Association was formed (as opposed to a UN fund named SUNFED), providing soft loans to developing countries.

1974–1980

From 1974 to 1980, the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.[10]

These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson.[8]:60–63 McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank.[11] One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20%.[12][13]

In 1980, the World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored.[14]

1980–1989

In 1980, McNamara was succeeded by US President Jimmy Carter's nominee, A. W. Clausen. Clausen replaced many members of McNamara's staff and instituted a new ideological focus. His 1982 decision to replace the bank's Chief Economist, Hollis B. Chenery, with Anne Krueger was an indication of this new focus. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding and for describing Third World governments as "rent-seeking states."

During the 1980s, the bank emphasized lending to service Third-World debt, and structural adjustment policies designed to streamline the economies of developing nations. UNICEF reported in the late 1980s that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank had been responsible for "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa".[15]

1989–present

Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism.[8]:93–97 It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone-depletion damage to the Earth's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95% of ozone-depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so-called "Six Strategic Themes", the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991, the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it would not finance any commercial logging or infrastructure projects that harm the environment.

In order to promote global public goods, the World Bank tries to control communicable disease such as malaria, delivering vaccines to several parts of the world and joining combat forces. In 2000, the bank announced a "war on AIDS", and in 2011, the Bank joined the Stop Tuberculosis Partnership.[16]

Less recently, a project in Seychelles to promote local tourism by the name of project MAGIC was launched in 2010. Its successor project TIME was scheduled to be launched in 2012.

Traditionally, based on a tacit understanding between the United States and Europe, the president of the World Bank has always been selected from candidates nominated by the United States. In 2012, for the first time, two non-US citizens were nominated.

On 23 March 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next president of the Bank.[17] Jim Yong Kim was elected on 27 April 2012.

The World Bank Group headquarters bldg. in Washington, D.C.

Criteria

Various developments have brought the Millennium Development Goals targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more as well as better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.[18]

  1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger: From 1990 through 2004, the proportion of people living in extreme poverty fell from almost a third to less than a fifth. Although results vary widely within regions and countries, the trend indicates that the world as a whole can meet the goal of halving the percentage of people living in poverty. Africa's poverty, however, is expected to rise, and most of the 36 countries where 90% of the world's undernourished children live are in Africa. Less than a quarter of countries are on track for achieving the goal of halving under-nutrition.
  2. Achieve Universal Primary Education: The percentage of children in school in developing countries increased from 80% in 1991 to 88% in 2005. Still, about 72 million children of primary school age, 57% of them girls, were not being educated as of 2005.
  3. Promote Gender Equality: The tide is turning slowly for women in the labor market, yet far more women than men- worldwide more than 60% – are contributing but unpaid family workers. The World Bank Group Gender Action Plan was created to advance women's economic empowerment and promote shared growth.
  4. Reduce Child Mortality: There is some improvement in survival rates globally; accelerated improvements are needed most urgently in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 10 million-plus children under five died in 2005; most of their deaths were from preventable causes.
  5. Improve Maternal Health: Almost all of the half million women who die during pregnancy or childbirth every year live in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. There are numerous causes of maternal death that require a variety of health care interventions to be made widely accessible.
  6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases: Annual numbers of new HIV infections and AIDS deaths have fallen, but the number of people living with HIV continues to grow. In the eight worst-hit southern African countries, prevalence is above 15 percent. Treatment has increased globally, but still meets only 30 percent of needs (with wide variations across countries). AIDS remains the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa (1.6 million deaths in 2007). There are 300 to 500 million cases of malaria each year, leading to more than 1 million deaths. Nearly all the cases and more than 95 percent of the deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa.
  7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability: Deforestation remains a critical problem, particularly in regions of biological diversity, which continues to decline. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing faster than energy technology advancement.
  8. Develop a Global Partnership for Development: Donor countries have renewed their commitment. Donors have to fulfill their pledges to match the current rate of core program development. Emphasis is being placed on the Bank Group's collaboration with multilateral and local partners to quicken progress toward the MDGs' realization.

To make sure that World Bank-financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, environmental, social and legal safeguards were defined. However, these safeguards have not been implemented entirely yet. At the World Bank's annual meeting in Tokyo 2012 a review of these safeguards has been initiated, which was welcomed by several civil society organisations.[19]

Leadership

Jim Yong Kim, the current President of the World Bank Group

The President of the Bank is the president of the entire World Bank Group. The president, currently Jim Yong Kim, is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the President of the Bank has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank (the managing director of the International Monetary Fund having always been a European). The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for a five-year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.[20][21]

The vice presidents of the Bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There are two Executive Vice presidents, three Senior Vice presidents, and 24 Vice presidents.[22]

The Boards of Directors consist of the World Bank Group President and 25 Executive Directors. The President is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except a deciding vote in case of an equal division. The Executive Directors as individuals cannot exercise any power nor commit or represent the Bank unless specifically authorized by the Boards to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of Executive Directors increased by one, to 25.[23]

List of presidents

Name Dates Nationality Background
Eugene Meyer 1946–1946 United States Newspaper publisher and Chairman of the Federal Reserve
John J. McCloy 1947–1949 United States Lawyer and US Assistant Secretary of War
Eugene R. Black, Sr. 1949–1963 United States Bank executive with Chase and executive director with the World Bank
George Woods 1963–1968 United States Bank executive with First Boston Corporation
Robert McNamara 1968–1981 United States President of the Ford Motor Company, US Defense Secretary who escalated Vietnam War[24]
Alden W. Clausen 1981–1986 United States Lawyer, bank executive with Bank of America
Barber Conable 1986–1991 United States New York State Senator and US Congressman
Lewis T. Preston 1991–1995 United States Bank executive with J.P. Morgan
Sir James Wolfensohn 1995–2005 United States
Australia (prev.)		 Wolfensohn was a naturalised American citizen before taking office. Corporate lawyer and banker
Paul Wolfowitz 2005–2007 United States US Ambassador to Indonesia, US Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dean of the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins University, prominent architect of 2003 invasion of Iraq, resigned World Bank post due to ethics scandal[25]
Robert Zoellick 2007–2012 United States Deputy Secretary of State and US Trade Representative
Jim Yong Kim 2012–present United States
South Korea (prev.)		 Former Chair of the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard, president of Dartmouth College, naturalized American citizen[26]

List of chief economists

Name Dates Nationality
Hollis B. Chenery 1972–1982 United States
Anne Osborn Krueger 1982–1986 United States
Stanley Fischer 1988–1990 United States
Lawrence Summers 1991–1993 United States
Michael Bruno 1993–1996 Israel
Joseph E. Stiglitz 1997–2000 United States
Nicholas Stern 2000–2003 United Kingdom
François Bourguignon 2003–2007 France
Justin Yifu Lin 2008–2012 China
Kaushik Basu 2012–present India

Members

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 189 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 172 members. Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).[27]

Voting power

In 2010, voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), China (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), India (2.91%),[28] Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and Italy (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China that saw significant gains included South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Singapore, Greece, Brazil, India, and Spain. Most developed countries' voting power was reduced, along with a few poor countries such as Nigeria. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and Saudi Arabia were unchanged.[29][30]

The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule-based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model", backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to International Development Association contributions.[31]

List of 20 largest countries by voting power in each World Bank institution

The following table shows the subscriptions of the top 20 member countries of the World Bank by voting power in the following World Bank institutions as of December 2014 or March 2015: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Development Association (IDA), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). Member countries are allocated votes at the time of membership and subsequently for additional subscriptions to capital (one vote for each share of capital stock held by the member).[32][33][34][35]

The 20 Largest Countries by voting power (Number of Votes)
Rank Country IBRD Country IFC Country IDA Country MIGA
World 2,201,754 World 2,653,476 World 24,682,951 World 218,237
1 United States 358,498 United States 570,179 United States 2,546,503 United States 32,790
2 Japan 166,094 Japan 163,334 Japan 2,112,243 Japan 9,205
3 China 107,244 Germany 129,708 United Kingdom 1,510,934 Germany 9,162
4 Germany 97,224 France 121,815 Germany 1,368,001 France 8,791
5 France 87,241 United Kingdom 121,815 France 908,843 United Kingdom 8,791
6 United Kingdom 87,241 India 103,747 Saudi Arabia 810,293 China 5,756
7 India 67,690 Russia 103,653 India 661,909 Russia 5,754
8 Saudi Arabia 67,155 Canada 82,142 Canada 629,658 Saudi Arabia 5,754
9 Canada 59,004 Italy 82,142 Italy 573,858 India 5,597
10 Italy 54,877 China 62,392 China 521,830 Canada 5,451
11 Russia 54,651 Netherlands 56,931 Poland 498,102 Italy 5,196
12 Spain 42,948 Belgium 51,410 Sweden 494,360 Netherlands 4,048
13 Brazil 42,613 Australia 48,129 Netherlands 488,209 Belgium 3,803
14 Netherlands 42,348 Switzerland 44,863 Brazil 412,322 Australia 3,245
15 Korea 36,591 Brazil 40,279 Australia 312,566 Switzerland 2,869
16 Belgium 36,463 Mexico 38,929 Switzerland 275,755 Brazil 2,832
17 Iran 34,718 Spain 37,826 Belgium 275,474 Spain 2,491
18 Switzerland 33,296 Indonesia 32,402 Norway 258,209 Argentina 2,436
19 Australia 30,910 Saudi Arabia 30,862 Denmark 231,685 Indonesia 2,075
20 Turkey 26,293 Korea 28,895 Pakistan 218,506 Sweden 2,075

Poverty reduction strategies

For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining a cross-section of local groups with an extensive analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a strategy pertaining uniquely to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank aligns its aid efforts correspondingly.

Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 billion in "aid for the world's poorest countries", aid that goes to the World Bank International Development Association (IDA), which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. While wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases, and although IDA is the recipient of criticism, Robert B. Zoellick, the former president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on".[36]

World Bank organizes Development Marketplace Awards, a competitive grant program that surfaces and funds innovative, development projects with high potential for development impact that are scalable and/or replicable. The grant beneficiaries are social enterprises with projects that aim to deliver a range of social and public services to the most underserved low-income groups.

Global partnerships and initiatives

The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December 2009, because of the Bank's continued investment in coal-fired power plants.[37]

Together with the WHO, the World Bank administers the International Health Partnership (IHP+). IHP+ is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society and others to support a single, country-led national health strategy in a well-coordinated way.

Climate change

World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said in 2012 that:

"A 4 degree warmer world can, and must be, avoided – we need to hold warming below 2 degrees .... Lack of action on climate change threatens to make the world our children inherit a completely different world than we are living in today. Climate change is one of the single biggest challenges facing development, and we need to assume the moral responsibility to take action on behalf of future generations, especially the poorest."[38] A World Bank report into Climate change in 2012 noted that (p. xiii): "Even with the current mitigation commitments and pledges fully implemented, there is roughly a 20 percent likelihood of exceeding 4 °C by 2100." This is despite the fact that the "global community has committed itself to holding warming below 2 °C to prevent 'dangerous' climate change". Furthermore: "A series of recent extreme events worldwide highlight the vulnerability of all countries.... No nation will be immune to the impacts of climate change." [39]

The World Bank doubled its aid for climate change adaptation from $2.3bn (£1.47bn) in 2011 to $4.6bn in 2012. The planet is now 0.8 °C warmer than in pre-industrial times. It says that 2 °C warming will be reached in 20 to 30 years.[40][41]

Food security

Main article: Food security
  1. Global Food Security Program: Launched in April 2010, six countries alongside the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged $925 million for food security. To date, the program has helped 8 countries, promoting agriculture, research, trade in agriculture, etc.
  2. Launched Global Food Crisis Response Program: Given grants to approximately 40 nations for seeds, etc. for improving productivity.
  3. In process of increasing its yearly spending for agriculture to $6 billion–$8 billion from earlier $4 billion.
  4. Runs several nutrition program across the world, e.g., vitamin A doses for children, school meals, etc.

Training wings

World Bank Institute

The World Bank Institute (WBI) creates learning opportunities for countries, World Bank staff and clients, and people committed to poverty reduction and sustainable development. WBI's work program includes training, policy consultations, and the creation and support of knowledge networks related to international economic and social development.

The World Bank Institute (WBI) can be defined as a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction". It aims to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results. WBI has four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning. World Bank Institute(WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI), established on 11 March 1955 with the support of the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. The purpose of the institute was to serve as provide an open place where senior officials from developing countries could discuss development policies and programs. Over the years, EDI grew significantly and in 2000, the Institute was renamed as the World Bank Institute. Currently Sanjay Pradhan is the Vice President of the World Bank Institute.[42]

Global Development Learning Network

The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.

GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.

GDLN Asia Pacific

The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region". GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed.

The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1) and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific.

The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a "Foundation". The World Bank is currently engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this legal status.

GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand – Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity tin Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case by case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved.

The JUSTPAL Network

A Justice Sector Peer-Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank’s Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. The JUSTPAL objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices and peer-driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance, quality of justice and service delivery to citizens and businesses.

The JUSTPAL Network includes representatives of judiciaries, ministries of justice, prosecutors, anti-corruption agencies and other justice-related entities from across the globe. The Network currently has active members from more than 50 countries.

To facilitate fruitful exchange of reform experiences and sharing of applicable good practices, the JUSTPAL Network has organized its activities under (currently) five Communities of Practice (COPs): (i) Budgeting for the Justice Sector; (ii) Information Systems for Justice Services; (iii) Justice Sector Physical Infrastructure; (iv) Court Management and Administration; and (v) Prosecution and Anti-Corruption Agencies.

Country assistance strategies

As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced, in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the Bank or other parties.

Clean Air Initiative

Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes electric vehicles.[43]

United Nations Development Business

Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, Development Business became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.[44]

In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an electronic version of the publication via the World Wide Web. Today, Development Business is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, and several national governments, many of whom have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in Development Business a mandatory requirement.[44]

The World Bank or the World Bank Group is also a sitting observer in the United Nations Development Group.[45]

Open data initiative

The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the public in a way that encourages reuse,[46] whereas the recent publications describing them are available as open access under a Creative Commons Attribution License, for which the bank received the SPARC Innovator 2012 award.[47]

Open Knowledge Repository

The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR)[48] as an official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products.
The World Bank's repository is listed in the Registry of Research Data Repositories re3data.org.[49]

Criticisms

The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, Henry Hazlitt and Ludwig Von Mises.[50][51][52] Henry Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State-dominated" when they were being advocated.[53] Stiglitz argued that the so-called free market reform policies that the Bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies.[51][54]

One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and so their interests dominate the bank.[55]:190 Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.[56]:133–141

In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies that included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.[52]:17

The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time" and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts".[57]

Criticism of the World Bank often takes the form of protesting as seen in recent events such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests,[58] the October Rebellion,[59] and the Battle of Seattle.[60] Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even among the Brazilian Kayapo people.[61]

Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice", observed The Economist in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it."[62] Jim Yong Kim, a Korean-American, is the most recently appointed president of the World Bank.[63]

Structural adjustment

The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank.[64] The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crisis.[65]:68 The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans, which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. The alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.[65]:69

By the late 1980s, international organizations began to admit that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world's poor. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises.[65]:70 In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans.[66]:147 The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach has been interpreted as an extension of structural adjustment policies as it continues to reinforce and legitimize global inequities. Neither approach has addressed the inherent flaws within the global economy that contribute to economic and social inequities within developing countries.[66]:152

Fairness of assistance conditions

Some critics,[67] most prominently the author Naomi Klein, are of the opinion that the World Bank Group's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the Washington Consensus) of the Bank and, by extension, the countries that are most influential within it. Among other allegations, Klein says the Group's credibility was damaged "when it forced school fees on students in Ghana in exchange for a loan; when it demanded that Tanzania privatise its water system; when it made telecom privatisation a condition of aid for Hurricane Mitch; when it demanded labour 'flexibility' in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami; when it pushed for eliminating food subsidies in post-invasion Iraq".[68]

Sovereign immunity

The World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with.[69][70][71] Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which [The World Bank] wants to resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people."[69] As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests.[69]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Boards of Executive Directors – Member Countries. Web.worldbank.org. Retrieved on 29 July 2013.
  2. ↑ Boards of Executive Directors – Member Countries. Web.worldbank.org. Retrieved on 1 March 2016.
  3. ↑ "About Us". World Bank. 14 October 2008. Retrieved 9 November 2008.
  4. ↑ Articles of Agreement: as amended effective 16 February 1989.
  5. ↑ "About Us". World Bank. 29 June 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
  6. ↑ "The Founding Fathers". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
  7. ↑ The New York Times, 17 March 2015, "France, Germany and Italy Say They'll Join China-Led Bank"
  8. 1 2 3 4 Goldman, Michael (2005). Imperial Nature: The World Bank and Struggles for Social Justice in the Age of Globalization. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30-011974-9.
  9. ↑ Bird, Kai (1992). The Chairman: John J. McCloy, the Making of the American Establishment. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-67-145415-9.
  10. ↑ World Bank. "World Bank Historical Chronology: 1970–1979". World Bank Group. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  11. ↑ Rotberg, Eugene (1994). "Financial Operations of the World Bank". Bretton Woods: looking to the future: commission report, staff review, background papers. Washington, D.C.: Bretton Woods Commission.
  12. ↑ Mosley, Paul; Harrigan, Jane; Toye, John (1995). Aid and Power: The World Bank and Policy Based Lending, 2nd Edition 1. Abington, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-13209-1.
  13. ↑ Toussaint, Eric (1999). Your Money or Your Life!: The Tyranny of Global Finance. London, UK: Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-74-531412-9.
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  16. ↑ World Bank. "Results". World Bank Group. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  17. ↑ Office of the Press Secretary (23 March 2012). "President Obama Announces U.S. Nomination of Dr. Jim Yong Kim to Lead World Bank". The White House. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
  18. ↑ World Bank. "Millennium Development Goals". World Bank Group. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  19. ↑ Korinna Horta (February 2013). "Most relevant review". dandc.eu.
  20. ↑ Hurlburt, Heather (23 March 2012). "Why Jim Yong Kim would make a great World Bank president". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
  21. ↑ World Bank. "Leadership". World Bank Group. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
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  24. ↑ Robert S. McNamara and the Real Tonkin Gulf Deception, Antiwar.com, Gareth Porter, 6 August 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
  25. ↑ "Wolfowitz Laid Out Terms for Partner’s Pay Package", The Financial Times, 12 April 2007, accessed 14 May 2007
  26. ↑ Heather Hurlburt (23 March 2012). "Why Jim Yong Kim would make a great World Bank president". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 9 March 2016. Kim is a naturalized US citizen who was born in Korea.
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  28. ↑ "Developing nations get more say in World Bank affairs". The Times of India. 26 April 2010. Retrieved 5 April 2014.
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  31. ↑ Stumm, Mario (March 2011). "World Bank: More responsibility for developing countries". D+C. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
  32. ↑ http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BODINT/Resources/278027-1215524804501/IBRDCountryVotingTable.pdf International Bank for Reconstruction and Development as of March 2015
  33. ↑ http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BODINT/Resources/278027-1215524804501/IFCCountryVotingTable.pdf International Finance Corporation as of March 2015
  34. ↑ http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BODINT/Resources/278027-1215524804501/IDACountryVotingTable.pdf International Development Association as of December 2014
  35. ↑ http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BODINT/Resources/278027-1215524804501/MIGACountryVotingTable.pdf Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency as of December 2014
  36. ↑ Landler, Mark (15 December 2007). "Britain Overtakes U.S. as Top World Bank Donor". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
  37. ↑ Wheeler, David (20 May 2008). "Climate Change in Nashville: A Gathering Storm for the World Bank?". Center for Global Development. Retrieved 9 November 2008.
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  39. ↑ Why a 4 degree centrigrade warmer world must be avoided November 2012 World Bank
  40. ↑ What Climate Change Means for Africa, Asia and the Coastal Poor World Bank 19 June 2012
  41. ↑ World's poorest will feel brunt of climate change, warns World Bank The Guardian 19 June 2012
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  50. ↑ Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2003). The Roaring Nineties: A New History of the World's Most Prosperous Decade. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-39-305852-9.
  51. 1 2 Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2003). Globalization and Its Discontents. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-39-332439-6.
  52. 1 2 Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2007). Making Globalization Work. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-39-333028-1.
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  54. ↑ Schneider, Jane (2002). "World Markets: Anthropological Perspectives". In MacClancy, Jeremy. Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front Lines. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-22-650013-3.
  55. ↑ Woods, Ngaire (2007). The Globalizers: The IMF, the World Bank, and Their Borrowers. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-80-147420-0.
  56. ↑ Alexander, Titus (1996). Unravelling Global Apartheid: An Overview of World Politics. Cambridge, UK: Polity. ISBN 978-0-74-561352-9.
  57. ↑ Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 111th Congress (2010). The International Financial Institutions: A Call For Change (PDF) (Report). U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  58. ↑ Gibbs, Walter (25 June 2002). "Europe: Norway: Protests As World Bank Meets". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  59. ↑ Williams, Clarence; Ruane, Michael E. (20 October 2007). "Violence Erupts at Protest in Georgetown". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
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  64. ↑ Graeber, David. Direct Action: An Ethnography. AK Press. pp. 442–443. ISBN 9781904859796.
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