World Trade Organization

"WTO" redirects here. For other uses, see WTO (disambiguation).
World Trade Organization (English)
Organisation mondiale du commerce (French)
Organización Mundial del Comercio (Spanish)

Official logo of WTO

  Members
  Members, dually represented by the EU
  Observers
  Non-participant states
Formation 1 January 1995 (1995-01-01)
Type International trade organization
Purpose Regulate international trade
Headquarters Centre William Rappard, Geneva, Switzerland
Coordinates 46°07′N 6°05′E / 46.12°N 6.09°E / 46.12; 6.09Coordinates: 46°07′N 6°05′E / 46.12°N 6.09°E / 46.12; 6.09
Region served
 Worldwide
Membership
 162 member states[1]
Official language
 English, French, Spanish[2]
Roberto Azevêdo
Budget
 196 million Swiss francs (approx. 209 million US$) in 2011.[3]
Staff
 640[4]
Website www.wto.org

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization which regulates international trade. The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948.[5] The WTO deals with regulation of trade between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments[6]:fol.9–10 and ratified by their parliaments.[7] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).

The WTO is attempting to complete negotiations on the Doha Development Round, which was launched in 2001 with an explicit focus on developing countries. As of June 2012, the future of the Doha Round remained uncertain: the work programme lists 21 subjects in which the original deadline of 1 January 2005 was missed, and the round is still incomplete.[8] The conflict between free trade on industrial goods and services but retention of protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural sector (requested by developed countries) and the substantiation of fair trade on agricultural products (requested by developing countries) remain the major obstacles. This impasse has made it impossible to launch new WTO negotiations beyond the Doha Development Round. As a result, there have been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements between governments.[9] As of July 2012, there were various negotiation groups in the WTO system for the current agricultural trade negotiation which is in the condition of stalemate.[10]

The WTO's current Director-General is Roberto Azevêdo,[11][12] who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva, Switzerland.[13] A trade facilitation agreement known as the Bali Package was reached by all members on 7 December 2013, the first comprehensive agreement in the organization's history.[14][15]

History

The economists Harry White (left) and John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference. Both had been strong advocates of a central-controlled international trade environment and recommended the establishment of three institutions: the IMF (for fiscal and monetary issues); the World Bank (for financial and structural issues); and the ITO (for international economic cooperation).[16]

The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation – notably the Bretton Woods institutions known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the International Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other signatories and never went into effect.[17][18][19]

In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years "transform itself" into a de facto international organization.[20]

GATT rounds of negotiations

The GATT was the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1946 until the WTO was established on 1 January 1995.[21] Despite attempts in the mid-1950s and 1960s to create some form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.[22]

From Geneva to Tokyo

Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.[21]

Uruguay Round

Main article: Uruguay Round
During the Doha Round, the US government blamed Brazil and India for being inflexible and the EU for impeding agricultural imports.[23] The then-President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (above right), responded to the criticisms by arguing that progress would only be achieved if the richest countries (especially the US and countries in the EU) made deeper cuts in agricultural subsidies and further opened their markets for agricultural goods.[24]

Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.[25][26] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round – known as the Uruguay Round – was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.[25]

It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles were up for review.[26] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed 15 April 1994, during the ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[27]

The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[25] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts:

In terms of the WTO's principle relating to tariff "ceiling-binding" (No. 3), the Uruguay Round has been successful in increasing binding commitments by both developed and developing countries, as may be seen in the percentages of tariffs bound before and after the 1986–1994 talks.[30]

Ministerial conferences

The World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1998, in the Palace of Nations (Geneva, Switzerland).

The highest decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements.

The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman Amb. Mario Matus acknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol requiring two-yearly "regular" meetings, which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005, and that the "scaled-down" meeting would not be a negotiating session, but "emphasis will be on transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating structures". The general theme for discussion was "The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System and the Current Global Economic Environment"[32]

Doha Round (Doha Agenda)

The Doha Development Round started in 2001 is at an impasse.

The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[33] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[34]

The negotiations have been highly contentious. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies, which emerged as critical in July 2006.[35] According to a European Union statement, "The 2008 Ministerial meeting broke down over a disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a 'special safeguard measure' to protect farmers from surges in imports."[36] The position of the European Commission is that "The successful conclusion of the Doha negotiations would confirm the central role of multilateral liberalisation and rule-making. It would confirm the WTO as a powerful shield against protectionist backsliding."[34] An impasse remains and, as of August 2013, agreement has not been reached, despite intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions. On 27 March 2013, the chairman of agriculture talks announced "a proposal to loosen price support disciplines for developing countries’ public stocks and domestic food aid." He added: “...we are not yet close to agreement—in fact, the substantive discussion of the proposal is only beginning.”[37]

Functions

Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:

Additionally, it is the WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[40][42] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.[43]

  1. The WTO shall facilitate the implementation, administration and operation and further the objectives of this Agreement and of the Multilateral Trade Agreements, and shall also provide the frame work for the implementation, administration and operation of the multilateral Trade Agreements.
  2. The WTO shall provide the forum for negotiations among its members concerning their multilateral trade relations in matters dealt with under the Agreement in the Annexes to this Agreement.
  3. The WTO shall administer the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes.
  4. The WTO shall administer Trade Policy Review Mechanism.
  5. With a view to achieving greater coherence in global economic policy making, the WTO shall cooperate, as appropriate, with the international Monetary Fund (IMF) and with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and its affiliated agencies.[44]

The above five listings are the additional functions of the World Trade Organization. As globalization proceeds in today's society, the necessity of an International Organization to manage the trading systems has been of vital importance. As the trade volume increases, issues such as protectionism, trade barriers, subsidies, violation of intellectual property arise due to the differences in the trading rules of every nation. The World Trade Organization serves as the mediator between the nations when such problems arise. WTO could be referred to as the product of globalization and also as one of the most important organizations in today's globalized society.

The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[45] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.[41]

Principles of the trading system

The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies; it does not define or specify outcomes. That is, it is concerned with setting the rules of the trade policy games.[46] Five principles are of particular importance in understanding both the pre-1994 GATT and the WTO:

  1. Non-discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN) rule, and the national treatment policy. Both are embedded in the main WTO rules on goods, services, and intellectual property, but their precise scope and nature differ across these areas. The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other WTO members.[46] "Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all other WTO members."[30] National treatment means that imported goods should be treated no less favorably than domestically produced goods (at least after the foreign goods have entered the market) and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security standards et al. discriminating against imported goods).[46]
  2. Reciprocity. It reflects both a desire to limit the scope of free-riding that may arise because of the MFN rule, and a desire to obtain better access to foreign markets. A related point is that for a nation to negotiate, it is necessary that the gain from doing so be greater than the gain available from unilateral liberalization; reciprocal concessions intend to ensure that such gains will materialise.[47]
  3. Binding and enforceable commitments. The tariff commitments made by WTO members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a schedule (list) of concessions. These schedules establish "ceiling bindings": a country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade. If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures.[30][47]
  4. Transparency. The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade, to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO. These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).[48] The WTO system tries also to improve predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports.[30]
  5. Safety valves. In specific circumstances, governments are able to restrict trade. The WTO's agreements permit members to take measures to protect not only the environment but also public health, animal health and plant health.[49]

There are three types of provision in this direction:

  • articles allowing for the use of trade measures to attain non-economic objectives;
  • articles aimed at ensuring "fair competition"; members must not use environmental protection measures as a means of disguising protectionist policies.[49]
  • provisions permitting intervention in trade for economic reasons.[48]
Exceptions to the MFN principle also allow for preferential treatment of developing countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions.[6]:fol.93

Organizational structure

The General Council has the following subsidiary bodies which oversee committees in different areas:

Council for Trade in Goods
There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task. All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body has its own chairman and only 10 members. The body also has several groups relating to textiles.[50]
Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO's work with other international organizations in the field.[51]
Council for Trade in Services
The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required.[52]
Trade Negotiations Committee
The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks round. The chair is WTO's director-general. As of June 2012 the committee was tasked with the Doha Development Round.[53]

The Service Council has three subsidiary bodies: financial services, domestic regulations, GATS rules and specific commitments.[50] The council has several different committees, working groups, and working parties.[54] There are committees on the following: Trade and Environment; Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries); Regional Trade Agreements; Balance of Payments Restrictions; and Budget, Finance and Administration. There are working parties on the following: Accession. There are working groups on the following: Trade, debt and finance; and Trade and technology transfer.

Decision-making

The WTO describes itself as "a rules-based, member-driven organization — all decisions are made by the member governments, and the rules are the outcome of negotiations among members".[55] The WTO Agreement foresees votes where consensus cannot be reached, but the practice of consensus dominates the process of decision-making.[56]

Richard Harold Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO's consensus governance model provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining favouring Europe and the U.S., and may not lead to Pareto improvement.[57]

Dispute settlement

The WTO's dispute-settlement system "is the result of the evolution of rules, procedures and practices developed over almost half a century under the GATT 1947".[58] In 1994, the WTO members agreed on the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) annexed to the "Final Act" signed in Marrakesh in 1994.[59] Dispute settlement is regarded by the WTO as the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and as a "unique contribution to the stability of the global economy".[60] WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.[61]

The operation of the WTO dispute settlement process involves case-specific panels[62] appointed by the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB),[63] the Appellate Body,[64] The Director-General and the WTO Secretariat,[65] arbitrators,[66] and advisory experts.[67]

The priority is to settle disputes, preferably through a mutually agreed solution, and provision has been made for the process to be conducted in an efficient and timely manner so that "If a case is adjudicated, it should normally take no more than one year for a panel ruling and no more than 16 months if the case is appealed... If the complainant deems the case urgent, consideration of the case should take even less time.[68] WTO member nations are obliged to accept the process as exclusive and compulsory.[69]

Accession and membership

The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade regime.[70] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last longer if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of Russia, which, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011 and became a WTO member on 22 August 2012.[71] Kazakhstan also had a long accession negotiation process. The Working Party on the Accession of Kazakhstan was established in 1996 and was approved for membership in 2015.[72] The second longest was that of Vanuatu, whose Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was established on 11 July 1995. After a final meeting of the Working Party in October 2001, Vanuatu requested more time to consider its accession terms. In 2008, it indicated its interest to resume and conclude its WTO accession. The Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was reconvened informally on 4 April 2011 to discuss Vanuatu's future WTO membership. The re-convened Working Party completed its mandate on 2 May 2011. The General Council formally approved the Accession Package of Vanuatu on 26 October 2011. On 24 August 2012, the WTO welcomed Vanuatu as its 157th member.[73] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.[74]

Accession process

WTO accession progress:
  Members (including dual-representation with the European Union)
  Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted
  Goods and/or Services offers submitted
  Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime (FTR) submitted
  Observer, negotiations to start later or no Memorandum on FTR submitted
  Frozen procedures or no negotiations in the last 3 years
  No official interaction with the WTO

A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[75] The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[76]

After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[70]

The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.[75]

When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.[77] Some countries may have faced tougher and a much longer accession process due to challenges during negotiations with other WTO members, such as Vietnam, whose negotiations took more than 11 years before it became official member in January 2007.[78]

Members and observers

The WTO has 162 members and 22 observer governments.[79] Kazakhstan is the most recent member, having joined on 30 November, 2015. Afghanistan and Liberia had their memberships approved in December 2015, and subject to their ratification of the agreement they will become members in 2016. In addition to states, the European Union is a member. WTO members do not have to be fully independent states. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus Hong Kong has been a member since 1995 (as "Hong Kong, China" since 1997) predating the People's Republic of China, which joined in 2001 after 15 years of negotiations. The Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.[80] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counselor, First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei's Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.[81]

As of 2007, WTO member states represented 96.4% of global trade and 96.7% of global GDP.[82] Iran, followed by Algeria, are the economies with the largest GDP and trade outside the WTO, using 2005 data.[83][84] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. A number of international intergovernmental organizations have also been granted observer status to WTO bodies.[85] 14 UN member states have no official affiliation with the WTO.

Agreements

Further information: Uruguay Round

The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.[86] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows. The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies. The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, in the same way as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided such a system for merchandise trade. The agreement entered into force in January 1995. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994.[87]

The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures—also known as the SPS Agreement—was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of GATT, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members' policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[88] The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the "transaction value" approach.

In December 2013, the biggest agreement within the WTO was signed and known as the Bali Package.[89]

Office of director-general

The headquarters of the World Trade Organization in Geneva, Switzerland.

The procedures for the appointment of the WTO director-general were published in January 2003.[90] Additionally, there are four deputy directors-general. As of 1 October 2013, under director-general Roberto Azevêdo, the four deputy directors-general are Yi Xiaozhun of China, Karl-Ernst Brauner of Germany, Yonov Frederick Agah of Nigeria and David Shark of the United States.[91]

List of directors-general

Source: Official website[92]

(Heads of the precursor organization, GATT):

Criticism of the organization

See also

Notes and references

  1. ↑ Members and Observers at WTO official website
  2. ↑ Languages, Documentation and Information Management Division at WTO official site
  3. ↑ "WTO Secretariat budget for 2011". WTO official site. Retrieved 25 August 2008.
  4. ↑ Understanding the WTO: What We Stand For_ Fact File
  5. ↑ World Trade Organization - UNDERSTANDING THE WTO: BASICS
  6. 1 2 Understanding the WTO Handbook at WTO official website. (Note that the document's printed folio numbers do not match the pdf page numbers.)
  7. ↑ Malanczuk, P. (1999). "International Organisations and Space Law: World Trade Organization". Encyclopaedia Britannica 442. p. 305. Bibcode:1999ESASP.442..305M.
  8. ↑ Understanding the WTO: The Doha Agenda
  9. ↑ The Challenges to the World Trade Organization: It’s All About Legitimacy THE BROOKINGS INSTITUTION, Policy Paper 2011-04
  10. ↑ GROUPS IN THE WTO Updated 1 July 2013
  11. ↑ Bourcier, Nicolas (21 May 2013). "Roberto Azevedo's WTO appointment gives Brazil a seat at the top table". Guardian Weekly. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
  12. ↑ "Roberto Azevêdo takes over". WTO official website. 1 September 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
  13. ↑ "Overview of the WTO Secretariat". WTO official website. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
  14. ↑ Ninth WTO Ministerial Conference | WTO - MC9
  15. ↑ BBC News - WTO agrees global trade deal worth $1tn
  16. ↑ A.E. Eckes Jr., US Trade History, 73
    * A. Smithies, Reflections on the Work of Keynes, 578–601
    * N. Warren, Internet and Globalization, 193
  17. ↑ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 80
  18. ↑ Palmeter-Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement, 2
  19. ↑ Fergusson, Ian F. (9 May 2007). "The World Trade Organization: Background and Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 4. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
  20. ↑ It was contemplated that the GATT would be applied for several years until the ITO came into force. However, since the ITO was never brought into being, the GATT gradually became the focus for international governmental cooperation on trade matters with economist Nicholas Halford overseeing the implementation of GATT in members policies. (P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 81; J.H. Jackson, Managing the Trading System, 134).
  21. 1 2 The GATT Years: from Havana to Marrakesh, WTO official site
  22. ↑ Footer, M. E. Analysis of the World Trade Organization, 17
  23. ↑ B.S. Klapper, With a "Short Window"
  24. ↑ Lula, Time to Get Serious about Agricultural Subsidies
  25. 1 2 3 P. Gallagher, The First Ten Years of the WTO, 4
  26. 1 2 The Uruguay Round, WTO official site
  27. ↑ "Legal texts – Marrakesh agreement". WTO. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
  28. ↑ ""Resolving Trade Disputes, the Mechanisms of GATT/WTO Dispute Resolution" by Daniel H. Erskine". digitalcommons.law.scu.edu. Retrieved 2016-04-03.
  29. ↑ Overview: a Navigational Guide, WTO official site. For the complete list of "The Uruguay Round Agreements", see WTO legal texts, WTO official site, and Uruguay Round Agreements, Understandings, Decisions and Declarations, WorldTradeLaw.net
  30. 1 2 3 4 Principles of the Trading System, WTO official site
  31. ↑ "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Papers.ssrn.com. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
  32. ↑ WTO to hold 7th Ministerial Conference on 30 November-2 December 2009 WTO official website
  33. ↑ "In the twilight of Doha". The Economist (The Economist): 65. 27 July 2006.
  34. 1 2 European Commission The Doha Round
  35. ↑ Fergusson, Ian F. (18 January 2008). "World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 13 April 2012. Page 9 (folio CRS-6)
  36. ↑ WTO trade negotiations: Doha Development Agenda Europa press release, 31 October 2011
  37. ↑ "Members start negotiating proposal on poor countries’ food stockholding". WTO official website. 27 March 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
  38. ↑ a)The GATT years: from Havana to Marrakesh, World Trade Organization
    b)Timeline: World Trade Organization – A chronology of key events, BBC News
    c)Brakman-Garretsen-Marrewijk-Witteloostuijn, Nations and Firms in the Global Economy, Chapter 10: Trade and Capital Restriction
  39. ↑ Functions of the WTO, IISD
  40. 1 2 Main Functions, WTO official site
  41. 1 2 A Bredimas, International Economic Law, II, 17
  42. 1 2 C. Deere, Decision-making in the WTO: Medieval or Up-to-Date?
  43. ↑ WTO Assistance for Developing Countries, WTO official site Archived 12 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
  44. ↑ Sinha, Aparijita. . "What are the functions and objectives of the WTO?". Retrieved on 13 April 2014.
  45. ↑ Economic research and analysis, WTO official site
  46. 1 2 3 B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 42
  47. 1 2 B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 43
  48. 1 2 B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 44
  49. 1 2 Understanding the WTO: What we stand for
  50. 1 2 "Fourth level: down to the nitty-gritty". WTO official site. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
  51. ↑ "Intellectual property – overview of TRIPS Agreement". Wto.org. 15 April 1994. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
  52. ↑ "The Services Council, its Committees and other subsidiary bodies". WTO official site. Retrieved 14 August 2008.
  53. ↑ "The Trade Negotiations Committee". WTO official site. Retrieved 14 August 2008.
  54. ↑ "WTO organization chart". WTO official site. Retrieved 14 August 2008.
  55. ↑ Decision-making at WTO official site
  56. ↑ Decision-Making in the World Trade Organization Abstract from Journal of International Economic Law at Oxford Journals
  57. ↑ Steinberg, Richard H. "In the Shadow of Law or Power? Consensus-based Bargaining and Outcomes in the GATT/WTO." International Organization. Spring 2002. pp. 339–374.
  58. ↑ "1.2 The Dispute Settlement Understanding". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  59. ↑ Stewart-Dawyer, The WTO Dispute Settlement System, 7
  60. ↑ S. Panitchpakdi, The WTO at ten, 8.
  61. ↑ Settling Disputes:a Unique Contribution, WTO official site
  62. ↑ "3.3 Panels". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  63. ↑ "3.1 The Dispute Settlement Body (DSB)". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
  64. ↑ "3.4 Appellate Body". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  65. ↑ "3.2 The Director-General and the WTO Secretariat". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  66. ↑ "3.5 arbitrators". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  67. ↑ "3.6 Experts". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  68. ↑ ""Mutually Agreed Solutions" as "Preferred Solution"". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  69. ↑ "1.3 Functions, objectives and key features of the dispute settlement system". WTO official website. 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2005.
  70. 1 2 Accessions Summary, Center for International Development
  71. ↑ Ministerial Conference approves Russia's WTO membership WTO News Item, 16 December 2011
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  74. ↑ C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 64
  75. 1 2 Membership, Alliances and Bureaucracy, WTO official site
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  77. ↑ How to Become a Member of the WTO, WTO official site
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  80. ↑ Jackson, J. H. Sovereignty, 109
  81. ↑ ROC Government Publication
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  87. ↑ Understanding the WTO - Intellectual property: protection and enforcement. WTO. Retrieved on 29 July 2013.
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  92. ↑ "Previous GATT and WTO Directors-General". WTO. Retrieved 21 May 2011.

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