Buddhas of Bamiyan

Coordinates: 34°49′55.35″N 67°49′36.49″E / 34.8320417°N 67.8268028°E / 34.8320417; 67.8268028

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Cultural Landscape and Archeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley
Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List

The taller of the two Buddhas of Bamiyan in 1976
Type Cultural
Criteria i, ii, iii, iv, vi.
Reference 208
UNESCO region Asia-Pacific
Inscription history
Inscription 2003 (27th Session)
Endangered 2003–present

The Buddhas of Bamiyan (Persian: بت های باميان – bothā-ye Bāmiyān) were two 6th-century[1] monumental statues of standing buddha carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamyan valley in the Hazarajat region of central Afghanistan, 230 km (140 mi) northwest of Kabul at an altitude of 2,500 meters (8,200 feet). Built in 507 AD (smaller) and 554 AD (larger),[1] the statues represented the classic blended style of Gandhara art.[2]

The main bodies were hewn directly from the sandstone cliffs, but details were modeled in mud mixed with straw, coated with stucco. This coating, practically all of which wore away long ago, was painted to enhance the expressions of the faces, hands, and folds of the robes; the larger one was painted carmine red and the smaller one was painted multiple colors.[3]

The lower parts of the statues' arms were constructed from the same mud-straw mix while supported on wooden armatures. It is believed that the upper parts of their faces were made from great wooden masks or casts. Rows of holes that can be seen in photographs were spaces that held wooden pegs that stabilized the outer stucco.

They were dynamited and destroyed in March 2001 by the Taliban, on orders from leader Mullah Mohammed Omar,[4] after the Taliban government declared that they were idols.[5] An envoy visiting the United States in the following weeks explained that they were destroyed to protest international aid exclusively reserved for statue maintenance while Afghanistan was experiencing famine,[6] while the Afghan Foreign Minister claimed that the destruction was merely about carrying out Islamic religious iconoclasm. International opinion strongly condemned the destruction of the Buddhas, which in the following years was primarily viewed as an example of the extreme religious intolerance of the Taliban. Japan and Switzerland, among others, have pledged support for the rebuilding of the statues.[7]

History

Further information: Buddhism in Afghanistan
Drawing of the Buddhas of Bamiyan by Alexander Burnes 1832

Bamiyan lies on the Silk Road, which runs through the Hindu Kush mountain region, in the Bamiyan Valley. The Silk Road has been historically a caravan route linking the markets of China with those of the Western world. It was the site of several Buddhist monasteries, and a thriving center for religion, philosophy, and art. Monks at the monasteries lived as hermits in small caves carved into the side of the Bamiyan cliffs. Most of these monks embellished their caves with religious statuary and elaborate, brightly colored frescoes. It was a Buddhist religious site from the 2nd century up to the time of the Islamic invasion in the later half of the 7th century. Until it was completely conquered by the Muslim Saffarids in the 9th century, Bamiyan shared the culture of Gandhara.

Taller Buddha in 1963 and in 2008 after destruction

The two most prominent statues were the giant standing Buddhas Vairocana and Sakyamuni, identified by the different mudras performed. The Buddha popularly called "Solsol" measured 53 meters tall, and "Shahmama" 35 meters—the niches in which the figures stood are 58 and 38 meters respectively from bottom to top.[8][9] Before being blown up in 2001 they were the largest examples of standing Buddha carvings in the world (the 8th century Leshan Giant Buddha is taller,[10] but that statue is sitting). Since then the Spring Temple Buddha has been built in China, and at 128 m (420 ft) it is the tallest statue in the world. Plans for the construction of the Spring Temple Buddha were announced soon after the blowing up of the Bamiyan Buddhas and China condemned the systematic destruction of the Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan.

Smaller Buddha in 1977

The smaller of the statues was built between 544 and 595, the larger was built between 591 and 644.[11] The larger figure was also said to portray Dīpankara Buddha. They were perhaps the most famous cultural landmarks of the region, and the site was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the surrounding cultural landscape and archaeological remains of the Bamiyan Valley. Their color faded through time.[12]

Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang visited the site on 30 April 630 AD,[13][14][15] and described Bamiyan in the Da Tang Xiyu Ji as a flourishing Buddhist center "with more than ten monasteries and more than a thousand monks". He also noted that both Buddha figures were "decorated with gold and fine jewels" (Wriggins, 1995). Intriguingly, Xuanzang mentions a third, even larger, reclining statue of the Buddha.[3][15] A monumental seated Buddha, similar in style to those at Bamiyan, still exists in the Bingling Temple caves in China's Gansu province.

The destruction of the Bamyan Buddhas became a symbol of oppression and a rallying point for the freedom of religious expression. Despite the fact that most Afghans are now Muslim, they too had embraced their past and many were appalled by the destruction.[16][17]

Attacks on the Buddha's statue

11th to the 20th century

In 1221 with the advent of Genghis Khan "a terrible disaster befell Bamiyan",[18][19] nevertheless, the statues were spared. Later, the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, tried to use heavy artillery to destroy the statues. Another attempt to destroy the Bamiyan statues was made by the 18th century Persian king Nader Afshar, directing cannon fire at them.[20]

The enormous statues, the male Salsal ("light shines through the universe") and the (smaller) female Shamama ("Queen Mother"),[21] as they were called by the locals, did not fail to fire the imagination of Islamic writers in centuries past. The larger statue reappears as the malevolent giant Salsal in medieval Turkish tales.[22]

Afghan king Abdur Rahman Khan destroyed its face during a military campaign against the Shia Hazara rebellion.[23] A Frenchman named Dureau had pictured it in 1847.[24]

Preface to 2001, under the Taliban

Abdul Wahed, a Taliban commander operating in the area, announced his intention to blow up the Buddhas in 1997 even before he had taken control of the valley. Once he was in control of Bamiyan in 1998, Wahed drilled holes in the Buddhas' heads for explosives. He was prevented from taking further action by the local governor and direct order of Mohammed Omar, although tyres were burnt on the head of the great Buddha.[25] In July 1999, Mullah Mohammed Omar issued a decree in favor of the preservation of the Bamiyan Buddha statues. Because Afghanistan's Buddhist population no longer exists, so the statues are no longer worshipped, he added: "The government considers the Bamiyan statues as an example of a potential major source of income for Afghanistan from international visitors. The Taliban states that Bamiyan shall not be destroyed but protected."[26] In early 2000, local Taliban authorities asked for UN assistance to rebuild drainage ditches around tops of the alcoves where the Buddhas were set.[27]

However, Afghanistan's radical clerics began a campaign to crack down on "un-Islamic" segments of Afghan society. The Taliban soon banned all forms of imagery, music, and sports, including television, in accordance with what they considered a strict interpretation of Sharia.[28]

In March 2001, the statues were destroyed by the Taliban of Mullah Omar following a decree issued by him. The Taliban supreme leader Mullah Omar explained why he ordered the statues to be destroyed in an interview:

I did not want to destroy the Bamiyan Buddha. In fact, some foreigners came to me and said they would like to conduct the repair work of the Bamiyan Buddha that had been slightly damaged due to rains. This shocked me. I thought, these callous people have no regard for thousands of living human beings -- the Afghans who are dying of hunger, but they are so concerned about non-living objects like the Buddha. This was extremely deplorable. That is why I ordered its destruction. Had they come for humanitarian work, I would have never ordered the Buddha's destruction.[29]

Information and Culture Minister Qadratullah Jamal told Associated Press of a decision by 400 religious clerics from across Afghanistan declaring the Buddhist statues against the tenets of Islam. "They came out with a consensus that the statues were against Islam," said Jamal.

According to UNESCO Director-General Koïchiro Matsuura, a meeting of ambassadors from the 54 member states of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) was conducted. All OIC states—including Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, three countries that officially recognised the Taliban government—joined the protest to spare the monuments.[30] Saudi Arabia and the UAE later condemned the destruction as "savage".[31] Although India never recognised the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, New Delhi offered to arrange for the transfer of all the artifacts in question to India, "where they would be kept safely and preserved for all mankind". These overtures were rejected by the Taliban.[32] Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf sent Moinuddin Haider to Kabul to try to prevent the destruction, by arguing that it was un-Islamic and unprecedented.[33] According to Taliban minister, Abdul Salam Zaeef, UNESCO sent the Taliban government 36 letters objecting to the proposed destruction. He asserted that the Chinese, Japanese, and Sri Lankan delegates were the most strident advocates for preserving the Buddhas. The Japanese in particular proposed a variety of different solutions to the issue, these included moving the statues to Japan, covering the statues from view, and the payment of money.[34][35]

A statement issued by the ministry of religious affairs of the Taliban regime justified the destruction as being in accordance with Islamic law.[36] Abdul Salam Zaeef held that the destruction of the Buddhas was finally ordered by Abdul Wali, the Minister for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice.[37]

Dynamiting and destruction, March 2001

Destruction of the site by the Taliban
Site of the larger statue after it was destroyed
Site of the smaller statue in 2005

The statues were destroyed by dynamite over several weeks, starting on 2 March 2001,[38] carried out in stages. Initially, the statues were fired at for several days using anti-aircraft guns and artillery. This caused severe damage, but did not obliterate them. During the destruction, Taliban Information Minister Qudratullah Jamal lamented that, "this work of destruction is not as simple as people might think. You can't knock down the statues by shelling as both are carved into a cliff; they are firmly attached to the mountain".[39] Later, the Taliban placed anti-tank mines at the bottom of the niches, so that when fragments of rock broke off from artillery fire, the statues would receive additional destruction from particles that set off the mines. In the end, the Taliban lowered men down the cliff face and placed explosives into holes in the Buddhas.[40] After one of the explosions failed to completely obliterate the face of one of the Buddhas, a rocket was launched that left a hole in the remains of the stone head.[41]

On 6 March 2001 The Times quoted Mullah Mohammed Omar as stating, "Muslims should be proud of smashing idols. It has given praise to Allah that we have destroyed them."[42] During a 13 March interview for Japan's Mainichi Shimbun, Afghan Foreign Minister Wakil Ahmad Mutawakel stated that the destruction was anything but a retaliation against the international community for economic sanctions: "We are destroying the statues in accordance with Islamic law and it is purely a religious issue."

On 18 March, The New York Times reported that a Taliban envoy said the Islamic government made its decision in a rage after a foreign delegation offered money to preserve the ancient works. The report also added, however, that other reports "have said the religious leaders were debating the move for months, and ultimately decided that the statues were idolatrous and should be obliterated".[43]

Then Taliban ambassador-at-large Sayed Rahmatullah Hashemi said that the destruction of the statues was carried out by the Head Council of Scholars after a Swedish monuments expert proposed to restore the statues' heads. Hashimi is reported as saying: "When the Afghan head council asked them to provide the money to feed the children instead of fixing the statues, they refused and said, 'No, the money is just for the statues, not for the children'. Herein, they made the decision to destroy the statues"; however, he did not comment on the claim that a foreign museum offered to "buy the Buddhist statues, the money from which could have been used to feed children".[44]

The destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas despite protests from the international community has been described by Michael Falser, a heritage expert at the Center for Transcultural Studies in Germany, as an attack by the Taliban against the globalising concept of "cultural heritage".[45] The director general of the U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Koichiro Matsuura called the destruction a "...crime against culture. It is abominable to witness the cold and calculated destruction of cultural properties which were the heritage of the Afghan people, and, indeed, of the whole of humanity."[46]

Commitment to rebuild

Though the figures of the two large Buddhas are almost completely destroyed, their outlines and some features are still recognizable within the recesses. It is also still possible for visitors to explore the monks' caves and passages that connect them. As part of the international effort to rebuild Afghanistan after the Taliban war, the Government of Japan and several other organizations—among them the Afghanistan Institute in Bubendorf, Switzerland, along with the ETH in Zurich—have committed to rebuilding, perhaps by anastylosis, the two larger Buddhas.

Developments since 2002

In May 2002, a sculpture of the Buddha was carved out of a mountain in Sri Lanka. It was designed to closely resemble one of the Buddhas of Bamiyan.

In September 2005, Mawlawi Mohammed Islam Mohammadi, Taliban governor of Bamiyan province at the time of the destruction and widely seen as responsible for its occurrence, was elected to the Afghan Parliament. On 26 January 2007, he was assassinated in Kabul.

Swiss filmmaker Christian Frei made a 95-minute documentary titled The Giant Buddhas (released in March 2006) on the statues, the international reactions to their destruction, and an overview of the controversy. Testimony by local Afghans validates that Osama Bin Laden ordered the destruction and that, initially, Mullah Omar and the Afghans in Bamiyan opposed it.[47]

Since 2002, international funding has supported recovery and stabilization efforts at the site. Fragments of the statues are documented and stored with special attention given to securing the structure of the statue still in place. It is hoped that, in the future, partial anastylosis can be conducted with the remaining fragments. In 2009, ICOMOS constructed scaffolding within the niche to further conservation and stabilization. Nonetheless, several serious conservation and safety issues exist and the Buddhas are still listed as World Heritage in Danger.[48]

In the summer of 2006, Afghan officials were deciding on the timetable for the re-construction of the statues. As they wait for the Afghan government and international community to decide when to rebuild them, a $1.3 million UNESCO-funded project is sorting out the chunks of clay and plaster—ranging from boulders weighing several tons to fragments the size of tennis balls—and sheltering them from the elements.

The Buddhist remnants at Bamiyan were included on the 2008 World Monuments Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites by the World Monuments Fund.

Discoveries

Grotto painting in 2008

After the destruction of the Buddhas, 50 caves were revealed. In 12 of the caves, wall paintings were discovered.[49] In December 2004, an international team of researchers stated the wall paintings at Bamiyan were painted between the 5th and the 9th centuries, rather than the 6th to 8th centuries, citing their analysis of radioactive isotopes contained in straw fibers found beneath the paintings. It is believed that the paintings were done by artists travelling on the Silk Road, the trade route between China and the West.[50]

Scientists from the Tokyo Research Institute for Cultural Properties in Japan, the Centre of Research and Restoration of the French Museums (CNRS) in France, the Getty Conservation Institute in the United States, and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, analysed samples from the paintings,[51] typically less than 1 mm across.[52] They discovered that the paint contained pigments such as vermilion (red mercury sulfide) and lead white (lead carbonate). These were mixed with a range of binders, including natural resins, gums (possibly animal skin glue or egg),[52] and oils, probably derived from walnuts or poppies.[50] Specifically, researchers identified drying oils from murals showing Buddhas in vermilion robes sitting cross-legged amid palm leaves and mythical creatures as being painted in the middle of the 7th century.[49] It is believed that they are the oldest known surviving examples of oil painting, possibly predating oil painting in Europe by as much as six centuries.[50] The discovery may lead to a reassessment of works in ancient ruins in Iran, China, Pakistan, Turkey, and India.[50]

Initial suspicion that the oils might be attributable to contamination from fingers, as the touching of the painting is encouraged in Buddhist tradition,[52] was dispelled by spectroscopy and chromatography giving an unambiguous signal for the intentional use of drying oils rather than contaminants.[52] Oils were discovered underneath layers of paint, unlike surface contaminants.[52]

Scientists also found the translation of the beginning section of the original Sanskrit Pratītyasamutpāda Sutra translated by Xuanzang that spelled out the basic belief of Buddhism and said all things are transient.[53]

Another giant statue unearthed

On 8 September 2008 archaeologists searching for a legendary 300-metre statue at the site of the already dynamited Buddhas announced the discovery of parts of an unknown 19-metre (62-foot) reclining Buddha, a pose representing Buddha's Parinirvana.[54]

Restoration

The UNESCO Expert Working Group on Afghan cultural projects convened to discuss what to do about the two statues between 3–4 March 2011 in Paris. Researcher Erwin Emmerling of Technical University Munich announced he believed it would be possible to restore the smaller statue using an organic silicon compound.[11] The Paris conference issued a list of 39 recommendations for the safeguarding of the Bamiyan site. These included leaving the larger Western niche empty as a monument to the destruction of the Buddhas, a feasibility study into the rebuilding of the Eastern Buddha, and the construction of a central museum and several smaller site museums.[55] Work has since begun on restoring the Buddhas using the process of anastylosis, where original elements are combined with modern material. It is estimated that roughly half the pieces of the Buddhas can be put back together according to Bert Praxenthaler, a German art historian and sculptor involved in the restoration. The restoration of the caves and Buddhas has also involved training and employing local people as stone carvers.[56] The project, which also aims to encourage tourism to the area, is being organised by UNESCO and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS).

The work has come under some criticism. It is felt by some, such as human rights activist Abdullah Hamadi, that the empty niches should be left as monuments to the fanaticism of the Taliban, while NPR reported that others believe the money could be better spent on housing and electricity for the region.[57] Some people, including Habiba Sarabi, the provincial governor, believe that rebuilding the Buddhas would increase tourism which would aid the surrounding communities.[57]

Rise of Buddhas with 3D light projection

After fourteen years, on 7 June 2015, a Chinese adventurist couple Xinyu Zhang and Hong Liang filled the empty cavities where the Buddhas once stood with 3D laser light projection technology. The projector used for the installation, worth approximately $120,000, was donated by Xinyu and Hong, who were saddened by the destruction of the statues. With the desire of paying tribute, they requested permission from UNESCO and the Afghan government to do the project. About 150 local people came out to see the unveiling of the holographic statues on Sunday, 7 June 2015.[58][59]

Destruction of Buddhist relics in Pakistan

Swat Valley in Pakistan has many Buddhist carvings, stupas and Jehanabad contains a Seated Buddha status.[60] Kushan era Buddhist stupas and status in Swat valley were demolished by the Taliban and after two attempts by the Taliban, the Jehanabad Buddha's face was dynamited.[61][62][63] Only the Bamiyan Buddhas were larger than the carved giant Buddha status in Swat near Mangalore which the Taliban attacked.[64] The government did nothing to safeguard the statue after the initial attempt at destroying the Buddha, which did not cause permanent harm, and when the second attack took place on the statue the feet, shoulders, and face were demolished.[65] Islamists such as the Taliban and looters destroyed much of Pakistan's Buddhist artifacts left over from the Buddhist Gandhara civilization especially in Swat Valley.[66] The Taliban deliberately targeted Gandhara Buddhist relics for destruction.[67] The Christian Archbishop of Lahore, Lawrence John Saldanha, wrote a letter to Pakistan's government denouncing the Taliban activities in Swat Valley including their destruction of Buddha statues and their attacks on Christians, Sikhs and Hindus.[68] Gandhara Buddhist artifacts were illegally looted by smugglers.[69]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Gall, Carlotta (5 December 2006). "Afghans consider rebuilding Bamiyan Buddhas". International Herald Tribune/The New York Times. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
  2. ↑ Morgan, Kenneth W. The Path of the Buddha. Pg.43 (Google Books). Retrieved 2 June 2009.
  3. 1 2 Gall, Carlotta (6 December 2006). "From Ruins of Afghan Buddhas, a History Grows". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
  4. ↑ Bamiyan Valley
  5. ↑ "Why the Taliban are destroying Buddhas". Usatoday.com. 22 March 2001. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  6. ↑ "Taliban Explains Buddha Demolition". The New York Times.
  7. ↑ Waduge, Shenali (14 March 2008). "Afghans destroy Buddhas, but cry foul over cartoons". The Nation. Retrieved 29 April 2008.
  8. ↑ Research of state and stability of the rock niches of the Buddhas of Bamiyan in "Completed Research Results of Military University of Munich"
  9. ↑ "Computer Reconstruction and Modeling of the Great Buddha Statue in Bamiyan, Afghanistan" (PDF). Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  10. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Mount Emei Scenic Area, including Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  11. 1 2 Researchers Say They Can Restore 1 of Destroyed Bamiyan Buddhas. AOL News, 1 March 2011.
  12. ↑ "Bamiyan Buddhas Once Glowed in Red, White and Blue". Sciencedaily.com. 25 February 2011. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  13. ↑ Yamada, Meiji (2002). Buddhism of Bamiyan, Pacific World, 3rd series 4, 109-110
  14. ↑ "Bamiyan and Buddhist Afghanistan". Depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  15. 1 2 "Xuan Zang and the Third Buddha". Laputanlogic.com. 9 March 2007. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  16. ↑ "Buddhas of Bamiyan". Hazaristantimes.wordpress.com. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  17. ↑ TIM MCGIRK/Bamiyan (20 May 2002). "What Lies Beneath". Time.com. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  18. ↑ "Bamiyan and Buddhism Afghanistan". Depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  19. ↑ "Remembering Bamiyan". Kashgar.com.au. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  20. ↑ Asian Art, chap. "History of attacks on the Buddhas"
  21. ↑ "booklet web E.indd" (PDF). Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  22. ↑ Laban Kaptein, Eindtijd en Antichrist, p. 127. Leiden 1997. ISBN 90-73782-89-9
  23. ↑ "Ancient Buddhas Will Not Be Rebuilt – UNESCO". Ipsnews.net. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  24. ↑ Photogrammetric Reconstruction of the Great Buddha of Bamiyan
  25. ↑ Semple, Michael Why the Buddhas of Bamian were destroyed, Afghanistan Analysts Network 2 March 2011
  26. ↑ Harding, Luke (3 March 2001). "How the Buddha got his wounds". London: The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 February 2006. Retrieved 23 March 2008.
  27. ↑ Semple, Michael Why the Buddhas of Bamian were destroyed, Afghanistan Analysts Network 2 March 2011
  28. ↑ Vawda, Moulana Imraan. "The Destruction of Statues Displayed in an Islamic State". Ask-Imam.com. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
  29. ↑ Mohammad Shehzad (3 March 2001). "The Rediff Interview/Mullah Omar". The Rediff (Kabul). Retrieved 27 October 2010.
  30. ↑ "World appeals to Taliban to stop destroying statues". CNN. 3 March 2001. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
  31. ↑ Bearak, Barry (4 March 2001). "Over World Protests, Taliban Are Destroying Ancient Buddhas". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
  32. ↑ "General Assembly "Appalled" By Edict On Destruction of Afghan Shrines; Strongly Urges Taliban To Halt Implementation". Un.org. 2 January 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  33. ↑ Zaeef, Abdul Salam, My Life with the Taliban eds Alex Strick van Linschoten and Felix Kuehn, p.120, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, ISBN 1-84904-026-5
  34. ↑ Abdul Salam Zaeef (7 January 2011). My Life with the Taliban. Oxford University Press. pp. 127–. ISBN 978-1-84904-152-2.
  35. ↑ "Japan offered to hide Bamiyan statues, but Taliban asked Japan to convert to Islam instead". JAPANTODAY. 27 February 2010.
  36. ↑ "Destruction of Giant Buddhas Confirmed". AFP. 12 March 2001. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
  37. ↑ Zaeef p.126
  38. ↑ "Taliban destroy ancient Buddhist relics – International pleas ignored by Afghanistan's Islamic fundamentalist leaders" Archived 6 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  39. ↑ Photos document destruction of Afghan Buddhas at the Wayback Machine (archived 13 March 2007)
  40. ↑ "Destruction and Rebuilding of the Bamyan Buddhas". Slate Magazine.
  41. ↑ Bergen, Peter. "The Osama bin Laden I Know", 2006. p. 271
  42. ↑ Markos Moulitsas Zúniga (2010). American Taliban: How War, Sex, Sin, and Power Bind Jihadists and the Radical Right. Polipoint Press. ISBN 1-936227-02-9.
  43. ↑ Crossette, Barbara (19 March 2001). "Taliban Explains Buddha Demolition". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 April 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
  44. ↑ Kassaimah, Sahar (12 January 2001). "Afghani Ambassador Speaks At USC". IslamOnline. Archived from the original on 8 October 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
  45. ↑ Falser, Michael. "The Bamiyan Buddhas, performative iconoclasm and the 'image' of heritage". In: Giometti, Simone; Tomaszewski, Andrzej (eds.): The Image of Heritage. Changing Perception, Permanent Responsibilities. Proceedings of the International Conference of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee for the Theory and the Philosophy of Conservation and Restoration. 6–8 March 2009 Florence, Italy. Firenze 2011: 157-169.
  46. ↑ U.N. Confirms Destruction of Afghan Buddhas, 12 March 2001, ABC News.
  47. ↑ "Laden ordered Bamyan Buddha destruction". The Times of India. 28 March 2006. Archived from the original on 6 May 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
  48. ↑ Petzet, Michael (2010). "Safeguarding the Buddhas of Bamiyan". In Christoph Machat, Michael Petzet and John Ziesemer (Eds.), "Heritage at Risk: ICOMOS World Report 2008-2010 on Monuments and Sites in Danger" (PDF).. Berlin: hendrik Bäßler verlag, 2010.
  49. 1 2 "Scientitsts discover first-ever oil paintings in Afghanistan". Earthtimes.org. Retrieved 24 April 2008.
  50. 1 2 3 4 Highfield, Roger (22 April 2008). "Oil painting invented in Asia, not Europe". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 24 April 2008. However, the press release picked up by media, clearly misdates the earliest uses of oil paint in Europe, which is fully described in a treatise by Theophilus Presbyter of 1100-1120, and may date back to the Ancient Romans. See: Rutherford John Gettens, George Leslie Stout, 1966, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-21597-0 Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopedia (online text), p. 42
  51. ↑ "Ancient Buddhist Paintings From Bamyan Were Made Of Oil, Hundreds Of Years Before Technique Was 'Invented' In Europe". Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 24 April 2008.
  52. 1 2 3 4 5 "Ancient Buddhas painted in oils". nature.com. Retrieved 24 April 2008.
  53. ↑ "Secret sutra found in rubble of Bamiyan Buddha". Buddhistchannel.tv. 12 November 2006. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  54. ↑ New Bamiyan Buddha find amid destruction, AFP, 8 November 2008.
  55. ↑ Expert Working Group releases recommendations for Safeguarding Bamiyan 27 April 2011
  56. ↑ Graham-Harison, Emma (16 May 2012)Stone carvers defy Taliban to return to the Bamiyan valley The Guardian
  57. 1 2 Kakissis, Joanna (27 July 2011). "Bit By Bit, Afghanistan Rebuilds Buddhist Statues". National Public Radio. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  58. ↑ Mary-Ann Russon (12 June 2015). "Afghanistan: Buddhas of Bamiyan resurrected as laser projections". International Business Times. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
  59. ↑ PAULA MEJIA (15 June 2015). "Afghanistan Buddha Statues Destroyed by Taliban Reimagined as Holograms". News Week. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
  60. ↑ http://factsanddetails.com/asian/cat62/sub406/item2566.html
  61. ↑ Malala Yousafzai (8 October 2013). I Am Malala: The Girl Who Stood Up for Education and Was Shot by the Taliban. Little, Brown. pp. 123–124. ISBN 978-0-316-32241-6.
  62. ↑ Wijewardena, W.A. (17 February 2014). "‘I am Malala’: But then, we all are Malalas, aren’t we?". Daily FT.
  63. ↑ Wijewardena, W.A (17 February 2014). "‘I am Malala’: But Then, We All Are Malalas, Aren’t We?". Colombo Telegraph.
  64. ↑ "Attack on giant Pakistan Buddha". BBC NEWS. 12 September 2007.
  65. ↑ "Another attack on the giant Buddha of Swat". AsiaNews.it. 10 November 2007.
  66. ↑ "Taliban and traffickers destroying Pakistan's Buddhist heritage". AsiaNews.it. 22 October 2012.
  67. ↑ "Taliban trying to destroy Buddhist art from the Gandhara period". AsiaNews.it. 27 November 2009.
  68. ↑ Felix, Qaiser (21 April 2009). "Archbishop of Lahore: Sharia in the Swat Valley is contrary to Pakistan's founding principles". AsiaNews.it.
  69. ↑ Rizvi, Jaffer (6 July 2012). "Pakistan police foil huge artefact smuggling attempt". BBC News.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Buddhas of Bamiyan.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Tuesday, March 29, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.