Lingzhi mushroom

Lingzhi mushroom
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Polyporales
Family: Ganodermataceae
Genus: Ganoderma
Species: G. lucidum
Binomial name
Ganoderma lucidum
(Curtis) P. Karst (1881)

The lingzhi mushroom or reishi mushroom (traditional Chinese: 靈芝; pinyin: língzhī; Japanese: reishi; Vietnamese: linh chi; literally: "soul/spirit mushroom[1]") is a species complex that encompasses several fungal species of the genus Ganoderma, most commonly the closely related species Ganoderma lucidum, Ganoderma tsugae, and Ganoderma sichuanense. G. sichuanense enjoys special veneration in East Asia, where it has been used as a medicinal mushroom in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years,[2] making it one of the oldest mushrooms known to have been used medicinally. Lingzhi is listed in the American Herbal Pharmacopoeia and Therapeutic Compendium.

Lingzhi mushroom
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list

Mycological characteristics

pores on hymenium

cap is offset

or indistinct
hymenium attachment is irregular or not applicable

stipe is bare

or lacks a stipe
spore print is brown

ecology is saprotrophic

or parasitic
edibility: edible
Lingzhi mushroom
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 靈芝
Simplified Chinese 灵芝
Literal meaning supernatural mushroom
Korean name
Hangul 영지
Japanese name
Kana レイシ
Kyūjitai 靈芝
Shinjitai 霊芝

Taxonomy and naming

Names for the lingzhi fungus have a two thousand-year history. The Chinese term lingzhi 靈芝 was first recorded during the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE). Petter Adolf Karsten named the genus Ganoderma in 1881.[3]

Botanical names

The fungus was given its first binomial name, Boletus lucidus, by English botanist William Curtis in 1781. The lingzhi's botanical names have Greek and Latin roots. The generic name Ganoderma derives from the Greek ganos γανος "brightness; sheen", hence "shining" and derma δερμα "skin".[4] The specific epithet lucidum is Latin for "shining". Tsugae is derived from the Japanese word for "hemlock" (tsuga 栂).

There are multiple species of lingzhi, scientifically known to be within the Ganoderma lucidum species complex and mycologists are still researching the differences among species within this complex.[5]

Chinese names

In the Chinese language, lingzhi is made up of the compounds ling 灵 "spirit, spiritual; soul; miraculous; sacred; divine; mysterious; efficacious; effective" (cf. Lingyan Temple) and zhi 芝 "(traditional) plant of longevity; fungus; seed; branch; mushroom; excrescence". Fabrizio Pregadio notes, "The term zhi, which has no equivalent in Western languages, refers to a variety of supermundane substances often described as plants, fungi, or "excresences"."[6] Zhi occurs in other Chinese plant names such as zhima 芝麻 "sesame" or "seed", and was anciently used a phonetic loan character for zhi 芷 "Angelica iris". Chinese differentiates Ganoderma species between chizhi 赤芝 "red mushroom" G. lucidum and zizhi 紫芝 "purple mushroom" G. japonicum.

Lingzhi has several synonyms. ruicao 瑞草 "auspicious plant" (with rui 瑞 "auspicious; felicitous omen" and the suffix cao "plant; herb") is the oldest; the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defines qiu 苬 (interpreted as a miscopy of jun 菌 "mushroom") as zhi 芝 "mushroom" and the commentary of Guo Pu (276–324) says, "The [zhi] flowers three times in one year. It is a [ruicao] felicitous plant."[7] Other Chinese names for Ganoderma include ruizhi 瑞芝 "auspicious mushroom", shenzhi 神芝 "divine mushroom" (with shen "spirit; god' supernatural; divine"), mulingzhi 木灵芝 (with "tree; wood"), xiancao 仙草 "immortality plant" (with xian "(Daoism) transcendent; immortal; wizard"), and lingzhicao 灵芝草 or zhicao 芝草 "mushroom plant".

Since both Chinese ling and zhi have multiple meanings, lingzhi has diverse English translations. Renditions include "[zhi] possessed of soul power",[8] "Herb of Spiritual Potency" or "Mushroom of Immortality",[9] "Numinous Mushroom",[10] "divine mushroom",[11] "divine fungus",[12] "Magic Fungus",[13] and "Marvelous Fungus".[14]

Japanese names

Japanese language Reishi 霊芝 is a Sino-Japanese loan word from lingzhi. This modern Japanese kanji 霊 is the shinjitai "new character form" for the kyūjitai "old character form" 靈.

Reishi synonyms divide between Sino-Japanese borrowings and native Japanese coinages. Sinitic loanwords include literary terms such as zuisō 瑞草 (from ruicao) "auspicious plant" and sensō 仙草 (from xiaocao) "immortality plant". A common native Japanese name is mannentake 万年茸 "10,000 year mushroom". The Japanese writing system uses shi or shiba 芝 for "grass; lawn; turf" and take or kinoko 茸 for "mushroom" (e.g., shiitake). Other Japanese terms for reishi include kadodetake 門出茸 "departure mushroom", hijiridake 聖茸 "sage mushroom", and magoshakushi 孫杓子 "grandchild ladle".

Korean names

"Ganoderma motif" with Dancheong

Korean language Yeong Ji or Yung Gee (영지,灵芝) is a word from hanja of lingzhi. It is also called seon-cho (선초,仙草), gil-sang-beo-seot (길상버섯,吉祥茸), yeong ji cho (영지초,灵芝草) or jeok ji (적지,赤芝). It can be classified by its color such as ja-ji (자지,紫芝) for purple one, heuk-ji (흑지,黑芝) for black, cheong-ji (청지,靑芝) for blue or green, baek-ji (백지,白芝) for white, hwang-ji (황지,黃芝) for yellow.

Vietnamese names

The Vietnamese language linh chi is a Chinese loanword used in tiếng Việt. It is often used with the Vietnamese word for mushroom nấm (nấm Linh Chi) which is the equivalent of Ganoderma lucidum or reishi mushroom.

English names

English lingzhi or ling chih (sometimes spelled "ling chi" from French EFEO Chinese transcription) is a Chinese loanword. The Oxford English Dictionary gives Chinese "líng divine + zhī fungus" as the origin of ling chih or lingzhi, and defines, "The fungus Ganoderma lucidum, believed in China to confer longevity and used as a symbol of this on Chinese ceramic ware."[15] The OED notes the earliest recorded usage of the Wade–Giles romanization ling chih in 1904,[16] and of the Pinyin lingzhi in 1980. In addition to the transliterated loanword, English names include "glossy ganoderma" and "shiny polyporus".[17]

Description

Lingzhi is a polypore mushroom that is soft (when fresh), corky, and flat, with a conspicuous red-varnished, kidney-shaped cap and, depending on specimen age, white to dull brown pores underneath.[9] It lacks gills on its underside and releases its spores through fine pores, leading to its morphological classification as a polypore.

Young sporocarp

Varieties

Grown Reishi Mushroom

With the advent of genome sequencing, the genus Ganoderma has been undergoing taxonomic reclassification. Prior to genetic analyses of fungi, they were classified according to their morphological characteristics. The ITS region of the Ganoderma genome is considered to be a standard barcode marker.[18]

It was once thought that Ganoderma lucidum generally occurs in two growth forms- a large specimen with a small or nonexistent stalk found in North America and is sessile, and the other a smaller specimen with a long, narrow stalk found mainly in the tropics. However recent molecular evidence has shown the first form to be a distinct species called G.sessile, a name given to North American specimens by William Alfonso Murrill in 1902.[19][20] Environmental conditions play a substantial role in the lingzhi's manifest morphological characteristics. For example, elevated carbon dioxide levels result in stem elongation in lingzhi. Other formations include antlers without a cap; these may be affected by carbon dioxide levels as well. The species were also formerly differentiated by their colors, of which the red reishi was considered to be the most researched. The three main factors that most greatly influence fruitbody development morphology are light, temperature, and humidity. (Water and air quality are impactful but to a lesser degree).[21]

Depending on the environmental or cultivation conditions the reishi can lose its umbrella shape and resemble antlers instead.

G. lucidum was previously thought to occupy the Asian and European continents. However, with ITS sequencing, it is now known that G. lucidum sensu stricto is confined to Europe, and G. lucidum comprises two distinct species.[22] Mycologists now consider G. lucidum to be a worldwide distributed species-complex in which the development of each strain is shaped by unique physiological state and metabolic demands.[23]

Biochemistry

Ganoderic acid A, a compound isolated from lingzhi

Ganoderma lucidum produces a group of triterpenes, called ganoderic acids, which have a molecular structure similar to steroid hormones.[24] It also contains other compounds often found in fungal materials, including polysaccharides (such as beta-glucan), coumarin,[25] mannitol, and alkaloids.[24] Sterols isolated from the mushroom include, ganoderol, ganoderenic acid, ganoderiol, ganodermanontriol, lucidadiol, and ganodermadiol. Fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs) are bioactive ingredients within genera Ganoderma that have immune building properties. FIPs stimulate different cells and cellular components that enable immune response. Some of the molecules and cells that FIPs influence include T and B lymphocytes, natural killer cells, macrophages, and regulation of human monocyte DCs.[26] Improved function of these cells will promote cytokine expression such as IL2, IL-4, and IFN-gamma which will support lymphocyte proliferation, immune cell initiation, and tumor inhibiting factors. Immunostimulation from FIPs could cause increased expression of costimulatory molecules and major histone complexes (MHC) which help to create a pathway for immune response to take place.[27]

Habitat

Ganoderma lucidum, and its close relative Ganoderma tsugae, grow in the northern Eastern Hemlock forests. These two species of bracket fungus have a worldwide distribution in both tropical and temperate geographical regions, growing as a parasite or saprotroph on a wide variety of trees.[9] Similar species of Ganoderma have been found growing in the Amazon.[28] In nature, lingzhi grows at the base and stumps of deciduous trees, especially maple.[29] Only two or three out of 10,000 such aged trees will have lingzhi growth, and therefore its wild form is extremely rare. Today, lingzhi is effectively cultivated both indoors under sterile conditions and outdoors on either logs or woodchip beds.

History

Man holding ganoderma by Chen Hongshou

The Chinese classics first used zhi during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE) and lingzhi during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE).

The word zhi 芝 occurs approximately 100 times in classical texts.[30] Occurrences in early Chinese histories, such as the (91 BCE) Shiji "Records of the Grand Historian" and (82 CE) Hanshu "Book of Han", predominantly refer to the "Mushroom of Immortality; elixir of life". They record that fangshi "masters of esoterica; alchemists; magicians", supposedly followers of Zou Yan (305–240 BCE), claimed to know secret locations like Mount Penglai where the magic zhi mushroom grew. Some sinologists propose that the mythical zhi 芝 derived from Indian legends about soma that reached China around the 3rd century BCE.[31] Fangshi courtiers convinced Qin and Han emperors, most notably Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BCE) and Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE), to dispatch large expeditions (e.g., Xu Fu in 219 BCE) seeking the zhi Plant of Immortality, but none produced tangible results. Zhi occurrences in other classical texts often refer to an edible fungus. The Liji "Record of Ritual" lists zhi "lichens" as a type of condiment.[32] The Chuci "Song of the South" metaphorically mentions, "The holy herb is weeded out".[33] The Huainanzi "Philosophers of Huainan" records a zizhi 紫芝 "Purple Mushroom" Aphorism, "The zhi fungus grows on mountains, but it cannot grow on barren boulders."[34]

The word lingzhi 靈芝 was first recorded in a fu 賦 "rhapsody; prose-poem" by the Han dynasty polymath Zhang Heng (CE 78–139). His Xijing fu 西京賦 "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" description of Emperor Wu of Han's (104 BCE) Jianzhang Palace parallels lingzhi with shijun 石菌 "rock mushroom": "Raising huge breakers, lifting waves, That drenched the stone mushrooms on the high bank, And soaked the magic fungus on vermeil boughs."[35] The commentary by Xue Zong (d. 237) notes these fungi were eaten as drugs of immortality.

The (ca. 1st–2nd century CE) Shennong bencao jing "Divine Farmer's Classic of Pharmaceutics" classifies zhi into six color categories, each of which is believed to benefit the qi "Life Force" in a different part of the body: qingzhi 青芝 "Green Mushroom" for Liver, chizhi 赤芝 "Red Mushroom" for heart, huangzhi 黃芝 "Yellow Mushroom" for spleen, baizhi 白芝 "White Mushroom" for Lung, heizhi "Black Mushroom" 黑芝 for kidney, and zizhi 紫芝 "Purple Mushroom" for Essence. Commentators identify this red chizhi (or danzhi 丹芝 "cinnabar mushroom") as the lingzhi.

Chi Zhi (Ganoderma rubra) is bitter and balanced. It mainly treats binding in the chest, boosts the heart qi, supplements the center, sharpens the wits, and [causes people] not to forget [i.e., improves the memory]. Protracted taking may make the body light, prevent senility, and prolong life so as to make one an immortal. Its other name is Dan Zhi (Cinnabar Ganoderma). It grows in mountains and valleys.[36][37]

While Chinese texts have recorded medicinal uses of lingzhi for more than 2,000 years, a few sources erroneously claim more than 4,000 years.[38] Modern scholarship accepts neither the historicity of Shennong "Divine Farmer" (legendary inventor of agriculture, traditionally r. 2737–2697 BCE) nor that he wrote the Shennong bencao jing.

The (ca. 320 CE) Baopuzi, written by the Jin Dynasty Daoist scholar Ge Hong, has the first classical discussion of Zhi.[39] Based upon no-longer extant texts, Ge distinguishes five categories of zhi, each with 120 varieties: Shizhi 石芝 "stone Zhi", Muzhi 木芝 "wood Zhi", Caozhi 草芝 "Plant Zhi", Rouzhi 肉芝 "flesh zhi", and junzhi 菌芝 "mushroom zhi. For example, the "mushroom zhi".

Tiny excresences. These grow deep in the mountains, at the base of large trees or beside springs. They may resemble buildings, palanquins and horses, dragon and tigers, human beings, or flying birds. They may be any of the five colors. They too number 120 for which there exist illustrations. All are to be sought and gathered while using Yu's Pace, and they are to be cut with a bone knife. When dried in the shade, powdered, and taken by the inch-square spoonful, they produce geniehood. Those of the intermediate class confer several thousands of years, and those of the lowest type a thousand years of life.[40]

Yu's Pace is a Daoist ritual walking technique. Pregadio concludes, "While there may be no better term than "mushrooms" or "excresences" to refer to them, and even though Ge Hong states that they "are not different from natural mushrooms (ziran zhi 自然芝) (Baopuzi 16.287)", the Zhi pertain to an intermediate dimension between mundane and transcendent reality."[41]

The (1596) Bencao Gangmu ("Compendium of Materia Medica") has a zhi 芝 category that includes six types of Zhi (calling the green, red, yellow, white, black, and purple ones from the Shennong bencao jing the liuzhi 六芝 "six mushrooms") and sixteen other fungi, mushrooms, and lichens (e.g., mu'er 木耳 "wood ear" "Cloud ear fungus; Auricularia auricula-judae"). The author Li Shizhen classified these six differently colored Zhi as Xiancao 仙草 "immortality herbs", and described the effects of Chizhi "red mushroom":

It positively affects the life-energy, or Qi of the heart, repairing the chest area and benefiting those with a knotted and tight chest. Taken over a long period of time, agility of the body will not cease, and the years are lengthened to those of the Immortal Fairies.[42][43]

Stuart and Smith's classical study of Chinese herbology describes the zhi.

芝 (Chih) is defined in the classics as the plant of immortality, and it is therefore always considered to be a felicitous one. It is said to absorb the earthy vapors and to leave a heavenly atmosphere. For this reason it is called 靈芝 (Ling-chih.) It is large and of a branched form, and probably represents Clavaria or Sparassis. Its form is likened to that of coral.[44]

The Bencao Gangmu does not list lingzhi as a variety of zhi, but as an alternate name for the shi'er 石耳 "stone ear" "Umbilicaria esculenta" lichen. According to Stuart and Smith,

[The 石耳 Shih-erh is] edible, and has all of the good qualities of the 芝 (Chih), being also used in the treatment of gravel, and said to benefit virility. It is specially used in hemorrhage from the bowels and prolapse of the rectum. While the name of this would indicate that it was one of the Auriculariales, the fact that the name 靈芝 (Ling-chih) is also given to it might place it among the Clavariaceae.[45]

Chinese pharmaceutical handbooks on Zhi mushrooms were the first illustrated publications in the history of mycology. The historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham discussed a no-longer extant Liang Dynasty (502–587) illustrated text called Zhong Shenzhi 種神芝 "On the Planting and Cultivation of Magic Mushrooms".

The pictures of mushrooms in particular must have been an extremely early landmark in the history of mycology, which was a late-developing science in the West. The title of [this book] shows that fungi of some kind were being regularly cultivated – hardly as food, with that special designation, more probably medicinal, conceivably hallucinogenic."[46]

The (1444) Ming Dynasty edition Daozang "Daoist canon" contains the Taishang lingbao zhicao pin 太上靈寶芝草品 "Classifications of the Most High Divine Treasure Mushroom Plant",[47] which categorizes 127 varieties of Zhi.[48] A (1598) Ming reprint includes woodblock pictures.[49]

In Chinese art, the lingzhi symbolizes great health and longevity, as depicted in the imperial Forbidden City and Summer Palace.[50] It was a talisman for luck in the traditional culture of China, and the goddess of healing Guanyin is sometimes depicted holding a reishi mushroom.[51]

Preparation

Because of its bitter taste, lingzhi is traditionally prepared as a hot water extract product.[52] Thinly sliced or pulverized lingzhi (either fresh or dried) is added to a pot of boiling water, the water is then reduced to a simmer, and the pot is covered; the lingzhi is then simmered for two hours. The resulting liquid is fairly bitter in taste and dark, with the more active red lingzhi more bitter than the black. The process is sometimes repeated for additional concentration. Alternatively, it can be used as an ingredient in a formula decoction or used to make an extract (in liquid, capsule, or powder form). The more active red forms of lingzhi are far too bitter to be consumed in a soup.

Medical uses

Anti-Allergic/Anti-Inflammatory Activity: Studies showed that Reishi extract significantly inhibited all four types of allergic reactions [14], including positive effects against asthma and contact dermatitis and effectively used in treating stiff necks, stiff shoulders, conjunctivitis (inflammation of the fine membrane lining the eye and eyelids), bronchitis, rheumatism and improving "competence" of the immune system without any significant side effects.[53]

Anticonvulsant Effects: A water extract from Reishi mycelium significantly increased the threshold for psychomotor seizures in mice.[54] Mycelial extracts also confer anti-inflammatory activity as evidenced by inhibitory activity of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in murine macrophage-like cell line RAW264.7 cells.[55][56]

Cancer: The use of G. lucidum has also been explored as a complementary adjunct treatment in patients undergoing chemotherapy treatment. A recent 2012 meta-analysis of five randomized control trials showed that patients responded more positively when given G. lucidum alongside their chemotherapy regimen, and the studies also showed that patients had improved immune functions that was measured by their elevated levels of immune response cells.[57] Several compounds in G. lucidum have been studied for apoptotic activity in colon cancer cells,[58] antiproliferative effects in ovarian cancer cells,[59] and induction of apoptosis in human gastric carcinoma cells.[60]

Cardiovascular Risk Factors: Previous clinical evidence suggested that G. lucidum may have antioxidant, cardioprotective, and glycemic regulatory effects.[61] However, a 2015 Cochrane review did not find evidence to support the use of or treatment of cardiovascular risk factors in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus.[62]

Diabetes: Several compounds in G. lucidum (including polysaccharides, proteoglycans, proteins and triterpenoids) may have hypoglycemic effects. In vitro evidence suggests that protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B is a promising therapeutic target in diabetes, and a G. lucidum proteoglycan can inhibit this enzyme. Secondly, G. lucidum demonstrates inhibition of aldose reductase and α-glucosidase, which can suppress postprandial hyperglycemia.[63] A proteoglycan enhanced insulin secretion and decreasing hepatic glucose output (along with increased adipose and skeletal muscle glucose disposal)[64] and normalized serum lipids in a murine model of diabetes.[65] A polysaccharide also demonstrated hypoglycemic effects in type 2 diabetic mice.[66]

Gastrointestinal Health: Recent murine studies suggest that G. lucidum may positively impact gut microflora to attenuate metabolic risk factors contributing to obesity.[67]

Hepatoprotection: G. lucidum significantly decreased serum ALT and AST levels in mice livers injured with α-amanitin.[68] A proteoglycan also demonstrated hepatoprotective effects in carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in vitro and in vivo.[69]

Immunostimulation: G. lucidum contains beta glucans and other polysaccharides to stimulate innate immune function and signaling[70][71][72][73] and activate dendritic cells.[74][75]

Neuroprotection: G. lucidum protected dopaminergic neurons through inhibition of microglia.[76]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "靈芝". Wiktionary.
  2. ↑ Jones, Kenneth (1990), Reishi: Ancient Herb for Modern Times, Sylvan Press, p. 6.
  3. ↑ Karsten PA. (1881). "Enumeratio Boletinearum et Polyporearum Fennicarum, systemate novo dispositarum". Revue mycologique, Toulouse (in Latin) 3 (9): 16–19.
  4. ↑ Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
  5. ↑ Hseu RS, Wang HH, Wang HF, Moncalvo JM (1996). "Differentiation and grouping of isolates of the Ganoderma lucidum complex by random amplified polymorphic DNA-PCR compared with grouping on the basis of internal transcribed spacer sequences". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62 (4): 1354–63. PMC 167902. PMID 8919797.
  6. ↑ Pregadio, Fabrizio (2008). "Zhi 芝 numinous mushrooms; excrescences", in The Encyclopedia of Taoism, Fabrizio Pregadio, ed., Routledge, p. 1271.
  7. ↑ Tr. by E. Bretschneider (1893), Botanicon Sinicum; Notes on Chinese Botany from Native and Western Sources, Kelly & Walsh, p. 40.
  8. ↑ Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1892–1910), The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith, Brill Publishers, Vol. IV, p. 307.
  9. 1 2 3 David Arora (1986). Mushrooms demystified, 2nd edition. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-89815-169-4.
  10. ↑ Pregadio (2008), p. 1271.
  11. ↑ .Hu, Shiu-ying (2006), Food plants of China, Chinese University Press.
  12. ↑ Bedini, Silvio A. (1994), The Trail of Time, Cambridge University Press, p. 113.
  13. ↑ Knechtges, David R. (1996), ' Wen Xuan or Selections of Refined Literature, Volume III, Princeton University Press, p. 211.
  14. ↑ Schipper, Kristofer M. (1993), The Taoist Body, University of California Press, p. 174.
  15. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary (2009), CD-ROM edition (v. 4.0), s.v. ling chih.
  16. ↑ Stephen Wootton Bushell (1904), Chinese Art, Victoria and Albert Museum, p. 148. This context describes the lingzhi fungus and ruyi scepter as Daoist symbols of longevity on a jade vase.
  17. ↑ Names of a Selection of Asian Fungi, multilingual multi-script plant name database.
  18. ↑ Pawlik, A (2015). "Genetic and Metabolic Intraspecific Biodiversity of Ganoderma lucidum". BioMed Research International 2015: 1–13. doi:10.1155/2015/726149.
  19. ↑ http://www.researchgate.net/publication/267456447_Global_diversity_of_the_Ganoderma_lucidum_complex_%28Ganodermataceae_Polyporales%29_inferred_from_morphology_and_multilocus_phylogeny
  20. ↑ http://www.mycobank.org/Biolomics.aspx?Table=Mycobank&MycoBankNr_=237038
  21. ↑ http://www.dl.begellhouse.com/journals/708ae68d64b17c52,72e9ed69099c0eef,6b7a7dab0ec964e7.html
  22. ↑ Wang, D.-M. (2009). "Ganoderma multipileum, the correct name for ‘G. lucidum’ in tropical Asia". Botanical Studies 50 (4): 451–458.
  23. ↑ Zakaria, L (2009). "Molecular analysis of Ganoderma species fromdifferent hosts in Peninsula Malaysia". Journal of Biological Sciences 9 (1): 12–20. doi:10.3923/jbs.2009.12.20.
  24. 1 2 Paterson RR (2006). "Ganoderma – a therapeutic fungal biofactory". Phytochemistry 67 (18): 1985–2001. doi:10.1002/chin.200650268. PMID 16905165.
  25. ↑ Biosci.Biotechnol.Biochem.,68(4),881–887,2004
  26. ↑ Liao, Chien-Huang; et al. (2008). "Induction of premature senescence in human lung cancer by fungal immunomodulatory protein from Ganoderma tsugae". Food and Chemical Toxicology 46: 1851–1859. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2008.01.044.
  27. ↑ Xue-fei, Wang; et al. (2012). "IMMUNOMODULATORY EFFECTS Of FUNGAL PROTEINS". Current Topics In Nutraceutical Research 10 (1): 1–11.
  28. ↑ Medicinal Mushrooms: An Exploration of Tradition, Healing, & Culture (Herbs and Health Series) by Christopher Hobbs (author), Harriet Beinfield
  29. ↑ (National Audubon Society; Field Guide to Mushrooms, 1993)
  30. ↑ Pre-Qin and Han texts, Chinese Text Project.
  31. ↑ Unschuld, Paul U. (1985), Medicine in China: A History of Ideas, University of California Press, p. 112.
  32. ↑ Tr. by Legge, James (1885), The Li Ki, 2 vols, Oxford University Press, vol. 1, p. 461.
  33. ↑ Tr. by Hawkes, David (1959), Ch’u Tz'u: The Songs of the South, Clarendon, p. 258.
  34. ↑ Tr. by Major, John S., Sarah Queen, Andrew Meyer, and Harold D. Roth (2010), The Huainanzi: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Government in Early Han China, Columbia University Press, p. 634.
  35. ↑ Tr. Knechtges (1996), 201.
  36. ↑ 神農本草經, 草上品. 赤芝。 苦, 平, 無毒。胸中結, 益心氣, 補中, 增智慧, 不忘。久食, 輕身不老, 延年神仙。一名丹芝。 延年神仙。
  37. ↑ Tr. by Yang Shouzhong (1998) The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica: A Translation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, Blue Poppy, pp. 17–18
  38. ↑ Reishi mushroom, Reishiessence.com.
  39. ↑ 抱朴子/卷11; tr. by Ware, James R. (1966). Alchemy, Medicine and Religion in the China of A.D. 320: The Nei Pien of Ko Hung. Dover. pp. 258.
  40. ↑ Tr. by Ware (1966), p. 185. This word jun [[Wikt:菌|]] means "mushroom; fungus; bacterium; germ" – not "tiny".
  41. ↑ Pregadio (2008), p. 1273.
  42. ↑ 本草綱目/菜之三. 胸中結, 益心氣, 補中, 增智慧, 不忘。久食, 輕身不老, 延年神仙。
  43. ↑ Tr. by Halpern, George M. (2007), Healing Mushrooms, Square One, p. 59.
  44. ↑ Stuart, G. A. and F. Porter Smith (1911), Chinese Materia Medica, Pt. 1, Vegetable Kingdom, Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 271.
  45. ↑ Stuart and Smith (1911), p. 274.
  46. ↑ Tr. by Needham, Joseph and Lu Gwei-Djen (1986), Science and Civilisation in China: Biology and biological technology. Botany, Volume 6, Part 1, p. 261.
  47. ↑ DZ 1406, 太上靈寶芝草品, Daoist Studies.
  48. ↑ Tr. "Catalogue of Mushrooms of Immortality" by , Chapter 1, Introduction, NCCU Institutional Repository, p. 107.
  49. ↑ 太上灵宝芝草品, online Taishang lingbao zhicao pin illustrated reprint.
  50. ↑ Smith JE, Rowan NJ, and Sullivan R (2001) Medicinal Mushrooms: Their Therapeutic Properties and Current Medical Usage with Special Emphasis on Cancer Treatments Cancer Research UK, p. 28.
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