China–Pakistan Economic Corridor

China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
System information
Length: 2,442 km (1,517 mi)

The China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) (Chinese: 中国-巴基斯坦经济走廊; Urdu: پاكستان چین اقتصادی راہداری‎) is a collection of projects currently under construction at a cost of $46 billion[1] which is intended to rapidly expand and upgrade Pakistani infrastructure, as well as deepen and broaden economic links between Pakistan and the People's Republic of China.[2] The corridor is considered to be an extension of China's ambitious proposed 21st century Silk Road initiative,[3] and is considered central to China–Pakistan relations.

While economic opportunities and development will largely benefit Pakistan, CPEC's importance to China's geopolitical and economic goals is reflected by the inclusion of the project as part of China's 13th five-year development plan.[4][5] Should all the planned projects be implemented, the value of those projects would be equal to all foreign direct investment in Pakistan since 1970,[6] and would be equivalent to 17% of Pakistan's 2015 gross domestic product.[7] Pakistan estimates the corridor project will create some 700,000 direct jobs between 2015–2030 and add up to 2.5 percentage points to the country's growth rate.[8]

Infrastructure projects under the aegis of CPEC will span the length and breadth of Pakistan, and will eventually link the Pakistani city of Gwadar in southwestern to China's northwestern autonomous region of Xinjiang via a vast network of highways and railways.[9] Proposed infrastructure projects are worth approximately $11 billion, and will be financed by heavily-subsidized concessionary loans at an average interest rate of 1.6% that will be dispersed to the Government of Pakistan by the Exim Bank of China, China Development Bank, and the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China.[10]

As part of infrastructure projects worth approximately $11 billion, an 1,100 kilometre long motorway will be constructed between the cities of Karachi and Lahore,[11] while the Karakoram Highway between Rawalpindi and the Chinese border will be completely reconstructed and overhauled.[6] The Karachi–Peshawar main railway line will also be upgraded to allow for train travel at up to 160 kilometres per hour by December 2019.[12][13] Pakistan's railway network will also be extended to eventually connect to China's Southern Xinjiang Railway in Kashgar.[14] A network of pipelines to transport liquefied natural gas and oil will also be laid as part of the project, including a $2.5 billion pipeline between Gwadar and Nawabshah to eventually transport gas from Iran.[15]

Over $33 billion worth of energy infrastructure will be constructed by private consortia to help alleviate Pakistan's chronic energy shortages,[16] which regularly amount to over 4,500MW,[17] and have shed an estimated 2-2.5% off Pakistan's annual GDP.[18] With approximately $33 billion expected to be invested in energy sector projects, power generation assumes an important role in the CPEC project.[16] Over 10,400MW of energy generating capacity is to be developed between 2018 and 2020 as part of the corridor's fast-tracked "Early Harvest" projects in conjunction with four projects under construction prior to the announcement of CPEC.[19]

Background

External video
China Reaches Out to Pakistan With Massive Economic Plan.

Plans for a corridor stretching from the Chinese border to Pakistan's deep water ports on the Arabian Sea date back to the 1950s, and motivated construction of the Karakoram Highway beginning in 1959.[20] Chinese interest in Pakistan's deep-water harbour at Gwadar had been rekindled by 2000, and in 2002 China began construction at Gwadar port which was completed in 2006. Expansion of Gwadar Port then ceased thereafter owing to political instability in Pakistan following the fall of General Pervez Musharraf and subsequent conflict between the Pakistani state and Islamist militants.[21]

The current form of the project was first proposed by Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang and Nawaz Sharif with all stakeholders on 22 May 2013 in President House, Islamabad,[22]

In February 2014, Pakistani President Mamnoon Hussain visited China to discuss the plans for an economic corridor in Pakistan.[23] Two months later, Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif met with Premier Li Kequiang in China to discuss further plans,[24] resulting in the full scope of the project to be devised under Sharif's tenure.[25] In November 2014, Chinese government announced its intention to finance Chinese companies as part of its $45.6 billion energy and infrastructure projects in Pakistan as part of CPEC.

During the state visit of Xi Jinping to Pakistan in April 2015, he wrote in an open editorial stating: "This will be my first trip to Pakistan, but I feel as if I am going to visit the home of my own brother." On 20 April 2015, Pakistan and China signed an agreement to commence work on the $46 billion agreement, which is roughly 20% of Pakistan's annual GDP,[26] with approximately $28 billion worth of fast-tracked "Early Harvest" projects to be developed by the end of 2018.[27] As a gesture of friendship, the Pakistani capital at that time was dotted with slogans and signboards such as "Pakistan-China friendship is higher than the mountains, deeper than the oceans, sweeter than honey, and stronger than steel"[28] – an oft repeated phrase coined by the Chinese to describe their deep ties to Pakistan.

On 12 August 2015 in the city of Karamay, China and Pakistan signed 20 more agreements worth $1.6 billion to further augment the scale and scope of CPEC.[29] Details of the plan are opaque,[30] but are said to mainly focus on increasing energy generation capacity.[31] as part of the agreement, Pakistan and China have agreed to co-operate in the field of space research.[32]

In September and October 2015, the government of the United Kingdom announced two separate grants to the Government of Pakistan for construction of roadways that are complementary to CPEC.[33][34] In November 2015, China included the CPEC into its 13th five-year development plan,[35] while in December 2015, China and Pakistan agreed on a further $1.5 billion investment to set up an information and technology park as part of the CPEC project.[36] On 8 April 2016, during the visit of Xinjiang's Communist Party chief Zhang Chunxian companies from Xinjiang with their Pakistan counterparts signed $2 billion of additional agreements covering infrastructure, solar power and logistics.[37]

Projects in Gwadar Port and City

Gwadar Port has been partially operational since 2007.

Gwadar forms the crux of the CPEC project, as it is envisaged to be the link between China's ambitious One Belt, One Road project, and its Maritime Silk Road project.[38] In total, more than $1 billion worth of projects are to be developed around the port of Gwadar by December 2017.

Gwadar Port complex

Initial infrastructure works at Gwadar Port commenced in 2002 and were completed in 2007,[21] however plans to upgrade and expand Gwadar's port stalled. Under CPEC agreement, Gwadar Port will initially be expanded and upgraded to allow for docking of larger ships with deadweight tonnage of up to 70,000.[39] Improvement plans also include construction of a $130 million breakwater around the port,[40] as well as the construction of a floating liquefied natural gas facility that will have a capacity of 500 million cubic feet of liquified natural gas per day and will be connected to the Gwadar-Nawabshah segment of the Iran–Pakistan gas pipeline.[41]

The expanded port will be located near a 2,282 acre free trade area in Gwadar which is being modelled on the lines of the Special Economic Zones of China.[42] The swathe of land was handed to the China Overseas Port Holding Company in November 2015 as part of a 43-year lease.[43] The site will include manufacturing zones, logistics hubs, warehouses, and display centres.[44] Businesses located in the zone would be exempt from customs authorities as well as many provincial and federal taxes.[45] The project will be completed in three phases. By 2025, it is envisaged that manufacturing and processing industries will be developed, while further expansion of the zone is intended to be complete by 2030.[21] On 10 April 2016, talking toThe Washington Post, Zhang Baozhong, chairman of China Overseas Port Holding Company said that his company planned to spend $4.5 billion on roads, power, hotels and other infrastructure for the industrial zone, which he said would be open to non-Chinese companies. The company also plans to build an international airport and power plant for Gwadar.[8]

Projects in Gwadar city

China will grant Pakistan $230 million to construct a new international airport in Gwadar which is to be operational by December 2017.[46] The provincial government of Balochistan has set aside 4000 acres for the construction of the new $230 million Gwadar International Airport which will require an estimated 30 months for construction,[47] the costs of which are to be fully funded by grants from the Chinese government which Pakistan will not be obliged to repay.[48]

The city of Gwadar is further being developed by the construction of a 300MW coal power plant, a desalinisation plant, and a new 300 bed hospital.[49] Plans for Gwadar city also include construction of the East Bay Expressway – a 19 kilometre controlled-access road that will connect Gwadar Port to the Makran Coastal Highway.[50] These additional projects are estimated to cost $800 million, and are to be financed by 0% interest loans extended by the Exim Bank of China to Pakistan.[49]

In addition to the aforementioned infrastructure works, the Pakistani government announced in September 2015 its intention to establish a training institute named Pak-China Technical and Vocational Institute at Gwadar,[21] which is to be developed by the Gwadar Port Authority.[51] The institute is to be completed by March 2016 at the cost of 943 million rupees,[21] and is designed to impart to local residents the skills required to operate and work at the expanded Gwadar Port.[21]

Roadway infrastructure projects

The CPEC project envisages major upgrades and overhauls to Pakistan's transportation infrastructure. Under the CPEC project, China has announced financing for $10.63 billion worth of transportation infrastructure so far; $6.1 billion have been allocated for construction "Early Harvest" roadway projects at an interest rate of 1.6 percent.[52] The remainder of funds will be allocated when the Pakistani government awards contracts for construction of road segments which are still in the planning phase.

Karakoram Highway reconstruction

Highlighted in red is the route of National Highway 35, which is to be completely rebuilt and upgraded under the CPEC agreement. Highlighted in blue is the 175 kilometre road between Gilgit and Skardu which is to be upgraded to a 4-lane highway.
Main article: Karakoram Highway

The CPEC projects call for reconstruction and upgrade works on National Highway 35 (N-35). The N-35 forms the Pakistani portion of the Karakoram Highway, and spans the 887 kilometre long distance between the China-Pakistan border and the town of Burhan, near Hasan Abdal. At Burhan, the existing M1 motorway will intersect the N-35 at the Shah Maqsood Interchange. From there, access onwards to Islamabad and Lahore continues as part of the existing M1 and M2 motorways. Burhan will also be at intersection of the Eastern Alignment, and Western Alignment.

Upgrades to the 487 kilometer long section between Burhan and Raikot of the Karakoram Highway are officially referred to in Pakistan as the Karakoram Highway Phase 2 project. At the southern end of the N-35, works are already underway to construct a 59-kilometer-long, 4-lane controlled-access highway between Burhan and Havelian which upon completion will be officially referred to as the E-35 expressway.[53]

North of Havelian, the next 66 kilometres of road will be upgraded to a 4-lane dual carriageway between Havelian and Shinkiari,[54] Groundbreaking on this portion commenced in April 2016.[55]

The entire 354 kilometres of roadway north of Shinkiari and ending in Raikot, near Chilas will be constructed as a 2-lane highway.[56] Construction on the first section between between Shinkiari and Thakot commenced in April 2016 jointly with construction of the Havelian to Shinkiari 4-lane dual carriageway further south.[57] Construction on both these sections is expected to be completed with 42 months at a cost of approximately $1.26 billion with 90% of funding to come from China's EXIM bank in the form of low interest rate concessional loans.[58][59][60]

Between Thakot and Raikot spans an area in which the government of Pakistan is currently either planning or actively constructing several hydropower projects, most notably the Diamer-Bhasha Dam and Dasu Dam. Sections of the N-35 around these projects will be completely rebuilt in tandem with dam construction[61] In the interim, this section of the N-35 is currently being upgraded from its current state until dam construction commences in full force at a later date. Improvement projects on this section are expected to be completed by January 2017 at a cost of approximately $72 million.[62][63]

The next 335 kilometres of roadway connect Raikot to the China-Pakistan border. Reconstruction works on this section of roadway preceded the CPEC, and were initiated after severe damage to roadways in the area following the 2010 Pakistan floods. Most of this section of roadway was completed in September 2012 at a cost of $510 million,[64] and was severely dilapidated even prior to the 2010 flooding.[65]

In addition to flooding, a large earthquake rocked the region nearest to the China-Pakistan border in 2010, triggering massive landslides which dammed the Indus River, and resulted in the formation of the Attabad Lake. Portions of the N-35 were submerged in the lake, forcing all vehicular traffic onto barges to traverse the new reservoir. Construction on a 24 kilometre series of bridges and tunnels to Attabad Lake began in 2012 and required 36 months for completion. The bypass consists of 2 large bridges, 78 culverts and 5 kilometres worth of tunnels that were inaugurated for public use on 14 September 2015 at a cost of $275 million.[66][67]

The 175 kilometre road between Gilgit and Skardu will be upgraded to a 4-lane road at a cost of $475 million to provide direct access to Skardu from the N-35.[68][69]

Eastern Alignment

Main article: M-9 Super Highway

The Eastern Alignment of the CPEC refers to the parts of the corridor which were planned in 1991 under Pakistan Motorway. This route will provide link to both major ports of Pakistan Karachi and Gwader as well as Major Industrial cities Lahore, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Faisalabad, Sialkot, Gujranwala and Multan . Route will start from Burhan Interchange M1, will use already constructed Islamabad-Lahore Motorway M2,then Roadway infrastructure M5 to be completed as part CPEC what is known as the Karachi–Lahore Motorway. M 10 will link it to Industrial cities of Sialkot and Gujranwala. M3 & M4 will provide a short cut connect to Multan via Faisalabad. The M8 Motorway will eventually span the 892 kilometer distance between the city of Ratodero which is centre point of Karachi–Lahore Motorway and Gwadar. Ratodero will work as a Junction for roads to both major ports [70]

This term, refers to the stretch of motorway resulting from the combination of the M5 Motorway and the M9 Motorway that was first envisioned in 1991.[71] The 1,152 km long motorway will connect Pakistan's two largest cities by a 4 to 6-lane controlled access highway designed for travel speeds up to 120 kilometres per hour.[72] The entire project will cost approximately $6.6 billion, with the bulk of financing to be distributed by various Chinese state-owned banks.[73]

The entire Eastern Alignment project is divided into four sections: a 136 kilometre long section between Karachi and Hyderabad also known as the M9 Motorway, a 296 kilometre long section between Hyderabad and Sukkur, a 387 kilometre long section between Sukkur and Multan, and a 333 kilometre section between Multan and Lahore via the town of Abdul Hakeem.[74] Construction began on the Lahore to Multan section in November 2015.[75]

The first section of the project will provide high speed road access from the Port of Karachi to the city of Hyderabad and interior Sindh. Upgrade and construction works on this section currently known as Super Highway between Karachi and Hyderabad began in March 2015, and will convert the road into the 4-lane controlled access M9 Motorway which will be completed in an estimated 30 months, and form the first section of the Karachi-Lahore Motorway project.[76]

At the terminus of the M9 motorway in Hyderabad, the Karachi-Lahore Motorway will continue onwards from Hyderabad to Sukkur as a six lane controlled-access motorway that will be 296 kilometres long.[77] The planned cost for this project is $2.47 Billion,[77] and will provide high speed road access to interior Sindh- especially near the towns of Matiari, Nawabshah, and Khairpur. The project will require the construction of seven interchanges, and 25 bridges on the Indus river and various canals.[77] The planned route of the motorway runs roughly parallel to the existing two-lane National Highway and one-lane Indus Highway.

The 392 kilometre Sukkur to Multan section of the motorway is estimated to cost $2.89 billion,[72] and will be six lanes wide.[78] The Pakistani government in January 2016 awarded the contact to build this section to China State Construction Engineering.[72] Final approvals required for disbursement of funds were granted by the Government of the People's Republic of China in May 2016, and contractors began shifting to construction sites soon after the deal was announced as contracts had already been awarded to construction firms in January 2016.[79][72]90% of the project's cost is to be financed by concessionary loans from China, with the remaining 10% to be financed by the government of Pakistan.[80] Construction on this segment is expected to last 36 months.[72]

Construction on the first new-build portion of the Karachi Lahore Motorway project between Multan and Lahore costing approximately $1.5 billion[75] was launched in November 2015[81] as a joint venture between the China Railway Construction Corporation Limited and Pakistan's Zahir Khan and Brothers Engineers[82] The total length of this motorway section is 333 kilometres, however, the first 102 kilometres of the road between Khanewal and Abdul Hakeem is designed as part of the M4 Motorway, resulting in overlap of the M4 with the Karachi-Lahore Motorway along this section.[83] The portion of the Karachi-Lahore Motorway between Abdul Hakeem and Lahore will be 230 kilometres in length.[84]

Western Alignment

The Western Alignment routes in Balochistan province are indicated by the red line. The route consists of: N50 between Dera Ismail Khan and Kuchlak; the N25 between Kuchlak and Surab; the N85 between Surab and Hoshab, and the M8 between Hoshab and Gwadar.

The CPEC project envisages an expanded and upgraded road network in the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and western Punjab Province as part of the Western Alignment. The Western Alignment project will result in the upgrading of several hundred kilometre's worth of road into 2 and 4-lane divided highways by mid-2018, with land acquisition sufficient for upgrading parts of the road to a 6-lane motorway in the future.[85] In total, the CPEC project envisages re-construction of 870 kilometres of road in Balochistan province alone as part of the Western Alignment. Of those 870 kilometres of road, 620 kilometres have already been rebuilt as of January 2016.[86]

The Western Alignment roadway network will begin at the Barahma Bahtar Interchange on the M1 Motorway near the towns of Burhan and Hasan Abdal in northern Punjab province.[87] The newly reconstructed Karakoram Highway will connect to the Western Alignment at Burhan, from where a new 285 kilometre long 4-lane dual carriageway will be constructed until the town of Yarik, just north of Dera Ismail Khan.[88] The route will transverse the Sindh Sagar Doab region, and cross the Indus River at Mianwali before entering into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. It will consist of 11 interchanges, 74 culverts, and 3 major bridges spanning the Indus, Soan, and Kurram Rivers.[89] Total costs for the project are expected to be $1.05 billion.[90] Pakistan's Executive Committee of the National Economic Council approved construction of this section of roadway in April 2016,[91] and construction is expected to be completed within 36 months.[92]

At the southern terminus of the new Burhan-Yarik road, the N50 National Highway will also be upgraded between Dera Ismail Khan in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Zhob in neighbouring Balochistan province, with eventual reconstruction between Zhob and Quetta.[93] The upgraded roadway will consist of a 4 lane dual-carriageway spanning the 205 kilometre distance between the two cities.[94] The first portion of the N50 to be upgraded will be the 81 kilometre portion of the N50 between Zhob and Mughal Kot, with construction works having begun in January 2016.[95] Construction on this portion is expected to be completed by 2018 at a cost of $86 million,[96] While the project is consider a vital link in the CPEC's Western Alignment,[95] the project's cost will not be financed by Chinese state-owned banks, but will instead be financed by the Asian Development Bank under a 2014 agreement which preceded CPEC,[97][98] as well as by a grant provided by the United Kingdom's Department for International Development.[99]

Heading south from Quetta, the Western Alignment of the CPEC will continue to the town of Surab in central Balochistan as the N25 National Highway. From Surab, a 470 kilometre long route known as the N85 National Highway will connect central Balochistan with the town of Hoshab in southwestern Balochistan province near the city of Turbat. This portion of roadway between Surab and Hoshab is 51% complete as of January 2016,[100] and is expected to be completed in December 2016.[101]

Along the Western Alignment route, the towns of Hoshab and Gwadar are connected by a newly-built 193 kilometre long portion of the M8 Motorway – the Hoshab to Gwadar portion of the motorway was completed and inaugurated in February 2016 by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.[102] The Western Alignment will be flanked by special economic zones along its route,[103] with at least seven special economic zones planned to be established in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[85]

Other roadway projects associated with CPEC

The 184 kilometre long M-4 Motorway between Faisalabad and Multan does not fall under the scope of CPEC projects, but is nevertheless considered vital to the CPEC transportation project. It will instead be financed by the Asian Development Bank and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank,[104] and will be the first project jointly financed by those banks.[105] Further funding comes from an additional $90.7 million grant announced in October 2015 by the government of the United Kingdom towards the construction of portion of the M4 Motorway project.[106]

The Karakoram Highway south of the city of Mansehra will also be upgrade into a controlled-access highway to officially be known as the E-35 expressway. While it is considered to be a crucial part of the route between Gwadar and China, the E35 will not be financed by CPEC funds. The project will instead be financed by the Asian Development Bank[107] with a $121.6 million grant from the United Kingdom towards the project.[108] Once completed, the E35 Expressway, the M4 Motorway, and Karachi-Lahore Motorway will provide continuous high-speed road travel on controlled-access motorways from Mansehra to Karachi – 1,550 kilometres away.

Approximately halfway between Zhob and Quetta, the town of Qilla Saifullah in Balochistan lies at the intersection of the N50 National Highway and the N70 National Highway. The two roads form the 447 kilometre route between Quetta and Multan in southern Punjab. While the N70 project is not officially a part of CPEC, it will connect the CPEC's Western Alignment to the Karachi-Lahore Motorway at Multan. Reconstruction works on the 126 kilometre portion of the N70 between Qilla Saifullah and Wagum are slated for completion by 2018,[109] and are financed as part of a $195 million package by the Asian Development Bank,[98] and by a $72.4 million grant from the United Kingdom's Department for International Development.[110]

Long term plans for a "Central Alignment" of the CPEC comprise of a network of roads which will originate from Gwadar via Basima, Khuzdar, Sukkur, Rajanpur, Layyah, Muzaffargarh, Bhakkar, Mianwali, Attock and Burhan connected to Karakoram Highway.[111]

Railway infrastructure projects

Phase 1 of the ML-1 overhaul and reconstruction is highlighted black between Peshawar and Multan. Overhauling and reconstruction of the line will allow trains to travel at up to 160 kilometres per hour.
Phase 2 of the ML-1 overhaul between Multan and Hyderabad is marked in orange. Phase 3 of the project is indicated by the green line between Hyderabad and Karachi.

The CPEC project emphasises major upgrades to Pakistan's ageing railway system, including rebuilding of the entire Main Line 1 railway between Karachi and Peshawar by 2020;[112] this single railway currently handles 70% of Pakistan Railways traffic.[113] In addition to the Main Line 1 railway, upgrades and expansions are slated for the Main Line 2 railway, Main Line 3 railway. The CPEC plan also calls for completion of a rail link over the 4,693-meter high Khunjerab Pass. The railway will provide direct access for Chinese and East Asian goods to Pakistani seaports at Karachi and Gwadar by 2030.[113]

Procurement of an initial 250 new passenger coaches, and reconstruction of 21 train stations are also planned as part of the first phase of the project – bringing the total investment in Pakistan's railway system to approximately $5 billion by the end of 2019.[114] 180 of the coaches are to be built at the Pakistan Railways Carriage Factory near Islamabad,[115] while the Government of Pakistan intends to procure an additional 800 coaches at a later date, with the intention of building 595 of those coaches in Pakistan.[115]

Overhaul of Main Line 1 Railway

The CPEC "Early Harvest" plan includes a complete overhaul of the 1,687 kilometre long Main Line 1 railway (ML-1) between Karachi and Peshawar at an estimated cost of $3.65 billion.[52] with expected completion by December 2019.

Upgrading of the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km per hour speed currently possible on existing track,[116] and is expected to increase Pakistan Railways' annual revenues by approximately $480 million.[113][117] The upgrades are also expected to cut transit times from Karachi to Peshawar by half.[118]

The first phase of the expedited project will focus on upgrading the Multan to Peshawar section, which will then be followed by the Hyderabad to Multan section, and finally by the Hyderabad to Karachi section.[119]

At the time of CPEC's announcement, the ML-1 consisted of dual track railway between Karachi, and the Lahore suburb of Shahdara, interrupted by an approximately 90 kilometre long stretch of single track railway between Sahiwal and the city of Raiwind, south of Lahore. From Shahdara, the track mainly consisted of a single track until the ML-1 terminus in Peshawar. Construction works to upgrade the stretch of ML-1 between Sahiwal and Raiwind to a dual track railway were completed and inaugurated in January 2016, resulting in a fully dual track railway between Karachi and Shahdara.[120]

In addition to a complete overhaul of the Karachi to Shahdara railway, the remaining stretch of track between Shahdara and Peshawar is to upgraded to a dual track railway under CPEC.[121] A spur from Taxila to Havelian will also be constructed, with a dry port to be established near the city of Havelian.[122] Further, the entire length of track will have computerised signal systems, with stretches of track in urban areas to also be fenced off to prevent pedestrians and vehicles from crossing tracks in unauthorised areas.[123]

Overhaul of Main Line 2 Railway

ML-2 of Pakistan Railways is marked in purple, while ML-3 is marked in orange. Other lines are in blue.

In addition to upgrading the ML-1, the CPEC project also calls for similar major upgrade on the 1,254 kilometre long Main Line 2 (ML-2) railway between Kotri in Sindh province, and Attock in northern Punjab province via the cities of Larkana and Dera Ghazi Khan.[124] The route towards northern Pakistan roughly parallels the Indus River, as opposed to the ML-1 which takes a more eastward course towards Lahore. The project also includes a plan to connect Gwadar, to the town of Jacobabad, Sindh[125] which lies at the intersection of the ML-2 and ML-3 railways.

Overhaul of Main Line 3 Railway

Medium term plans for the Main Line 3 (ML-3) railway line will also include construction of a 560 kilometre long railway line between Bostan near the Afghanistan border, to Kotla Jam near the city of Dera Ismail Khan,[126] which will provide access to southern Afghanistan. The railway route will pass through the city of Quetta and Zhob before terminating in Kotla Jam, and is expected to be constructed by 2025.[113]

Orange Line Metro

The $1.6 billion Orange Line of the Lahore Metro is under construction and is regarded as a commercial project under CPEC.[127] Construction on the line has already begun, with planned completion by Winter 2017.[128][129] The line will be 27.1-kilometre (16.8 mi) long, of which 25.4 kilometres (15.8 mi) will be elevated, with the remaining portion to be underground between Jain Mandir and Lakshmi Chowk.[130] When complete, the project will have the capacity to transport 250,000 commuters per day, with plans to increase capacity to 500,000 commuters per day by 2025.[131]

Khunjerab Railway

The proposed route of the Khunjerab Railway is indicated by the brown line.

Longer term projects under CPEC also call for construction of the 682 kilometre long Khunjerab Railway line between the city of Havelian, to the Khunjerab Pass on the Chinese border,[132] with extension to China's Lanxin Railway in Kashgar, Xinjiang. The railway will roughly parallel the Karakoram Highway, and is expected to be complete in 2030.[113]

The cost of the entire project is estimated to be approximately $12 billion, and will require 5 years for completion. A 300 million rupee study to establish final feasibility of constructing the rail line between Havelian and the Chinese border is already underway.[133] A preliminary feasibility study was completed in 2008 by the Austrian engineering firm TBAC.[134]

Energy sector projects

Pakistan's current energy generating capacity is 24,830 MW,[135] though the country currently faces energy shortfalls of over 4,500MW on a regular basis[17] with routine power cuts of up to 5 hours per day,[18] which has shed an estimated 2-2.5% off its annual GDP.[18] Energy generation will be a major focus of the CPEC project, with approximately $33 billion expected to be invested in this sector.[16] As part of the "Early Harvest" scheme of the CPEC, an estimated 10,400 MW of electricity are slated for generation by March 2018 as part of CPEC's "Early Harvest" projects.[19]

The energy projects under CPEC will be constructed by private Independent Power Producers, rather than by the governments of either China or Pakistan.[136] The Exim Bank of China will finance these private investments at 5–6% interest rates, while the government of Pakistan will be contractually obliged to purchase electricity from those firms at pre-negotiated rates.[137]

Renewable-energy projects

China's Zonergy company will complete construction on the world's largest solar power plant – the 6,500 acre Quaid-e-Azam Solar Park near the city of Bahawalpur with an estimated capacity of 1000MW is expected to be completed in December 2016.[138][139] The first phase of the project has been completed by Xinjiang SunOasis, and has a generating capacity of 100 MW.[140] The remaining 900 MW capacity will be installed by Zonergy under CPEC.[141]

The Jhimpir Wind Power Plant, built by the Turkish company Zorlu Enerji has already begun to sell 56.4 MW of electricity to the government of Pakistan,[142] though under CPEC, another 250MW of electricity are to be produced by the Chinese-Pakistan consortium United Energy Pakistan and others at a cost of $659 million.[143][144]

SK Hydro Consortium is constructing the 870 MW Suki Kinari Hydropower Project in the Kaghan Valley of Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province at a cost of $1.8 billion,[145] SK Hydro will construct the project with financing by China's EXIM bank.[146]

The $1.6 billion 720 MW Karot Dam which is under construction is part of the CPEC plan, but is to be financed separately by China's Silk Road Fund.[147]

Pakistan and China have also discussed the inclusion of the 4,500MW $14 billion Diamer-Bhasha Dam as part of the CPEC project,[148] though as of December 2015, no firm decision has been made – though Pakistani officials remain optimistic at its eventual inclusion.[149]

The $2.4 billion, 1,100 MW Kohala Hydropower Project being constructed by China's Three Gorges Corporation predates the announcement of CPEC, though funding for the project will now come from CPEC fund.[150]

Coal

Despite several renewable energy projects, the bulk of new energy generation capacity under CPEC will be coal-based plants, with $5.8 billion worth of coal power projects expected to be completed by early 2019 as part of the CPEC's "Early Harvest" projects.

The Shanghai Electric company of China will construct two 660MW power plants as part of the "Thar-I" project in the Thar coalfield of Sindh province.[151][152] The facility will be powered by locally sourced coal,[153] and is expected to be put into commercial use in 2018.[154]

Near the Thar-I project, the China Machinery Engineering Corporation in conjunction with Pakistan's Engro Corporation will construct two 330MW power plants (having initially proposed the simultaneous construction of two 660MW power plants) as well as developing a coal mine capable of producing up to 3.8 million tons of coal per year as part of the first phase of the "Thar-ll Project."[155] The first phase is expected to be complete by early 2019,[156] at a cost of $1.95 billion.[157] Subsequent phases that will eventually generate an additional 3,960MW of electricity over the course of ten years.[152]

As part of infrastructure required for electricity distribution from Thar power plants, the $2.1 billion in Matiari to Lahore Transmission Line, and $1.5 billion in Matiari to Faisalabad transmission line are also to be constructed as part of the CPEC project.[19] The Matiari to Lahore transmission line is to be built on an "urgent basis" by the China Electric Power Equipment and Technology Company.[158]

Also in Sindh province, the 1,320MW $2.08 billion Pakistan Port Qasim Power Project near Port Qasim will be a joint venture of Al-Mirqab Capital from Qatar, and China's Power Construction Corporation – a subsidiary of Sinohydro Resources Limited.[159][160]

In Punjab province, the $1.8 billion Sahiwal Coal Power Project is an under construction project in central Punjab that will have a capacity of 1,320MW. It is being constructed by a joint venture of two Chinese firms: the Huaneng Shandong company and Shandong Ruyi Science & Technology Group, who will jointly own and operate the plant.[161]

Other coal-based projects in Punjab province include a $589 million project to establish a coal mine and a 300MW coal power plant to be built in the town of Pind Dadan Khan by China Machinery Engineering Corporation in Punjab's Salt Range.[162]

In Balochistan province, a $970 million coal power plant at Hub, near Karachi, with a capacity of 660MW to be built by a joint consortium of China's China Power Investment Corporation and the Pakistani firm Hub Power Company as part of a larger $2 billion project to produce 1,320MW from coal.[163]

A 300MW coal power plant is also being developed in the city of Gwadar, and is being financed by a 0% interest loan.[49]

Liquified natural gas

Liquefied natural gas power LNG projects are also considered vital to CPEC. The Chinese government has announced its intention to build a $2.5 billion 711 kilometre long liquid natural gas pipeline from Gwadar to Nawabshah in province as part of CPEC.[164] The pipeline is designed to be a part of the 2,775 kilometre long Iran–Pakistan gas pipeline, with the 80 kilometre portion between Gwadar and the Iranian border to be connected when sanctions against Tehran are eased; Iran has already completed a 900 kilometre long portion of the pipeline on its side of the border.[15]

The Pakistani portion of the pipeline is to be constructed by the state-owned China Petroleum Pipelines Bureau.[165] It will be 42 inches in diameter, and have the capacity to transport 1 billion cubic feet of liquified natural gas every day, with an additional 500 million cubic feet of additional capacity when the planned off-shore LNG terminal is also completed[166] The project will not only provide gas exporters with access to the Pakistani market, but will also allow China to secure a route for its own imports.[167]

The project should not be confused with the $2 billion 1,100 kilometre North-South Pipeline liquified natural gas pipeline which is to be constructed with Russian assistance between Karachi and Lahore with anticipated completion by 2018.[168] Nor should it be confused with the planned $7.5 billion TAPI Pipeline which is a planned project involving Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.

Other LNG projects are currently under construction with Chinese assistance and financing that will augment the scope of CPEC, but are neither funded by nor officially considered a part of CPEC. The 1,223MW Balloki Power Plant is currently under construction near Kasur, and is being constructed by China's Harbin Electric Company with financing from the China's EXIM bank, is one such example. In October 2015, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif also inaugurated construction of the 1,180MW Bhikki Power Plant near Sheikhupura,[169] which is to be jointly constructed by China's Harbin Electric Company and General Electric from the United States.[170] It is expected to be Pakistan's most efficient power plant, and will provide enough power for an estimated 6 million homes.[170]

"Early Harvest" energy projects

As part of the "Early Harvest" scheme of the CPEC, over 10,000 megawatts of electricity-generating capacity is to be developed between 2018 and 2020.[19] While some "Early Harvest" projects will not be complete until 2020, the government of Pakistan plans to add approximately 10,000 MW of energy-generating capacity to Pakistan's electric grid by 2018 through the completion of projects which complement CPEC. Although not officially under the scope of CPEC, the 1,223 MW Balloki power plant, and the 1,180 MW Bhakki powerplants are also under construction,[169][171] which along with the under-construction 969 MW Neelum–Jhelum Hydropower Plant and 1,410 MW Tarbela IV Extension Project will result in an additional 10,000 MW being added to Pakistan's electricity grid by 2018 by a combination of CPEC and non-CPEC projects.[172]

"Early Harvest" Energy Project[173] Capacity Location
Pakistan Port Qasim Power Project. 1,320 MW (2 x 660 MW plants) Sindh
Sahiwal Coal Power Project 1,320 MW (2 x 660 MW plants) Punjab
Rahimyar Khan coal power project 1,320 MW (2 x 660 MW plants) Punjab
Thar SSRL coal power project and mine 1,320 MW (2 x 660 MW plants) Sindh
Quaid-e-Azam Solar Park 1,000 MW Punjab
Suki Kinari Hydropower Project 870 MW (expected completion in 2020)[174] Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Karot Hydropower Project 720 MW (expected completion in 2020)[175] Punjab
HUBCO coal power project 660 MW Balochistan
Thar Engro Coal Power Project 660 MW (2 x 330 MW plants) Sindh
Gwadar coal power project 300 MW Balochistan
UEP Windfarm 100 MW Sindh
Dawood Windfarm 50 MW Sindh
Sachal Windfarm 50 MW Sindh
Sunnec Windfarm 50 MW Sindh
Matiari to Faisalabad transmission line 660 kilovolt Sindh and Punjab
Matiari to Lahore Transmission Line 660 kilovolt Sindh and Punjab

Other areas of co-operation

The CPEC announcement encompassed not only infrastructure works, but also addressed areas of co-operation between China and Pakistan.

Science and technology co-operation

As part of CPEC, the two countries signed an Economic and Technical Cooperation Agreement,[176] as well as pledged to "China-Pakistan Joint Cotton Bio-Tech Laboratory"[176] The two countries also pledged to establish the "China-Pakistan Joint Marine Research Center" with State Oceanic Administration and Pakistan's Ministry of Science and Technology[176] Also as part of the CPEC agreement, Pakistan and China have agreed to co-operate in the field of space research.[177]

In February 2016, the two countries agreed to establish the "Pak-China Science, Technology, Commerce and Logistic Park" near Islamabad at an estimated cost of $1.5 billion.[178] The park will be situated on 500 hectares, which will be provided by Pakistan to China's Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, with all investments expected to come from the Chinese side over the course of ten years.[179]

Government-to-government co-operation

The two nations also pledged co-operation in field ranging from anti-narcotic efforts,[176] to co-operation in an effort to reduce climate change.[176] The two nations also agreed to increase co-operating between the banking sectors of the two countries, as well as to establish closer ties between China Central Television and the Pakistan Television Corporation.[176]

Project financing

Loans to the Pakistani Government

Approximately $11 billion worth of infrastructure projects being developed by the Pakistani government will be financed by concessionary loans, with composite interest rates of 1.6%,[180] after Pakistan successfully lobbied the Chinese government to reduce interest rates from an initial 3%.[181] The loans are subsidised by the government of China, and are to be dispersed by the Exim Bank of China and the China Development Bank. For comparison, loans for previous Pakistani infrastructure projects financed by the World Bank carried an interest rate between 5% and 8.5%,[182] while interest rates on market loans approach 12%.[183]

The loan money would be used to finance projects which are planned and executed by the Pakistani government. Portions of the approximately $6.6 billion[73] Karachi–Lahore Motorway are already under construction.[184] The $2.9 billion phase which will connect the city of Multan to the city of Sukkur over a distance of 392 kilometres has also been approved,[185] with 90% of costs to be financed by the Chinese government at concessional interest rates, while the remaining 10% is to be financed by the Public Sector Development Programme of the Pakistani government.[186] In May 2016, the $2.9 billion loan were given final approvals required prior to disbursement of the funds were given by the Government of the People's Republic of China on May 4, 2016, and will be concessional loans with an interest rate of 2.0%.[187] The National Highway Authority of Pakistan reported that contractors arrived on site soon after the loan received final approval.[188]

The China Development Bank will finance the $920 million towards the cost of reconstruction of the 487 kilometer portion of the Karakoram Highway between Burhan and Raikot.[189][190] An addition $1.26 billion will be lent by the China Exim Bank for the construction of the Havelian to Thakot portion of this 487 kilometer stretch of roadway,[191][192] to be dispersed as low-interest rate concessional loans.[193]

The long-planned 27.1 km long $1.6 billion Orange Line of the Lahore Metro is regarded as a commercial project project,[176] and does not qualify for the Exim Bank's 1.6% interest rate. It will instead by financed at a 2.4% interest rate[128] after China agreed to reduce interest rates from an originally planned rate of 3.4%.[194]

The $44 million Cross Border Optic Fiber Project, a 1,300 km long fibre optic wire connecting Pakistan and China, will be constructed using concessionary loans at an interest rate of 2%, rather than the 1.6% rate applied to other projects.[195]

Special interest-free loans for Gwadar

The government of China in August 2015 announced that concessionary loans for several projects in Gwadar totalling $757 million would be converted 0% interest loans.[196] The projects which are now to financed by the 0% interest loans include: the construction of the $140 million Eastbay Expressway project, installation of breakwaters in Gwadar which will cost $130 million, a $360 million coal power plant in Gwadar, a $27 million project to dredge berths in Gwadar harbour, and a $100 million 300-bed hospital in Gwadar.[197] Pakistan will only repay the principle on these loans.

In September 2015, the government of China also announced that the $230 million Gwadar International Airport project would no longer be financed by loans, but would instead be constructed by grants which the government of Pakistan will not be required to repay.[181]

Loans to private consortia

$15.5 billion worth of energy projects are to be constructed by joint Chinese-Pakistani firms, rather than by the governments of either China or Pakistan. The Exim Bank of China will finance those investments at 5–6% interest rates, while the government of Pakistan will be contractually obliged to purchase electricity from those firms at pre-negotiated rates.[137]

As an example, the 1,223MW Balloki Power Plant does not fall under the concessionary loan rate of 1.6%, as the project is not being developed by the Pakistani government. Instead, it is considered to be a private sector investment as its construction will be undertaken by a consortium of Harbin Electric and Habib Rafiq Limited after they successfully bid against international competitors.[198] Chinese state-owned banks will provide loans to the consortium that are subsidised by the Chinese government. In the case of the Balloki Power Plant, state-owned banks will finance the project at an interest rate of 5%,[199] while the Pakistani government will purchase electricity at the lowest bid rate of 7.973 cents per unit.[198]

Asian Development Bank assistance

While the E-35 expressway is considered to be a crucial part of the route between Gwadar and China, the E35 will not be financed by CPEC funds. The project will instead be financed by the Asian Development Bank.[107]

The N70 project is not officially a part of CPEC but will connect the CPEC's Western Alignment to the Karachi-Lahore Motorway at Multan. The project will be financed as part of a $195 million package by the Asian Development Bank announced in May 2015 to upgrade the N70 National Highway and N50 National Highway.[98] In January 2016, The United Kingdom's Department for International Development announced a $72.4 million grant to Pakistan for roadway improvements in the province of Balochistan, thereby reducing the total Asian Development Bank loan from $195 million to $122.6 million.[200]

The M-4 Motorway between Faisalabad and Multan is not to be financed by the Chinese government as part of CPEC, but will instead be the first infrastructure project partially financed by the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, and will be co-financed along with the Asian Development Bank for a total of approximately $275 million.[104] Portions of the project will also be funded by a $90.7 million grant announced in October 2015 by the government of the United Kingdom towards the construction of the Gojra-Shorkot section of the M4 Motorway project.[106]

Geopolitical impact

A stimulus for economic growth in Pakistan

“ [CPEC] will be a strategic gamechanger in the region, which would go a long way in making Pakistan a richer and stronger entity than ever before. ”
— Firstpost (India) April 22, 2015[201]

CPEC is considered economically vital to Pakistan in helping it drive economic growth.[202] China and Pakistan intend that the massive investment plan will transform Pakistan into a regional economic hub and further boost the deepening ties between the two countries.[203] The Pakistani media and government called the investments a "game and fate changer" for the region,[204][205] while the Financial Times notes that Pakistan's electricity shortages are a major hindrance to foreign investment, and that Chinese investments in Pakistani infrastructure and power projects will lead to a "virtuous cycle" that will make the country more attractive for foreign investment in a variety of sectors.[206]

Pakistan currently faces energy shortfalls of over 4,500MW on a regular basis[17] with routine power cuts of up to 12 hours per day,[18] which has shed an estimated 2-2.5% off its annual GDP.[18] Poor availability of electricity is considered by the World Bank to be a main constraint to both economic growth and investment in Pakistan.[207] Pakistan's large textile industry has also been negatively effected by several-hour long power cuts, with almost 20% of textile factories in the city of Faisalabad shutting down on account of power shortages.[208] The CPEC's "Early Harvest" projects are expected to resolve shortages in power generation by 2018 by increasing Pakistan's power generation capacity by over 10,000 megawatts.[19] As a result of improved infrastructure and energy supplies, the Pakistani government expects that economic growth rates will reach 7% by 2018.[209]

According to Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying, the corridor will "serve as a driver for connectivity between South Asia and East Asia." Mushahid Hussain, chairman of the Pakistan-China Institute, told China Daily that the economic corridor "will play a crucial role in regional integration of the 'Greater South Asia', which includes China, Iran, Afghanistan, and stretches all the way to Myanmar."[23] When fully built, the corridor is expected to generate significant revenue from transit fees levied on Chinese goods – to the tune of several billion dollars per annum.[210] According to The Guardian, "The Chinese are not just offering to build much-needed infrastructure but also make Pakistan a key partner in its grand economic and strategic ambitions."[211]

Moody's Investors Service has described the project as a "credit positive" for Pakistan. In 2015, the agency acknowledged that much of the project's key benefits would not materialise until 2017, but stated that it believes at least some of the benefits from the economic corridor would likely begin accruing even before then.[212] The Asian Development Bank stated "CPEC will connect economic agents along a defined geography. It will provide connection between economic nodes or hubs, centered on urban landscapes, in which large amount of economic resources and actors are concentrated. They link the supply and demand sides of markets."[213]

CPEC to circumvent the Straits of Malacca and South China Sea

Map showing territorial claims in South China Sea. A high percentage of Chinese energy imports pass through this disputed region, rendering much of China's energy imports vulnerable to conflict.

The Straits of Malacca provide China with its shortest maritime access to Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.[214] Approximately 80% pass of its Middle Eastern energy imports also pass through the Straits of Malacca.[215] As the world's biggest oil importer,[26] energy security is a key concern for China. Current sea routes used to import Middle Eastern oil are frequently patrolled by the United States' Navy.[216]

In the event that China were to face hostile actions from a state or non-state actor, energy imports through the Straits of Malacca could be cut, which in turn would paralyse the Chinese economy in a scenario that is frequently referred to as the "Malacca Dilemma."[215] In addition vulnerabilities faced in the Straits of Malacca region, China is heavily dependent upon sea-routes that pass through the South China Sea, near the disputed Spratly Islands and Paracel Islands, which are currently a source of tension between China, Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, and the United States.[217] The CPEC project will allow China to circumvent these contentious areas, and thereby decrease the possibility of confrontation between the United States and China.[218]

In addition to potential weaknesses in regards to the United States' Navy, the Indian Navy has recently increased maritime surveillance of the Straits of Malacca region from its base on Great Nicobar Island.[219] India has expressed fears of a Chinese "String of Pearls" encircling it.[220][221] Were conflict to erupt, India could potentially impede Chinese imports through the straits.[222] Indian maritime surveillance in the Andaman Sea could possibly enhance Chinese interest in Pakistan's Gwadar Port – the Kyaukpyu Port, which is currently being developed in Myanmar by the Chinese government as another alternate route around the Straits of Malacca, will likely be vulnerable to potential advances from the Indian Navy. The proposed Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Corridor (BCIM) would also be vulnerable to Indian advances against China in the event of conflict, thereby potentially limiting the BCIM Corridor's usefulness to China's energy security, and thereby increasing Chinese interest in CPEC.

China's stake in Gwadar will also allow it to expand its influence in the Indian Ocean, a vital route for oil transportation between the Atlantic and the Pacific. Another advantage to China is that it will be able to bypass the Strait of Malacca. As of now, 60 percent of China's imported oil comes from the Middle East, and 80 percent of that is transported to China through this strait, the dangerous, piracy-rife maritime route through the South China, East China, and Yellow Seas.

Council on Foreign Relations[223]

Improving access to western China

The CPEC Alignments will improve connectivity to restive Xinjiang, thereby increasing the region's potential to attract public and private investment.[214] CPEC is considered central to China–Pakistan relations; its central importance is reflected by China's inclusion of the project as part of its 13th five-year development plan.[224][225] The CPEC projects will also complement China's Western Development plan, which includes not only Xinjiang, but also the neighbouring regions of Tibet and Qinghai.[226]

In addition to its significance to reduce Chinese dependence on the Sea of Malacca and South China Sea routes, CPEC will provide China an alternative and shorter route for energy imports from the Middle East, thereby reducing shipping costs and transit times. The currently available sea-route to China is roughly 12,000 kilometres long, while the distance from Gwadar Port to Xinjiang province is approximately 3,000 kilometres, with another 3,500 kilometres from Xinjiang to China's eastern coast.[215] As a result of CPEC, Chinese imports and exports to the Middle East, Africa, and Europe would require much shorter shipment times and distances.

A route to circumvent Afghanistan

Negotiations to provide an alternate route to the Central Asian republics by way of China predate the announcement of CPEC. The Afghanistan–Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement of 2010 provided Pakistan access to Central Asia via Afghanistan, however, the full agreement has yet to be fully implemented. The "Quadrilateral Agreement on Traffic in Transit" (QATT) was first devised in 1995, and signed in 2004 by the governments of China, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan to facilitate transit trade between the various countries, with no inclusion of Afghanistan.[227] Despite signing of the QATT, the agreements full potential was never realised, largely on account of poor infrastructure links between the four countries prior to the announcement of CPEC.

During the visit of Afghan President Ashraf Ghani to India in April 2015, he stated "We will not provide equal transit access to Central Asia for Pakistani trucks" unless the Pakistani government included India as part of the 2010 Afghanistan–Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement.[228] The Transit Trade Agreement provides Afghanistan access to the Port of Karachi to conduct trade with India, and allows Afghan goods to be transited up to any border of Pakistan, but does not guarantee Afghan trucks the right to traverse the Wagah Border.[229] Owing to continued tensions between India and Pakistan, the Pakistani government expressed reluctance to include India in any trade negotiations with Afghanistan, and as a result, little progress was made between the Afghan and Pakistani sides.

In February 2016, the Pakistani government signalled its intention to completely bypass Afghanistan in its quest to access Central Asia by announcing its intent to revive the QATT so that Central Asian states could access Pakistani ports via Kashgar instead of Afghanistan,[230] thereby allowing the Central Asian republics to access Pakistan's deep water ports without having to rely on a politically unstable Afghanistan as a transit corridor. In early March 2016, the Afghan government reportedly acquiesced to Pakistani requests to use Afghanistan as a corridor to Tajikistan, after having dropped demands from reciprocal access to India via Pakistan.[231]

A new corridor to the Central Asian Republics

The heads of various Central Asian republics have expressed their desire to connect their infrastructure networks to the CPEC project via China. During the August 2015 visit of Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to Kazakhstan, the Kazakh Prime Minister Karim Massimov, conveyed Kazakhstan's desire to link its road network to the CPEC project.[232] During the November 2015 visit of Tajikistan President Emomali Rahmon to Pakistan, the Tajik premier also expressed his government's desire to join the Quadrilateral Agreement on Traffic in Transit to use CPEC as a conduit for imports and exports to Tajikistan by circumventing Afghanistan;[233] the request received political backing by the Pakistani Prime Minister.[233]

With the advent of CPEC-related infrastructure projects, transit times between Kashgar and Pakistan's coast will be greatly reduced, which in turn will also reduce transit times to the Kyrgyzstan and hydrocarbon-rich Kazakhstan through already existing overland routes. The Chinese government has already upgraded the road linking Kashgar to Osh in Kyrgyzstan via the Kyrgyz town of Erkeshtam while a railway between Urumqi, China and Almaty, Kazakhstan has also been completed as part of China's One Belt One Road initiative.[234] Numerous land crossings already exist between Kazakhstan and China as well. Additionally, the Chinese government has announced plans to lay railway track from Tashkent, Uzbekistan, towards Kyrgyzstan with onwards connections to China and Pakistan.[235] Further, the Pamir Highway already provides Tajikistan access to Kashgar via the Kulma Pass. These crossings complement the CPEC project to provide Central Asian states access to Pakistan's deepwater ports by completely bypassing Afghanistan – a country which has been ravaged by civil war and political instability since the late 1970s.

Security

China has expressed concern that some separatist groups in Xinjiang may be collaborating with insurgents in Pakistan, and has expressed a desire to strengthen security ties.[26][236] The outlawed terrorist organisation Tehrik-i-Taliban has claimed responsibility for past attacks on some Chinese nationals,[237] and Chinese commentators have raised concerns that construction workers could be kidnapped and ransomed.[238] The Express Tribune reports that Pakistan plans to train 12,000 security personnel to protect Chinese workers on the corridor.[239][240][241] Presently, 8,000 Pakistani security officials are deployed for the protection of over 8,100 Chinese workers in Pakistan.[242]

Other terrorist organisations operate in Balochistan, including the Balochistan Liberation Army and Jundallah, which have carried out various bombings. The terror groups are reportedly backed by India.[243][244]

The route of the Economic Corridor passes though Gilgit Baltistan, one of the regions that has been contested in the Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan, and border guards have occasionally exchanged fire.[245][246] Chinese intelligence agencies also shared information with Pakistani authorities regarding "foreign hostile agencies" who could support anti-state elements to sabotage the project, a reference mainly to the Indian intelligence agency, Research and Analysis Wing.[247] Pakistan has responded that it will vigorously guard itself and its allies from Indian-backed militants.[248]

Controversy and miscellaneous issues

Allegations by KPK provincial assembly

Some planning aspects and technicalities associated with the route have been criticised in political forums and by the media.The Provincial Assembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province adopted a resolution against the alleged decision of the central government to change the multibillion route of the proposed project by diverting it away from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.[249] The supposed change in CPEC routing was first highlighted by journalist Farman Nawaz in an article published in July 2013 by China's Global Times newspaper,[250] two years before the official announcement of CPEC when levels of violence were much higher in that province, which he acknowledged could factor into any decision to re-route the corridor from KPK.[250]

The federal Minister of Planning Development and Reform Ahsan Iqbal formally denied any change in the alignment.[25][251][252] As a rebuttal to this argument, Wu Zhaoli, an assistant research fellow at the National Institute of International Strategy, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, in his article also published in Global Times, stated that "security concerns are a critical cause which helps to determine the path of this corridor",[238] implying that security concerns, rather than political bias, would be responsible for any route changes. According to Dr Ahmad Rashid Malik, Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSi), the route controversy is "baseless and an unfounded reality...".[253] Chief Minister KPK has subsequently approved federal Minister of Planning Development and Reform Ahsan Iqbal position.

Controversy over finances

In addition to the aforementioned issues, some sources have inappropriately suggested that the interest rate for CPEC related loans would be high, with one Indian source suggesting that Pakistan had unwittingly accepted loans that would "be offered at very high rates of interest,[254]" although the actual interest rates were negotiated prior to acceptance, and for most projects will be 1.6%.[255] Several articles in Pakistan have criticised the project's finances as being shrouded in mystery, while one article suggested that "there is far too much secrecy and far too little transparency."[256] The Private Power and Infrastructure Board has also been accused of irregularities in the approval process for coal power plants and the tariffs at which Pakistan is contractually obliged to purchase electricity from those plants,[257] with special concern regarding potential irregularities in the tariff approved for the 300MW coal power plant to be built in Pind Dadan Khan by China Machinery Engineering Corporation.[258]

Opposition from Baloch nationalists

Baloch nationalists have expressed opposition to the project, stating that any large-scale development in the province would eventually lead to local residents "losing control" over natural resources. Other Baloch nationalists view it as a "conspiracy" that would stimulate migration of people from other provinces and make the Baloch a minority in the province.[259]

Former Chief Minister of Balochistan province, Akhtar Mengal, suggested at a political rally in November 2015, that execution of CPEC projects would eventually result in ethnic Baloch being denied entry into the city,[260] though no statements have been made in either Pakistan or China that would suggest such an outcome. He did, however, clarify that he would not oppose development projects in the province that he believed would uplift the plight of local residents.[261] Shortly thereafter, the Pakistani government announced its intention to establish a training institute named Pak-China Technical and Vocational Institute at Gwadar which is to be completed by March 2016 at the cost of 943 million rupees to impart skills to local residents to train them to operate machinery at the port.[21]

Indian objections to CPEC

The Government of India, which shares tense relations with Pakistan, regards portions of the CPEC project negatively as they pass through disputed territory which is claimed by India. Former Indian ambassador, Phunchok Stobdan, alleged that China and Pakistan intended to develop the corridor not just for its economic benefits, but also is motivated by the "strategic intent of besieging India," though he also stated that India can do little to scuttle CPEC, and that avoiding China's One Road One Belt project altogether would be to the detriment of India.[262]

During the visit of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi to China in 2015, the Indian Foreign Minister, Sushma Swaraj reportedly told Chinese Premier Xi Jinping that projects passing through Gilgit-Baltistan are "unacceptable" as they require road construction in territory India regards as its own.[263][264] India's Foreign Secretary Subrahmanyam Jaishankar also confirmed that the issue had been raised with the Chinese government on the trip.[265]

The Indian Ministry of External Affairs in May 2015 also summoned the Chinese envoy in New Delhi to lodge India's opposition to the project.[266] The Chinese Premier dismissed the concerns, describing CPEC as a "commercial project"[267] that would not target any third party.[268]

In March 2016, Indian Foreign Secretary Subrahmanyam Jaishankar, in reference to China's ambitions One Road One Belt project and CPEC, stated that India's vision of Asian connectivity was that of a consultative process rather than that of "unilateral decisions," and that they should not "add to regional tensions."[269]

Despite objections, segments of the Indian public, as exemplified by former Indian Ambassador Melkulangara Bhadrakumar, regard the project as in India's interest vis-a-vis Central Asia, and warn that India might "lose heavily" were India to remain opposed and isolated from the project.[270]

In March 2016, Pakistan announced that it had arrested a suspected spy from India's Research and Analysis Wing, Kulbhushan Yadav, who Pakistan accused of entering Pakistan from Iran specifically to destabilise regions in Pakistan's Baluchistan province to hinder implementation of CPEC projects.[271]

List of major projects

Project Notes
Gwadar Port Partially operational[272]
Gwadar-Ratodero Motorway Partially operational[273]
Dawood wind power project Under construction.[274]
E-35 Expressway (Hazara Motorway) Under construction[176] Funded by the Asian Development Bank,[275] but is considered vital to the CPEC's Northern Alignment project.
Iran–Pakistan gas pipeline Under construction. Iranian portion completed.[176] Gwadar to Nawabshah portion is to be funded by CPEC agreements, while the Gwadar – Iran border portion will be funded by the Pakistani government.
Karakoram Highway reconstruction and overhaul Under construction. Portion between Raikot and Chinese border had been under construction prior to CPEC announcement, and was completed in 2012.[64] The 24 kilometre long Karakorum Highway Realignment around Attabad Lake was also completed in 2015.[276]
Karachi–Lahore Motorway Multan to Sukkur segment Under construction[75]
Karot Hydropower Project Under construction.[277] Financed by China's Silk Road Fund.[147]
Orange Line (Lahore Metro) Under construction[127]
Pakistan Port Qasim Power Project Under construction[278]
Quaid-e-Azam Solar Park Under construction[138] First phase complete, generating 100 MW of electricity.[279]
Sahiwal Coal Power Project Under construction[280]
Western Alignment Under construction. Surab to Gwadar portion is funded by the Asian Development Bank, but is considered vital for completion of CPEC's Western Alignment.
Economic Corridor Support Force Recruitment in progress[281]
Main-Line 1 railway overhaul between Karachi and Peshawar Planning studies underway[112]
Havelian Abbottabad Dry Port Planning studies underway
China-Pakistan Joint Cotton Bio-Tech Laboratory Approved[176]
China-Pakistan Joint Marine Research Center Approved[176]
Cross-border fibre optic project Approved[176]
Hubco coal power plant project Approved[176]
Gwadar Eastbay Expressway Approved[176]
Gwadar Hospital Approved[176]
Gwadar International Airport Approved[176]
Gwadar-Nawabshah LNG terminal and pipeline project Approved[176]
Jhimpir wind power project Approved[176]
Karot hydropower project Approved[176]
Main Line 2 and 3 railway overhaul Approved[176]
Matiari to Faisalabad transmission line Approved[176]
Matiari to Lahore Transmission Line Approved[176]
Salt Range coal power project Approved[176]
Suki Kinari Hydropower Project Approved[176]
Thar Engro Coal Power Project Approved[176]
Thar Block II coal power project Approved[176]
Khunjerab Railway Feasibility studies underway[176]

See also

Notes

    References

    1. ↑ Aneja, Atul (18 April 2015). "Xi comes calling to Pakistan, bearing gifts worth $45 billion". The Hindu. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
    2. ↑ "Economic corridor: Chinese official sets record straight". The Express Tribune. 2 March 2015.
    3. ↑ Hussain, Tom (22 April 2015). "China's Xi in Pakistan to cement huge infrastructure projects, submarine sales". McClatchy News (Islamabad: mcclatchydc).
    4. ↑ "CPEC made part of China's 13th 5-year development plan: Weidong". Pakistan Today. 23 November 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
    5. ↑ "China's landmark investments in Pakistan". The Express Tribune. 21 April 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
    6. 1 2 Rakisits, Claude (Fall 2015). "A Path to the Sea: China’s Pakistan Plan". World Affairs Journal. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
    7. ↑ Khan, Bilal (3 December 2015). "Pakistan's economy is turning a corner". Standard Charter Bank. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
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    41. ↑ "Gwadar-Nawabshah LNG project part of CPEC". The Nation. 28 March 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
    42. ↑ Li, Yan. "Groundwork laid for China-Pakistan FTZ". ECNS. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
    43. ↑ "ECONOMIC ZONE: GOVERNMENT HANDS GWADAR LAND OVER TO CHINA". Business Recorder. 12 November 2015.
    44. ↑ "Gwadar Port to become distribution centre for ME market: Zhang". Business Recorder. 17 March 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2016. include bonded warehouses, manufacturing, international purchasing, transit and distribution transshipment, commodity display and supporting services and where the federal, provincial and local taxes
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    46. ↑ Sial, Amer (27 August 2015). "China converts Rs 23b Gwadar Airport loan into grant". Pakistan Today. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
    47. ↑ http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/12-Nov-2015/china-to-build-pakistan-s-largest-airport-at-gwadar
    48. ↑ http://www.geo.tv/article-198450-China-converts-230m-loan-fo
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    51. ↑ "China Pakistan Economic Corridor". Gwadar Port Authority. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
    52. 1 2 "PURCHASE OF POWER: PAYMENTS TO CHINESE COMPANIES TO BE FACILITATED THROUGH REVOLVING FUND". Business Recorder. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
    53. ↑ "Questions for Oral Answers and Their Replies" (PDF). Senate Secretariat. Question 126: Senate of Pakistan. 23 October 2014. Retrieved 11 February 2016. From Havelian to Shah Maqsood Interchange, the proposed alignment of CPEC will overlap with alignment of E-35. This section will be 15 Km long and undertaken with ADB assistance as 4-Lane Motorway with 6-Lane structures... Shah Maqsood Interchange – Islamabad section will be 50 km long and constructed along a new alignment as 4-Lane Motorway with 6-Lane structures.
    54. ↑ "Questions for Oral Answers and Their Replies" (PDF). Senate Secretariat. Question 126: Senate of Pakistan. 23 October 2014. Retrieved 11 February 2016. "Shinkiari – Mansehra – Abbottabad section will be 50 Km long and constructed as 4- Lane Expressway... Abbottabad – Havelian section will be 11 km in length and constructed as 4-Lane Motorway with 6-Lane structures." | Portion between Abbottabad and Havelian is now to be a dual carriageway rather than motorway.
    55. ↑ "Questions for Oral Answers and Their Replies" (PDF). Senate Secretariat. Question 126: Senate of Pakistan. 23 October 2014. Retrieved 11 February 2016. Raikot – Thakot section will be 280 Km in length and constructed as 2-Lane highway along a new alignment... Thakot – Shinkiari section will be 74 km in length wherein existing 2-Lane KKH will be upgraded and improved.
    56. ↑ "Questions for Oral Answers and Their Replies" (PDF). Senate Secretariat. Question 126: Senate of Pakistan. 23 October 2014. Retrieved 11 February 2016. Raikot – Thakot section will be 280 Km in length and constructed as 2-Lane highway along a new alignment... Thakot – Shinkiari section will be 74 km in length wherein existing 2-Lane KKH will be upgraded and improved.
    57. ↑ "PM Sharif performs ground-breaking of Havelian-Thakot Motorway". The News Pakstan. 28 April 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
    58. ↑ "PM Sharif performs ground-breaking of Havelian-Thakot Motorway". The News Pakstan. 28 April 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
    59. ↑ 133 billion Pakistan rupees equivalent to $1.26 billion US dollars as of May 2016
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    61. ↑ "Questions for Oral Answers and Their Replies" (PDF). Senate Secretariat. Question 126: Senate of Pakistan. 23 October 2014. Retrieved 11 February 2016. Raikot – Thakot section (2-Lane) 255.8 km; Feasibility Study Completed by Chinese Side. However the Alignment falls under the Four Dams planned by WAPDA, namely; Bhasha, Dasu, Pattan and Thakot. The Road construction is planned to commensurate with Dam Construction activities. In the meanwhile the existing KKH is being improved in its present condition.
    62. ↑ "NHA launches projects to improve KKH's condition". The News. 22 August 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
    63. ↑ 7.5 billion PKR = 71.66 million USD as of 10 February 2016
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    77. 1 2 3 "Karachi-Lahore motorway: Stakeholders unhappy with environment impact report". The Express Tribune. 6 March 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
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    82. ↑ "Consortium Wins Pakistan Contract". The Wall Street Journal. 9 December 2105. Retrieved 11 December 2015. Check date values in: |date= (help)
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    84. ↑ "Ecnec approves 230kms Karachi-Lahore Motorway". Pakistan: The Nation. 25 November 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
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    90. ↑ "Nawaz to open Gwadar-Turbat Highway project today". Business Recorder. 3 February 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016. 110 billion Pakistani Rupees = US$1.05 billion as of Feb 3 2016
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    94. ↑ "Nawaz to open Gwadar-Turbat Highway project today". Business Recorder. 3 February 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
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    97. ↑ "ADB approves $197million for Balochistan road project". Pakistan: The Nation. 6 July 2014. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
    98. 1 2 3 "ADB Provides $197 Million to Develop Highway in Balochistan". Asian Development Bank. 12 May 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
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    102. ↑ "PM INAUGURATES 193 KM LONG GWADAR-HOSHAB M-8". Business Recorder. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
    103. ↑ "Pakistan to build CPEC western route by middle of 2018". Economic Times (India). 15 January 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
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    105. ↑ "AIIB to co-finance 1st project with ADB in Pakistan". CCTV. 5 May 2016. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
    106. 1 2 "M4 motorway: PM to inaugurate Gojra-Shorkot section today". The Express Tribune (Pakistan). 16 November 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
    107. 1 2 "Asian Bank, UK to co-finance $327m in economic corridor". Pakistan: Daily Times. 1 September 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
    108. ↑ "Pakistan, ADB sign $178m agreement for M-4 section". The Express Tribune (Pakistan). 23 October 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
    109. ↑ "Multibillion-dollar project: Nawaz inaugurates CPEC’s western route". Daily Times. 31 December 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
    110. ↑ "ADB to provide $72m for highways in Balochistan". Dawn. 15 January 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
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    113. 1 2 3 4 5 "Havelian to Khunjerab railway track to be upgraded under China-Pakistan Economic Corridor". Sost Today. 15 January 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
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    116. ↑ "Karachi-Peshawar railway line being upgraded under CPEC". Daily Times. 22 January 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
    117. ↑ 50 billion PKR approximately US$480 million as of February 2016
    118. ↑ http://paktribune.com/news/Railway-track-project-planned-from-Karachi-to-Peshawar-275016.html
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    120. ↑ "Doubling of Karachi-Lahore rail track completes". The Nation. 9 January 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
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    122. ↑ "KP governor terms CPEC game-changer for Hazara". The News Pakistan. 7 February 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
    123. ↑ "Karachi-Peshawar railway track to be upgraded under CPEC". Daily Times. 15 January 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
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    131. ↑ "Good news on track: Lahore to get Pakistan’s first metro train". Express Tribune (Pakistan). 23 May 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
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    137. 1 2 http://www.brecorder.com/top-news/108/238832-1st-phase-of-cpec-to-bring-$35bn-investment-in-energy-ahsan-iqbal.html
    138. 1 2 "Pak-China 900 MW Solar Power Project agreed to expedite". The News Teller. 27 June 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
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    145. ↑ "Deal signed for 870MW hydropower project". Nation. 12 April 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
    146. ↑ "Pakistan, China ink 51 MoUs". Daily Times. 20 April 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
    147. 1 2 Poon, Daniel. "China's partnerships could lead the way". Asia and the Pacific Policy Society. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
    148. ↑ "Govt seeks Bhasha Dam inclusion in CPEC". The Nation. 11 December 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
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    150. ↑ "PURCHASE OF POWER: PAYMENTS TO CHINESE COMPANIES TO BE FACILITATED THROUGH REVOLVING FUND". Business Recorder. 5 December 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
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    154. ↑ "Pakistan, China sign LoI to set up". The News (Pakistan). 22 August 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
    155. ↑ "China Machinery Engineering to fund Pakistan coal projects". China Daily. 22 December 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
    156. ↑ "Thar coal field's Block-II achieves financial close". The News Pakistan. 3 January 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016. The production of remaining 660 megawatts from block-II will begin by the end of 2018 or by the beginning of 2019 while the mining and energy projects in block-I and block-VI of Thar will also reach their financial close this year," said the official.
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