Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine

For the family of spiritual practices that originated in India, see Hatha yoga and Asana.

Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine is a modern phenomenon which has been influenced by the ancient Indian practice of hatha yoga. It involves holding stretches as a kind of low-impact physical exercise, and is often used for therapeutic purposes.[1][2][3] Yoga in this sense often occurs in a class and may involve meditation, imagery, breath work and music.[4][5]

Both the meditative and the exercise components of hatha yoga have been researched for both specific and non-specific health benefits. Hatha yoga has been studied as an intervention for many conditions, including back pain, stress, and depression.[6]

A survey released in December 2008 by the US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health[7] found that hatha yoga was the sixth most commonly used alternative therapy in the United States during 2007, with 6.1 percent of the population participating.[8]

Background and overview

A western style hatha yoga class

Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Hindu philosophy. The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience was Swami Vivekananda, who toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s[9] (however, Vivekananda put little emphasis on the physical practices of Hatha Yoga in his teachings).[10]

The physical asanas of hatha yoga have a tradition that goes back to at least the 15th century, but they were not widely practiced in India prior to the early 20th century. Hatha yoga was advocated by a number of late 19th to early 20th century gurus in India, including Tirumalai Krishnamacharya in south India, Swami Sivananda in the north, Sri Yogendra in Bombay, and Swami Kuvalayananda in Lonavala, near Bombay.[11] In 1918, Pierre Bernard, the first famous American yogi, opened the Clarkstown Country Club, a controversial retreat center for well-to-do yoga students, in New York State.[12] In the 1960s, several yoga teachers, most notably B.K.S. Iyengar, K. Pattabhi Jois, Swami Vishnu-devananda, and Swami Satchidananda became active and popular in the West.[11][13][14] A hatha "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, MD, a medical researcher and follower of Swami Satchidananda, connected hatha yoga to heart health, legitimizing hatha yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to a religious denomination.[9]

Since then, hatha yoga has been used as supplementary therapy for diverse conditions such as cancer, diabetes, asthma, and AIDS.[15]

The more classical approaches of hatha yoga, such as Iyengar Yoga, move at a more deliberate pace, emphasize proper alignment and execution and hold asanas for a longer time. They aim to gradually improve flexibility, balance, and strength. Other approaches, such as Ashtanga or Power Yoga, shift between asanas quickly and energetically. More recently, contemporary approaches to yoga, developed by Vanda Scaravelli and others, invite students to become their own authority in yoga practice by offering principle-based approaches to yoga that can be applied to any form.[16]

Yoga has roots in India. The foundational text for yoga is the Yoga Sutra. Religious articles from a variety of views and beliefs have been published to try to show that Yoga is leading people from their previous beliefs into eastern religions. Some websites are wholly dedicated to this purpose, under names such as "Yogadangers.com"[17] Evangelical Christian leader Albert Mohler is a critic of yoga, saying 'the embrace of yoga is a symptom of our postmodern spiritual confusion'.[18]

Nearly all types of hatha yoga practices include asana, pranayama and savasana.[19]

Research activity

While much of the medical community views the results of Hatha Yoga research to be significant, others argue that there were many flaws that undermine results. Much of the research on Hatha Yoga has been in the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias.[20][21][22] As of 2011, evidence suggests that Hatha Yoga may be at least as effective at improving health outcomes as other forms of mild physical exercise when added to standard care. What is found most concerning regarding the legitimacy of Hatha Yoga as a method of healing is the current lack of specificity and standardization regarding the practice of Hatha Yoga. One recent study examined the difficulties of implementing Hatha Yoga-based therapies and methods of healing without any detailed, standardized and vetted descriptions of the asanas promoted as being beneficial for healing. This research calls for the creation of supported intervention practices that could be distributed and applied for use in clinical practice for patients.[23]

Hatha Yoga and Specific Mental Health Conditions

Hatha Yoga and Specific Physical Health Conditions

Mind-body connection

The therapeutic benefits of yoga have been discussed by van der Kolk, who explains that because regulation of physical movement is a fundamental priority of the nervous system, focusing on and developing an awareness of physical movement can lead to improved synchrony between mind and body. This is beneficial, he says, especially for those suffering from psychological conditions such as depression and PTSD (the focus of van der Kolk’s work), because an improved sense of connectedness between mind and body give rise to enhanced control and understanding of their "inner sensations" and state of being.[23]

Hatha Yoga and mindfulness

Yoga is a core component of the Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program. Drawing from recent research on the mental and physical benefits of practicing yoga, positive psychologists have begun to look deeper into the possibilities of utilizing yoga to improve life for people even in the absence of disease.[23]

Safety

Although relatively safe, Hatha Yoga is not risk free. Sensible precautions can usefully be taken – for example beginners should avoid advanced moves, Hatha Yoga should not be combined with psychoactive drug use, and competitive Hatha Yoga should be avoided.[34]

When using Hatha Yoga as a treatment, patients should inform the teacher of their physical limitations and concerns. Functional limitations should be taken into consideration. Modifications can then be made using props, altering the duration or poses.[35]

The practice of Hatha Yoga has been cited as a cause of hyperextension or rotation of the neck, which may be a precipitating factor in cervical artery dissection.[36]

A small percentage of Hatha Yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries.[37]

See also

References

  1. ↑ McCall, Timothy (2007). Yoga as Medicine: the yogic prescription for health and healing: a yoga journal book, p. xvii. Bantam, New York. ISBN 978-0-553-38406-2
  2. ↑ Syman, Stefanie (2010). The Subtle Body: The Story of Yoga in America. Macmillan. pp. 268–273.
  3. ↑ Ross, A.; Thomas, S. (2010). "The Health Benefits of Yoga and Exercise: A Review of Comparison Studies." The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. January 2010, 16(1): 3–12.doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0044.
  4. ↑ Feuerstein, Georg (2006). ""Yogic Meditation"". In Jonathan Shear. The Experience of Meditation. St. Paul, Minnesota: Paragon House. p. 90. While not every branch or school of yoga includes meditation in its technical repertoire, most do.
  5. ↑ Editors, of Yoga Journal (2010). "Which Yoga is Right for you?". Yoga Journal: 80–85.
  6. 1 2 "Yoga". American Cancer Society. 1 November 2008. Retrieved April 2014.
  7. ↑ "According to a New Government Survey, 38 Percent of Adults and 12 Percent of Children Use Complementary and Alternative Medicine | NCCIH". Nccih.nih.gov. 2008-12-10. Retrieved 2012-03-20.
  8. ↑ Barnes, P. M.; Bloom, B.; Nahin, R. CDC National Health Statistics Report #12. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults and Children: United States, 2007
  9. 1 2 Shaw, Eric. 35 mOMents, Yoga Journal, 2010-09.
  10. ↑ Goldberg, Philip (2010). American Veda—How Indian Spirituality Changed the West. New York: Crown/Random House. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-385-52134-5.
  11. 1 2 Cushman, Ann (Jan–Feb 2000). "The New Yoga". Yoga Journal.com. p. 68. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
  12. ↑ Love, Robert (2010). The Great Oom : the Improbable Birth of Yoga in America. Viking. ISBN 067002175X.
  13. ↑ Silva, Mira, and Mehta, Shyam. (1995). Yoga the Iyengar Way, p. 9. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 978-0-89381-731-2
  14. ↑ Desikachar, T. K. V. (2005). Health, healing and beyond: Yoga and the living tradition of Krishnamacharya, (cover jacket text). Aperture, US. ISBN 978-0-89381-731-2
  15. ↑ Barnes, P.; Powell-Griner, E.; McFann, K.; Nahin, R. CDC Advance Data Report #343. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002
  16. ↑ Marc Woolford About the Yoga.... yoga is meant for anyone that wishes to improve physical and psychological health
  17. ↑ "Spiritual Dangers of Yoga and Kundalini". Yoga Dangers. Retrieved 2013-07-07.
  18. ↑ Albert Mohler (2010-09-20). "The Subtle Body — Should Christians Practice Yoga? –". Albertmohler.com. Retrieved 2013-07-07.
  19. ↑ Forbes Bo. "Yoga Therapy in Practice: Using Integrative Yoga Therapeutics in the Treatment of Comorbid Anxiety and Depression". International Journal of Yoga 2008: 87.
  20. 1 2 Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Ngamjarus, C.; Witoonchart, C.; Piyavhatkul, N. (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767.
  21. ↑ Ospina, M. B.; Bond, K.; Karkhaneh, M.; et al. (2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 14 (10): 199–213.
  22. ↑ Uebelacker, L. A.; Epstein-Lubow, G.; Gaudiano, B. A.; Tremont, G.; Battle, C. L.; Miller, I. W. (2010). "Hatha yoga for depression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research". Journal of Psychiatric Practice 16 (1): 22–33. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.96. PMID 20098228.
  23. 1 2 3 Salmon, Paul; Lush, Elizabeth; Jablonski, Megan; Sephton, Sandra E. (February 2009). "Yoga and Mindfulness: Clinical Aspects of an Ancient Mind/Body". Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 16 (1): 59–72. doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2008.07.002.
  24. ↑ Uebelacker LA, Epstein-Lubow G, Gaudiano BA, Tremont G, Battle CL, Miller IW (January 2010). "Hatha yoga for depression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research". J Psychiatr Pract 16 (1): 22–33. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.96. PMID 20098228.
  25. ↑ Forbes D, Thiessen EJ, Blake CM, Forbes SC, Forbes S (2013). "Exercise programs for people with dementia". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review) 12: CD006489. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006489.pub3. PMID 24302466.
  26. ↑ Chou R, Huffman LH (October 2007). "Nonpharmacologic therapies for acute and chronic low back pain: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society/American College of Physicians clinical practice guideline". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (7): 492–504. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-147-7-200710020-00007. PMID 17909210.
  27. ↑ Evaluation of the effectiveness and efficacy of Iyengar Yoga therapy on chronic low back pain.
  28. ↑ Wang J, Xiong X, Liu W (2013). "Yoga for essential hypertension: a systematic review". PLoS ONE 8 (10): e76357. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076357. PMC 3790704. PMID 24124549.
  29. ↑ Smith, K. B.; Pukall, C. F. (May 2009). "An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention for patients with cancer". Psycho-oncology 18 (5): 465–475. doi:10.1002/pon.1411. PMID 18821529.
  30. ↑ Ramaratnam, S.; Sridharan, K. (2000). "Yoga for epilepsy". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) (3): CD001524. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001524. PMID 10908505.
  31. ↑ Lee, M. S.; Kim, J. I.; Ha, J. Y.; Boddy, K.; Ernst, E. (2009). "Yoga for menopausal symptoms: a systematic review". Menopause (New York, N.Y.) 16 (3): 602–608. doi:10.1097/gme.0b013e31818ffe39. PMID 19169169.
  32. ↑ Birdee, G. S.; Yeh, G. Y.; Wayne, P. M.; Phillips, R. S.; Davis, R. B.; Gardiner, P. (2009). "Clinical applications of yoga for the pediatric population: a systematic review". Academic Pediatrics 9 (4): 212–220.e1–9. doi:10.1016/j.acap.2009.04.002. PMC 2844096. PMID 19608122.
  33. ↑ Cramer H, Lauche R, Langhorst J, Dobos G (November 2013). "Yoga for rheumatic diseases: a systematic review". Rheumatology (Oxford) 52 (11): 2025–30. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/ket264. PMID 23934220.
  34. ↑ Cramer H, Krucoff C, Dobos G (2013). "Adverse events associated with yoga: a systematic review of published case reports and case series". PLoS ONE 8 (10): e75515. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075515. PMC 3797727. PMID 24146758.
  35. ↑ Distasio S (2008). "Integrating Yoga into Cancer Care". Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing 12 (1): 125–130. doi:10.1188/08.CJON. PMID 18258582.
  36. ↑ Caso V, Paciaroni M, Bogousslavsky J (2005). "Environmental factors and cervical artery dissection". Front Neurol Neurosci 20: 44–53. doi:10.1159/000088134. PMID 17290110.
  37. ↑ Penman S, Cohen M, Stevens P, Jackson S (July 2012). "Yoga in Australia: Results of a national survey". Int J Yoga 5 (2): 92–101. doi:10.4103/0973-6131.98217. PMC 3410203. PMID 22869991.
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