Kangxi Emperor

For other uses, see Kangxi (disambiguation).
Kangxi Emperor
4th Qing Emperor of China
Reign 5 February 1661 – 20 December 1722
Coronation 1667
Predecessor Shunzhi Emperor
Successor Yongzheng Emperor
Regent Sonin (1661–1667)
Ebilun (1661–1667)
Suksaha (1661–1669)
Oboi (1661–1669)
Born (1654-05-04)4 May 1654
Jingren Palace, Forbidden City, Beijing
Died 20 December 1722(1722-12-20) (aged 68)
Yuanmingyuan Profile, Beijing
Burial Eastern Qing Tombs, Zunhua
Spouse Empress Xiaochengren
Empress Xiaozhaoren
Empress Xiaoyiren
Empress Xiaogongren
Issue
among others...		 Yinzhi, Prince Zhi
Rongxian, Princess of Baarin
Yinreng, Prince Li
Princess Duanjing of the Second Rank
Yinzhi, Prince Cheng
Yinzhen, Yongzheng Emperor
Kejing, Princess of the Khalkha Mongols
Yinqi, Prince Heng
Yinyou, Prince Chun
Yinsi, Prince Lian
State Princess Wenxian
Yintang
Yin'e
State Princess Chunque
Yintao, Prince Lü
Yinxiang, 1st Prince Yi
Princess Wenke of the Second Rank
Yinti, Prince Xun
Princess Quejing of the Second Rank
Princess Dunke of the Second Rank
Yinwu, Prince Yu
Yinlu, Prince Zhuang
Yinli, Prince Guo
Yinyi, Beile
Yinxi, Prince Shen
Yinhu, Beile
Yinqi, Beile
Yinmi, Prince Xian
Full name
Chinese: Aixin-Jueluo Xuanye 愛新覺羅玄燁
Manchu: Aisin Gioro hala i Hiowan Yei
Era name and dates
Kāngxī (康熙): 1662–1723
Posthumous name
Emperor Hétiān Hóngyùn Wénwǔ Ruìzhé Gōngjiǎn Kuānyù Xiàojìng Chéngxìn Zhōnghé Gōngdé Dàchéng Rén
合天弘運文武睿哲恭儉寬裕孝敬誠信中和功德大成仁皇帝[ Listen ]
Temple name
Shengzu (聖祖)
House House of Aisin Gioro
Father Shunzhi Emperor
Mother Empress Xiaokangzhang
Kangxi Emperor

"Kangxi Emperor" in Chinese (top) and Manchu (bottom) characters
Chinese name
Chinese 康熙帝
Literal meaning Peace and tranquility
Mongolian name
Mongolian script ᠡᠩᠭᠡ ᠠᠮᠤᠭᠤᠯᠠᠩ
Manchu name
Manchu script ᡝᠯᡥᡝ
ᡨᠠᡳᡶᡳᠨ
ᡥᡡᠸᠠᠩᡩᡳ
Möllendorff Elhe taifin hūwangdi

The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722) was the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty,[1][2] the first to be born on Chinese soil south of the Shanhai Pass near Beijing, and the second Qing emperor to rule over that part of China, from 1661 to 1722.

The Kangxi Emperor's reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history (although his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, had the longest period of de facto power) and one of the longest-reigning rulers in the world.[3] However, since he ascended the throne at the age of seven, actual power was held for six years by four regents and his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang.

The Kangxi Emperor is considered one of China's greatest emperors.[4] He suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan and assorted Mongol rebels in the North and Northwest to to submit to Qing rule, and blocked Tsarist Russia on the Amur River, retaining Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China.

The Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong" or "High Qing",[5] which lasted for generations after his own lifetime. His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary.

Early reign

Portrait of the young Kangxi Emperor in court dress

Born on 4 May 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City, Beijing, the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the personal name Xuanye (Chinese: 玄燁 ; Manchu language: ᡥᡳᠣᠸᠠᠨ ᠶᡝᡳ ; Möllendorff transliteration: hiowan yei). He was enthroned at the age of seven (or eight by East Asian age reckoning), on 7 February 1661.[6] His era name "Kangxi", however, only started to be used on 18 February 1662, the first day of the following lunar year.

In his 1912 book China and the Manchu's, sinologist Herbert Giles describes the Kangxi Emperor as fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox.[7]

Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang (in the name of Shunzhi Emperor) had appointed the powerful men Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, and Oboi as regents. Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced in this arrangement.

In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered a Great Clearance in southern China to counter a resistance movement started by Ming loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general Zheng Chenggong, also titled Koxinga. This involved the forced migration inland of entire populations in the coastal regions of southern China.

In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother Grand Dowager Empress Xiaozhuang, who had raised him[8] and began taking personal control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River; repair of the Grand Canal; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688.[8]

Military achievements

Army

The Emperor mounted on his horse and guarded by his bodyguards.

The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in the early reign of the Shunzhi Emperor; however, it was larger than in the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao.

The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle.

The Kangxi Emperor in ceremonial armor, armed with bow and arrows, and surrounded by bodyguards.

By the Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and the training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns. This was because commanders' statuses had become hereditary; a general gained his position based on the contributions of his forefathers.

Revolt of the Three Feudatories

The Revolt of the Three Feudatories broke out in 1673 when Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681.

Taiwan

In 1683, the naval forces of the Taiwan-based Ming loyalists were defeated by Qing naval forces under the command of admiral Shi Lang at the Battle of Penghu. Zheng Keshuang, ruler of Tungning and grandson of Koxinga, surrendered a few days later, and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Soon afterwards, the coastal regions of southern China were ordered to be repopulated. In addition, to encourage settlers, the Qing government granted financial incentives to families that settled there.

Zheng Keshuang was awarded the title "Duke Haicheng" (海澄公) and was inducted into the Han Chinese Plain Red Banner of the Eight Banners when he moved to Beijing. Several Ming princes had accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan in 1661–1662, including Prince Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Zhu Honghuan (朱弘桓), son of Zhu Yihai, where they lived in the Kingdom of Tungning. The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan in 1683 back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives in exile, their lives having been spared from execution.[9] Zheng's former soldiers on Taiwan, such as the rattan shield troops, were also inducted into the Eight Banners and used by the Qing against Russian Cossacks at Albazin.

Vietnam

In 1673, the Kangxi Emperor's government helped to mediate a truce in the Trịnh–Nguyễn War in Vietnam, which had been ongoing for 45 years since 1627. The peace treaty that was signed between the conflicting parties lasted for 101 years until 1774.[10]

Russia

European couple, Kangxi period

In the 1650s, the Qing Empire engaged the Tsardom of Russia in a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, which concluded with victory for the Qing side. After the Siege of Albazin, he gained control of the area.

The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. After a series of battles and negotiations, both sides signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, in which a border was fixed, and the Amur River valley given to the Qing Empire.

Mongolia

The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader Ligdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrested in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on April 20, 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.

The Outer Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to the Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Tümen Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungars over the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1688, as the Khalkhas were fighting wars with Russian Cossacks in the north of their territory, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor.

The Kangxi Emperor at the age of 45, painted in 1699

In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor personally led three armies, totaling 80,000 in strength, in a campaign against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in the following year.

Manchu Hoifan and Ula rebellion against the Qing

In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui, modern Inner Mongolia, and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in Shenyang, Liaoning. The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out.[11]

Tibet

In 1701, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of Kangding and other border towns in western Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade.

The Tibetan desi (regent) Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of the Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the Khoshut ruler Lha-bzang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the Dalai Lama, the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet (翊法恭顺汗; Yìfǎ gōngshùn Hán; "Buddhism Respecting, Deferential Khan").[12] The Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.

Chinese nobility

Kangxi granted the title of Wujing Boshi (五经博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì) to the descendants of Shao Yong, Zhu Xi, Zhuansun Shi, Ran family (Ran Qiu, Ran Geng, Ran Yong), Bu Shang, Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius), and the Duke of Zhou's offspring.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]

Economic achievements

The Kangxi Emperor returning to Beijing after a southern inspection tour in 1689.

The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were:

1668 (7th year of Kangxi): 14,930,000 taels
1692: 27,385,631 taels
1702–1709: approximately 50,000,000 taels with little variation during this period
1710: 45,880,000 taels
1718: 44,319,033 taels
1720: 39,317,103 taels
1721 (60th year of Kangxi, second last of his reign): 32,622,421 taels

The reasons for the declining trend in the later years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign were a huge expenditure on military campaigns and an increase in corruption. To fix the problem, the Kangxi Emperor gave Prince Yong (the future Yongzheng Emperor) advice on how to make the economy more efficient.

Cultural achievements

A vase from the early Kangxi period (Musée Guimet).

During his reign, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of Chinese characters, which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary. This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the Han Chinese scholar-bureaucrats, as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the Ming dynasty. However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve the Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials.

In 1705, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, a compilation of Tang poetry, the Quantangshi, was produced.

The Kangxi Emperor also was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through Jesuit missionaries, such as Ferdinand Verbiest, whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or Karel Slavíček, who made the first precise map of Beijing on the emperor's order.

From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa, an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the propagation of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe, which would later develop to become the Instituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University.

The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. He employed Karel Slavíček as court musician. Slavíček was playing Spinet; later the emperor would play on it himself. He also invented a Chinese calendar. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during the Kangxi Emperor's reign.

Christianity

Jesuit astronomers of the Jesuit China missions, with the Kangxi Emperor (Beauvais, 1690–1705)

In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of astronomy, they ran the imperial observatory. Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira served as translators for the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and the innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing[25] and artillery, the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the Kingdom of Tungning.[26]

The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the Chinese language well, and wore the silk robes of the elite.[27] In 1692, when Fr. Thomas Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity, the Kangxi Emperor was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration,[28] which recognized Catholicism, barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the Chinese people.[29]

However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship, with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and the Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign "idolatry". The Dominican position won the support of Pope Clement XI, who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites.[25][30] On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the papal bull Ex illa die, which officially condemned Chinese rites.[25]

In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble".[31]

Succession disputes

The Kangxi Emperor on a tour, seated prominently on the deck of a junk.

The Kangxi Emperor's reign saw a prolonged struggle between various princes over who should inherit the throne – the Nine Lords' War (九子夺嫡).

The Kangxi Emperor's first spouse, Empress Xiaochengren, gave birth to his second surviving son Yinreng, who at the age of two was named crown prince – a Han Chinese custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be a perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince.

Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which was deemed incest and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu, gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods.

The seated Kangxi Emperor

Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707, the emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust",[32] and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi, in charge of overseeing Yinreng's house arrest. Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son, knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended the eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused the Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness.

A turtle-based stele with the Kangxi Emperor's inscription, erected in 1699 at the Nanjing mausoleum of the Hongwu Emperor, honouring the founder of the preceding Ming dynasty as surpassing the founders of the Tang and Song dynasties.[33]

In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing the Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to Beijing. However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat, and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside a box in the Palace of Heavenly Purity, which would only be opened after his death.

Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yingsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" (八爷党) and "Fourth Lord Party" (四爷党).

Death and succession

Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in the political landscape. The 13th prince, Yinxiang, was placed under house arrest as well for cooperating with Yinreng. The eighth prince Yinsi was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti, whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with the ninth and tenth princes, Yintang and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti.

In the evening of 20 December 1722 before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eight, ninth, tenth, 16th and 17th princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as the new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua, Hebei.

A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the Yongzheng Emperor, has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang (吕四娘), the granddaughter of Lü Liuliang, though this is never treated seriously by scholars.[34]

Personality and achievements

The Kangxi Emperor was the great consolidator of the Qing dynasty. The transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital Beijing to the peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng, then to the Manchus in 1644, and the installation of the five-year-old Shunzhi Emperor on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering Confucian ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived the central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications.

The Kangxi Emperor was a workaholic, rising early and retiring late, reading and responding to numerous memorials every day, conferring with his councilors and giving audiences – and this was in normal times; in wartime, he might be reading memorials from the warfront until after midnight or even, as with the Dzungar conflict, away on campaign in person.[35]

The Kangxi Emperor devised a system of communication that circumvented the scholar-bureaucrats, who had a tendency to usurp the power of the emperor. This Palace Memorial System involved the transfer of secret messages between him and trusted officials in the provinces, where the messages were contained in locked boxes that only he and the official had access to. This started as a system for receiving uncensored extreme-weather reports, which the emperor regarded as divine comments on his rule. However, it soon evolved into a general-purpose secret "news channel." Out of this emerged a Grand Council, which dealt with extraordinary, especially military, events. The council was chaired by the emperor and manned by his more elevated Han Chinese and Manchu household staff. From this council, the mandarin civil servants were excluded – they were left only with routine administration.[36]

The Kangxi Emperor managed to woo the Confucian intelligentsia into co-operating with the Qing government, despite their deep reservations about Manchu rule and loyalty to the Ming. He appealed to this very sense of Confucian values, for instance, by issuing the Sacred Edict in 1670. He encouraged Confucian learning and made sure that the civil service examinations were held every three years even during times of stress. When some scholars, out of loyalty to the Ming, refused to take the exams, he hit upon the expedient of a special exam to be taken by nomination. He personally sponsored the writing of the Ming Official History, the Kangxi Dictionary, a phrase-dictionary, a vast encyclopedia and an even vaster compilation of Chinese literature. To promote his image as a "sage ruler," he appointed Manchu and Chinese tutors with whom he studied the Confucian classics and worked intensively on Chinese calligraphy.[37]

In the one military campaign in which he actively participated, against the Dzungar Mongols, the Kangxi Emperor showed himself an effective military commander. According to Finer, the emperor's own written reflections allow one to experience "how intimate and caring was his communion with the rank-and-file, how discriminating and yet masterful his relationship with his generals".[38]

As a result of the scaling down of hostilities as peace returned to China after the Manchu conquest, and also as a result of the ensuing rapid increase of population, land cultivation and therefore tax revenues based on agriculture, the Kangxi Emperor was able first to make tax remissions, then in 1712 to freeze the land tax and corvée altogether, without embarrassing the state treasury (although the dynasty eventually suffered from this fiscal policy).[39]

Family

Consorts

The total number is approximately 64.

  1. Empress Xiaochengren (died 1674) from the Hešeri clan – married in 1665.
  2. Empress Xiaozhaoren (Manchu: Hiyoošungga Genggiyen Gosin Hūwanghu) from the Niohuru clan.
  3. Empress Xiaoyiren (Manchu: Hiyoošungga Fujurangga Gosin Hūwanghu) from the Tunggiya clan.
  4. Empress Xiaogongren (Manchu: Hiyoošungga Gungnecuke Gosin Hūwanghu) from the Wuya clan.
  5. Imperial Noble Consort Quehui (1668–1743) from the Tunggiya clan, Empress Xiaoyiren's younger sister.
  6. Imperial Noble Consort Dunyi (1683–1768) from the Guwalgiya clan
  7. Imperial Noble Consort Jingmin (died 1699) from the Janggiya clan
  8. Noble Consort Wenxi (died 1695) from the Niuhuru clan, Empress Xiaozhaoren's younger sister.
  9. Consort Shunyimi (1668–1744) from the Wang clan was Han Chinese in origin.
  10. Consort Chunyuqin (died 1754) from the Chen clan of Han Chinese origin.
  11. Consort Rong (died 1727) from the Magiya clan.
  12. Consort Yi (died 1733) from the Gobulo clan.
  13. Consort Hui (died 1732) from the Nala clan.
  14. Consort Liang (died 1711) from the Wei clan.
  15. Consort Cheng (died 1740) from the Daigiya clan.
  16. Consort Xuan (died 1736) from the Mongol Borjigit clan.
  17. Consort Ding (1661–1757) from the Wanliuha clan.
  18. Consort Ping (died 1696) from the Hešeri clan, Empress Xiaochengren's younger sister.
  19. Consort Hui (died 1670) from the Borjigit clan.

Sons

Having the longest reign in Chinese history, the Kangxi Emperor also had the most children of all Qing emperors. He had officially 24 sons and 12 daughters. The actual number is higher, as most of his children died from illness.

#1 Name2 Born Died Mother Notes
Chengrui
承瑞 		5 November 1667 10 July 1670 Consort Rong Died young
Chenghu
承祜 		4 January 1670 3 March 1672 Empress Xiaochengren Died young
Chengqing
承慶 		21 March 1670 26 May 1671 Consort Hui Died young
Sayinchahun
賽音察渾 		24 January 1672 6 March 1674 Consort Rong Died young
1 Yinzhi
胤禔 		12 March 1672 7 January 1735 Consort Hui Created Prince Zhi of the Second Rank (直郡王) in 1698;
Stripped of his title in 1708;
Buried with honours befitting a beizi
Changhua
長華 		11 May 1674 12 May 1674 Consort Rong Died young
2 Yinreng
胤礽 		6 June 1674 27 January 1725 Empress Xiaochengren Original name Baocheng (保成);
Created Crown Prince in 1675;
Stripped of his position in 1708;
Re-created Crown Prince in 1709;
Stripped of his position in 1712;
Posthumously created Prince Li of the First Rank, posthumous name Mi (密)
Changsheng
長生 		12 August 1675 27 April 1677 Consort Rong Died young
Wanpu
萬黼 		4 December 1675 11 March 1679 Imperial Concubine Tong Died young
3 Yinzhi
胤祉 		23 March 1677 10 July 1732 Consort Rong Created Prince Cheng of the Second Rank (誠郡王) in 1698; demoted to beile in 1699; promoted to Prince Cheng of the First Rank in 1709; demoted to Prince Cheng of the Second Rank in 1728; promoted to Prince Cheng of the First Rank in 1728; demoted to Prince Cheng of the Second Rank in 1730 ;
Granted the posthumous name Yin (隱)
4 Yinzhen
胤禛 		13 December 1678 8 October 1735 Empress Xiaogongren Created a beile in 1698; promoted to Prince Yong of the First Rank (雍親王) in 1709;
Ascended the throne as the Yongzheng Emperor on 27 December 1722
Yinzan
胤禶 		10 April 1679 30 April 1680 Imperial Concubine Tong Died young
5 Yinqi
胤祺 		5 January 1680 10 July 1732 Consort Yi Created a beile in 1698 ; promoted to Prince Heng of the First Rank (恆親王) in 1698;
Granted the posthumous name Wen (溫)
6 Yinzuo
胤祚 		5 March 1680 15 June 1685 Empress Xiaogongren Died young
7 Yinyou
胤祐 		19 August 1680 18 May 1730 Consort Cheng Created a beile in 1698;
Elevated to Prince Chun of the Second Rank (淳郡王) in 1709;
Elevated further to Prince Chun of the First Rank (淳親王) in May 1723;
Granted the posthumous name Du (度)
8 Yinsi
胤禩 		29 March 1681 5 October 1726 Consort Liang Created a beile in 1698; promoted to Prince Lian of the First Rank (廉親王) in 1723;
Stripped of his title and expelled from the imperial house in 1726;
Forced to rename himself Akina (阿其那) ("pig")
Posthumously restored in 1778
Yinju
胤䄔 		13 September 1683 17 July 1684 Honoured Lady Gorolo Died young
9 Yintang
胤禟 		17 October 1683 22 September 1726 Consort Yi Created a beizi in 1709;
Stripped of his title and expelled from the imperial house in 1725;
Forced to rename himself Sesihei (塞思黑) ("dog")
Posthumously restored in 1778
10 Yin’e
胤䄉 		28 November 1683 18 October 1741 Noble Consort Wenxi Created Prince Dun of the Second Rank (敦郡王) in 1709;
Stripped of his title in 1724;
made a fuguo gong (輔國公) in 1737
Buried with honours befitting a beizi
11 Yinzi
胤禌 		8 June 1685 22 August 1696 Consort Yi Died young
12 Yintao
胤祹 		18 January 1686 2 September 1763 Consort Ding Created a beizi in 1709; promoted to Prince Lü of the Second Rank in 1722; demoted to beizi in 1724; promoted to Prince Lü of the Second Rank in 1730; promoted to Prince Lü of the First Rank (履親王) in 1735;
Granted the posthumous name Yi (懿)
13 Yinxiang
胤祥 		16 November 1686 18 June 1730 Imperial Noble Consort Jingmin Created a beizi in 1709 ; stripped of his title in 1712 ; created Prince Yi of the First Rank (怡親王) in 1722;
Granted the posthumous name Xian (賢)
Was one of the Qing dynasty’s 12 "iron-cap" princes
14 Yinti
胤禵 		16 January 1688 13 January 1756 Empress Xiaogongren Born Yinzhen (胤禎);
Creted a beizi in 1709; promoted to Prince Xun of the Second Rank (恂郡王) in 1723; demoted to feng'en zhenguo gong and later restored to beizi in 1725; stripped of his title in 1726; restored as feng'en zhenguo gong in 1737; promoted to beile in 1747; promoted to Prince Xun of the Second Rank in 1748
Granted the posthumous name Qin (勤)
Yinji
胤禨 		23 February 1691 30 March 1691 Consort Ping Died young
15 Yinwu
胤禑 		24 December 1693 8 March 1731 Consort Shunyimi Created a beile in 1726, promoted to Prince Yu of the Second Rank (愉郡王) in 1730;
Granted the posthumous name Ke (恪)
16 Yinlu
胤祿 		28 July 1695 20 March 1767 Consort Shunyimi Adopted by Boguoduo, Prince Zhuang;
Inherited the title Prince Zhuang of the First Rank (莊親王) in 1723;
Granted the posthumous name Ke (恪)
17 Yinli
胤禮 		24 March 1697 21 March 1738 Consort Chunyuqin Created Prince Guo of the Second Rank (果郡王) in 1723; promoted to Prince Guo of the First Rank in 1728;
Granted the posthumous name Yi (毅)
18 Yinxie
胤祄 		15 May 1701 17 October 1708 Consort Shunyimi Died at the Chengde Mountain Resort from mumps
19 Yinji
胤禝 		25 October 1702 28 March 1704 Imperial Concubine Xiang Died young
20 Yinyi
胤禕 		1 September 1706 30 June 1755 Imperial Concubine Xiang Created a beile in 1726
Granted the posthumous name Jianjing (簡靖)
21 Yinxi
胤禧 		27 February 1711 26 June 1758 Imperial Concubine Xi Created a beizi in 1730, promoted to beile in 1730, promoted to Prince Shen of the Second Rank (慎郡王) in December 1735
Granted the posthumous name Jing (靖)
22 Yinhu
胤祜 		10 January 1712 12 February 1744 Imperial Concubine Jin Created a beile in 1730;
Granted the posthumous name Gongqin (恭勤)
23 Yinqi
胤祁 		14 January 1714 31 August 1785 Imperial Concubine Jing Created a beile in 1730;
Granted the posthumous name Cheng (誠)
24 Yinmi
胤祕 		5 July 1716 3 December 1773 Imperial Concubine Mu Created Prince Xian of the First Rank (諴親王) in 1733;
Granted the posthumous name Ke (恪)
Yinyuan
胤禐 		2 March 1718 2/3 March 1718 Honoured Lady Chen Died soon after birth

Daughters

# Title Born Died Married Spouse Issue Mother
1 unnamed 23 December 1668 November 1671 Ordinary Consort Zhang
2 unnamed 17 April 1671 8 January 1674 Ordinary Consort Dong
3 State Princess Rongxian
固倫榮憲公主 		20 June 1673 29 May 1728 July 1691 Borjigit Urgun, Prince of Baarin
博爾濟吉特烏爾袞 		Consort Rong
4 unnamed 16 March 1674 1678 Ordinary Consort Zhang
5 Princess Duanjing of the Second Rank
和碩端靜公主 		9 June 1674 April 1710 November or December 1692 Ulanghan Garzang
烏梁罕噶爾臧 		Honoured Lady Bu
6 State Princess Kejing
固倫恪靖公主 		4 July 1679 1735 1697 Borjigit Dunduobudorji, Prince of the Khalkha Mongols Honoured Lady Gorolo
7 unnamed 5 July 1682 September 1682 Empress Xiaogongren
8 unnamed 13 July 1683 late July or August 1683 Empress Xiaoyiren
9 State Princess Wenxian
固倫溫憲公主 		10 November 1683 August or September 1702 October or November 1700 Tunggiya Shun’anyan
佟佳舜安顏 		Empress Xiaogongren
10 State Princess Chunque
固倫純愨公主 		20 March 1685 1710 1706 Borjigit Celeng
博爾濟吉特策棱 		Borjigit Chenggunzhabu
博爾濟吉特成袞札布 		Imperial Concubine Tong
11 unnamed 24 October 1685 June or July 1686 Noble Consort Wenxi
12 unnamed 14 June 1686 late February or March 1697 Empress Xiaogongren
13 Princess Wenke of the Second Rank
和碩溫恪公主 		1 January 1688 July or August 1709 1706 Borjigit Cangjin
博爾濟吉特倉津 		Imperial Noble Consort Jing Min
14 Princess Quejing of the Second Rank
和碩愨靖公主 		16 January 1690 1736 1706 Sun Chengyun, Baron of the First Rank
一等男孫承運 		Honoured Lady Yuan
15 Princess Dunke of the Second Rank
和碩敦恪公主 		3 February 1691 January 1710 January or February 1709 ‘’Taiji’’ Borjigit Dorji
博爾濟吉特台吉多爾濟 		Imperial Noble Consort Jing Min
16 unnamed 27 November 1695 October or November 1707 Ordinary Consort Wang
17 unnamed 12 January 1699 December 1700 Ordinary Consort Liu
18 unnamed 17 November 1701 Imperial Noble Consort Dunyi
19 unnamed 30 March 1703 late February or March 1705 Imperial Concubine Xiang
20 unnamed 20 November 1708 January or early February 1709 Ordinary Consort Niuhuru

Popular culture

Fiction

Film and television

Video games

Notes

  1. ↑ Schirokauer, Conrad (2006). A Brief History of Chinese Civilization, Thompson Wadswoth, pp. 234–235
  2. ↑ He can be viewed as the fourth emperor of the dynasty, depending on whether the dynasty's founder, Nurhaci, who used the title of Khan but was posthumously given imperial title, is to be treated as an emperor or not
  3. ↑ "Emperor Kangxi - The Emperor Who Reigned for the Longest Period in Chinese History". Cultural China. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  4. ↑ Magill, editor, Larissa Juliet Taylor ; editor, first edition, Frank N. (2006). Great lives from history. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press. ISBN 978-1-58765-222-6.
  5. ↑ China's Last Empire: The Great Qing, by William T. Rowe, p63
  6. ↑ Note that Xuanye was born in May 1654, and was therefore less than seven years old at the time. Both Spence 2002 and Oxnam 1975 (p. 1) nonetheless claim that he was "seven years old." Dennerline 2002 (p. 119) and Rawski 1998 (p. 99) indicate that he was "not yet seven years old." Following East Asian age reckoning, Chinese documents concerning the succession say that Xuanye was eight sui (Oxnam 1975, p. 62).
  7. ↑ Giles 1912, p. 40.
  8. 1 2 Bennet Peterson. p. 328. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ↑ Manthorpe 2008, p. 108.
  10. ↑ SarDesai, D. R. (1988). Vietnam, Trials and Tribulations of a Nation, p. 38
  11. ↑ Gorelova 2002, p. 36.
  12. ↑ Cordier & Pelliot 1922, p. 33.
  13. ↑ http://www.kong.org.cn/Item/Show.asp?m=1&d=458
  14. ↑ Qin ding da Qing hui dian (Jiaqing chao)0. 1818. pp. 1084–.
  15. ↑ 不詳 (21 August 2015). 新清史. 朔雪寒. pp. –. GGKEY:ZFQWEX019E4.
  16. ↑ http://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=557587
  17. ↑ http://www.taodabai.com/2608556.html
  18. ↑ 王士禎 (3 September 2014). 池北偶談. 朔雪寒. pp. –. GGKEY:ESB6TEXXDCT.
  19. ↑ 徐錫麟; 錢泳 (10 September 2014). 熙朝新語. 朔雪寒. pp. –. GGKEY:J62ZFNAA1NF.
  20. ↑ http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_d2b9ecb50102v4vn.html
  21. ↑ H.S. Brunnert; V.V. Hagelstrom (15 April 2013). Present Day Political Organization of China. Routledge. pp. 493–494. ISBN 978-1-135-79795-9.
  22. ↑ http://www.forgottenbooks.com/readbook_text/Present_Day_Political_Organization_of_China_1000115601/507
  23. ↑ https://archive.org/stream/presentdaypoliti00brun#page/492/mode/2up
  24. ↑ H.S. Brunnert; V.V. Hagelstrom (15 April 2013). Present Day Political Organization of China. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79794-2.
  25. 1 2 3 Mantienne, p. 180
  26. ↑ 'Les Missions Etrangeres, p. 83
  27. ↑ Manteigne, p. 178
  28. ↑ "In the Light and Shadow of an Emperor: Tomás Pereira, S.J. (1645–1708), the Kangxi Emperor and the Jesuit Mission in China", An International Symposium in Commemoration of the 3rd Centenary of the death of Tomás Pereira, S.J., Lisbon, Portugal and Macau, China, 2008
  29. ↑ Neill, S. (1964). A History of Christian Missions, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, pp. 189-l90
  30. ↑ Aldridge, Alfred Owen, Masayuki Akiyama, Yiu-Nam Leung. Crosscurrents in the Literatures of Asia and the West, p. 54
  31. ↑ Li, Dan J., trans. (1969). China in Transition, 1517–1911, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, p. 22
  32. ↑ original words:不法祖德，不遵朕训，惟肆恶虐众，暴戾淫乱
  33. ↑ 明孝陵两大“碑石之谜”被破解 (Solving the two great riddles of the Ming Xiaoling's stone tablets). People's Daily, 13 June 2003. Quote regarding the Kangxi Emperor's stele text and its meaning: "清朝皇帝躬祀明朝皇帝 ... 禦書“治隆唐宋”（意思是讚揚朱元璋的功績超過了唐太宗李世民、宋高祖趙匡胤）"
  34. ↑ 吕四娘刺雍正 只是个传说
  35. ↑ Finer (1997), pp. 1134–5
  36. ↑ Spence, The Search for Modern China (2013), pp. 67-68
  37. ↑ Spence, The Search for Modern China (2013), pp. 56-58
  38. ↑ Finer (1997), p. 1142
  39. ↑ Finer (1997), pp. 1156–7
  40. ↑ 章曉文、陳捷先 (2001). 雍正寫真. 遠流出版公司
  41. ↑ 史松 (2009). 雍正研究/满族清代历史文化研究文库. 辽宁民族出版社

Bibliography and further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kangxi Emperor.
Kangxi Emperor
Born: 4 May 1654 Died: 20 December 1722
Regnal titles
Preceded by
The Shunzhi Emperor		 Emperor of China
1661–1722 		Succeeded by
The Yongzheng Emperor
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