Timeline of music in the United States (1950–69)

Timeline of music in the United States
Music history of the United States
Colonial erato the Civil WarDuring the Civil WarLate 19th centuryEarly 20th century40s and 50s60s and 70s80s to the present

This is a timeline of music in the United States from 1950 to 1969.

1950

Early 1950s music trends

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

Mid-1950s music trends
  • Bluegrass music begins moving outside of country audiences to mainstream listeners, including Mike Seeger and Ralph Rinzler, both of whom would go on to play a major role in bluegrass history.[48]
  • The black urban popular music rhythm and blues inspires the white teenage popular music rock and roll.[88]
  • A number of jazz musicians, including pianist Horace Silver, move towards a style known as funk, characterized by the subordination of "melody and harmony to the rhythmic groove".[89]
  • The term bluegrass comes to describe a kind of country-based music, popular especially in rural areas and among those in the urban revival of American folk music.[90]
  • Rockabilly is the most popular form of country music.
  • The Clara Ward Singers begin their period of greatest success with a series of records released by Savoy.[91]
  • Church groups and others begin to denounce rock and roll, "connecting it in an unholy alliance to race, sex and delinquency".[33]
  • Isidro López' band achieves unprecedented commercial success and changes the Tejano big band into a more distinctive and smaller format, influenced strongly by the corrido.[92]

1956

1957

1958

Late 1950s music trends
  • Influential composer Milton Babbitt begins experimenting with techniques to produce electronic sound.[149]
  • Middle Eastern culture, in particular belly dancing, is featured on a number of popular albums, most of which are only superficially related to the actual musics of the Middle East. Examples include I Remember Lebanon, The Markko Polo Adventurers' Orienta and Music of the Middle East - Port Said featuring Mohammed El-Bakkar.[150]
  • Marian Lush introduces the two-trumpet style of polka, which becomes standard in the field.[151]
  • Nashville cements its position as a major center for the American popular music industry, aided by the great success of the Bradley Film and Recording Studio.[152]
  • Atonal music has developed into "a range of idioms—freely chromatic, twelve-tone, systematically serialized, electronic, chance-based, or combinations thereof—with only atonality in common".[149]
  • The Country Music Association is founded.[153]
  • Miles Davis records with a band led by Gil Evans, embracing the "restrained musical intensity that (John Lewis and the Modern Jazz Quartet) pioneered.[10]
  • The city of Liverpool, England becomes home to a large rock and roll scene, inspired by American rock and rhythm and blues, setting the stage for the British Invasion of the 1960s.[154]
  • College students and other young people grow increasingly interested in American folk music, especially blues and what was then known as hillbilly music.[155]
  • Helped by the American folk revival and endorsements from Earl Scruggs and Pete Seeger, two of the stars of that field, sales of banjos increase by over 500%.[156] The album-oriented folk revival is, in large part, responsible for doubled LP sales between 1956 and 1961,[157]
  • The Hawaiian Renaissance of interest in traditional music and other cultural occurrences begins.[158]
  • Max Mathews of Bell Laboratories pioneers the use of computers in creating sound.[159]
  • The emotional, gospel-influenced soul blues vocal style, the electric bass and organ are introduced to the popular blues.[160]
  • The Irish American music scene comes to be dominated by showband music, wherein bands covered rock songs, especially Elvis Presley, skiffle and other popular styles, including traditionally inspired Irish tunes.[55]
  • Chicago-style polka becomes dominant on the East Coast, supplanting the ballroom-style that had been popular since the mid-1930s. People like Marion Lush combine the Chicago and Eastern-styles into a form called dyno-style or push-style.[161]
  • Cool jazz musicians begin working on crime shows on television, creating a style sometimes called crime jazz.[162]

1959

1960

Early 1960s music trends
  • Performers like the New Lost City Ramblers, Joan Baez and Odetta "slowly pushed the (American folk revival) towards a new maturity" by "modernizing their approach and repertoire" with elements of popular music; of these performers, Baez becomes simultaneously one of the most commercially successful and popularly respected, both by folk music purists and more casual audiences, artists of the American folk revival, and makes her record label, Vanguard Records, one of the top labels of the era.[191]
  • After years of being intimidated by the anti-Communist McCarthy hearings, balalaika orchestras experience a resurgence; veterans of older orchestras of the same format rejoined the industry, including Mark Selivan, Sergei Larionoff and Luke Bakoota.[11]
  • Bluegrass becomes an integral part of the folk revival scene, and many adherents of that movement form bluegrass bands.[90]
  • The earliest roots of salsa music begin to emerge.[33]
  • Major record labels regain their former market dominance in the field of pop music, having succumbed for a brief time to a surge of success for independent rhythm and blues and rock and roll labels.[33]
  • The earliest roots of salsa music emerge in the Latin, especially Puerto Rican, community of New York City.[33]
  • The three groups of Old Believers, Russian Orthodox Christians who refused to accept liturgical reform in the 17th century, settle in Woodburn, Oregon; each group has their own distinct style of music, though they will soon syncretize, with one style, known as Harbintsi, becoming the most dominant.[57]
  • Many Greek American bands begin playing in a format popularized by Trio Bel Canto, in which vocalists sing in three-part harmony, accompanied by two bouzoukis and a rhythm guitar.[57]
  • Irish American showbands, smartly dressed performance groups who did popular covers, begin touring the United States, displacing the dance hall band that had long dominated Irish American music[192]

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

Mid-1960s music trends

1966

1967

1968

Late 1960s music trends
  • Pulitzer Prizes are given to works by a number of composers from academic environments, including Leslie Bassett's Variations for Orchestra, Leon Kirchner's String Quartet No. 3, George Crumb's Echoes of Time and the River and Karel Hausa's String Quartet No. 3.
  • Light comedies featuring popular music performers become a major part of American television programming, most prominently including The Monkees, The Partridge Family and The Archies.[126]
  • Some composers begin working with music that draws on older European styles, a field called New Romanticism; these include Lukas Foss, George Rochberg, George Crumb, Jacob Druckman, William Bolcom and David del Tredici.[300]
  • Alex Bradford emerges at the forefront of modern gospel, one of a number of influential singer-songwriters to emerge at this time.[301]
  • The Pinewoods Morris Men, based out of Pinewoods Camp near Plymouth, Massachusetts, performs in the streets of Cambridge. This is followed by a number of similar public performances in the region.[302]
  • Rock bands begin incorporating more sophisticated and complex elements of music into their album-oriented music, creating progressive rock. This is primarily a British phenomenon, but has American practitioners and fans, and will become more well established in North America in the next decade.[33]
  • Several Native American ethnomusicologists begin to publish works on the musics of the indigenous peoples of the Southeast United States, including Edwin Schupman's study of Creek music, David Draper on Choctaw music, and Marcia Herndon and Charlotte Heth on Cherokee music.[303]
  • Clubs catering to African-American gay men in New York City begin to play an uninterrupted stream of Latin, soul and funk music; this is the origin of disco music.[304]
  • Mariachi grows in popularity among Mexican-Americans, buoyed by the institution of school programs in Texas, Arizona and California, and the pioneering of the first nightclub where mariachi is "presented on stage as a dinner show" in Los Angeles.[113]
  • Carlos Santana begins recording, quickly becoming the first major innovator in the field of Latin rock.[113]
  • A resurgence in popularity for the conjunto begins among Tejanos.[92]
  • The Haitian community in New York is large enough to support a significant music industry based around small dances and small bands called mini-djaz, known for a mixture of Haitian, American and Latino musics.[305]
  • The British Invasion leads to the prominence of British bands like The Beatles, Rolling Stones and The Who throughout the United States.[306]
  • W. A. Mathieu begins working with the Dances of Universal Peace, creating new compositions for mixed chorus and instrumental ensembles for that movement.[261]
  • The Black Power movement inspires a wave of research centers and performance ensembles dedicated to African-American music, among the most influential being Dominique René de Lerma's Black Music Center at Indiana University.[240]
  • A number of bands begin producing music with feminist- or lesbian-oriented lyrics, including the New Harmony Sisterhood Band, Miss Saffman's Ladies Sewing Circle and the Chicago Women's Liberation Rock Band.[307]
  • A number of geographers begin investigating the relationship between music, place and space, largely drawing upon the idea of the cultural hearth - a homeland from which a particular aspect of culture diffuses – first described by Carl Sauer and Berkeley School of cultural geography.[308]
  • Rock comes to be seen as distinct from pop music, and is felt by many to be more authentic due to its roots in American folk music, more artistic and to better express the feelings of its audience.[309]
  • Death becomes a common subject for popular music, drawing on recent hits like The Shangri-Las' "Leader of the Pack" and songs in tribute to stars that had died. Many popular songs from this period and beyond begin using an aeolian chordal progression, which is otherwise most commonly associated with classical requiems, such as "All Along the Watchtower" by Bob Dylan and Jimi Hendrix - this technique, which gives a recording a morbid or spooky theme, had been used since at least 1949, with Vaughn Monroe's "(Ghost) Riders in the Sky".[246]
  • The hippie cultural movement, which includes music as an integral part, reaches its peak of popularity and influence.[310]
  • Rock albums begins to be released with fold-out posters, stickers and lyric sheets, rather than simple album covers.[311]

1969

References

Notes

  1. Miller, p. 39.
  2. Miller, p. 46.
  3. Miller, pp. 48–49.
  4. Miller, pp. 187–188. This claim is in quotes in Miller, but is not specifically cited.
  5. Lankford, p. xii.
  6. 1 2 3 Mitchell, p. 70.
  7. 1 2 3 4 U.S. Army Bands
  8. Laing, Dave. "Jukebox". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 513–515.
  9. Crawford, p. 709.
  10. 1 2 Crawford, p. 764.
  11. 1 2 3 Livingston, Tamara E. and Katherine K. Preston, "Snapshot: Two Views of Music and Class", pp. 55–62, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  12. 1 2 3 Wolfe, Charles K. and Jacqueline Cogdell DjeDje, "Snapshot: Two Views of Music, Race, Ethnicity, and Nationhood", pp. 76–86, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  13. 1 2 3 Rycenga, Jennifer, Denise A. Seachrist and Elaine Keillor, "Snapshot: Three Views of Music and Religion", pp. 129–139, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  14. 1 2 3 Loza, Steven. "Latin Caribbean". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 790–801.
  15. 1 2 3 Zheng, Su. "Chinese Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 957–966.
  16. 1 2 Mitchell, p. 62.
  17. Bird, p. 45, calls this the "urbanization" of traditional blues.
  18. Lankford, p. 54
  19. 1 2 Atton, Chris. "Fanzines". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 226–228.
  20. Lankford, p. 67.
  21. Darden, p. 215.
  22. Sanjek, David and Will Straw, "The Music Industry", pp. 256–267, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Cornelius, Steven, Charlotte J. Frisbie and John Shepherd, "Snapshot: Four Views of Music, Government, and Politics", pp.304–319, in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  24. Chase, p. 519.
  25. Chase, p. 555.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Southern, p. 485.
  27. 1 2 Bird, p. 235.
  28. 1 2 3 Halper, Donna. "Radio Free Europe". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 464–465.
  29. Laing, Dave. "Sun Records". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 760–761.
  30. Laing, Dave. "Word". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 774–775.
  31. 1 2 Crawford, p. 737
  32. Crawford, p. 725.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Ho, Fred, Jeremy Wallach, Beverly Diamond, Ron Pen, Rob Bowman and Sara Nicholson, "Snapshot: Five Fusions", pp. 334–361, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  34. Crawford, pp. 739–740.
  35. Miller, p. 42.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bacon, Tony. "Electric guitars". New Grove Dictionary of Music. pp. 27–29.
  37. Miller, pp. 53–54; quotes around dynamic obsolence in Miller.
  38. 1 2 Miller, p. 188.
  39. Darden, p. 291.
  40. 1 2 3 4 5 Wright, Jacqueline R. B. "Concert Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 603–613.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Maultsby, Portia K. "R&B and Soul". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 667–679.
  42. "Janet Collins, 86; Ballerina Was First Black Artist at Met Opera", The New York Times.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Southern, pp. 361–364.
  44. 1 2 3 4 Schrader, Barry. New Grove Dictionary of American Music. pp. 30–35.
  45. Crawford, p. 703.
  46. Koskoff, p. 255.
  47. Crawford, p. 707.
  48. 1 2 Crawford, p. 741
  49. Miller, p. 59.
  50. Miller, p. 66.
  51. Lankford, p. 40.
  52. Wells, Paul F. "Folkways Records.". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 721–722.
  53. Kearns, Williams. "Overview of Music in the United States". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 519–553.
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 Cornelius, Steven. "Afro-Cuban Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 783–789.
  55. 1 2 3 Miller, Rebecca S. "Irish Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 842–846.
  56. Gedutis, p. 40.
  57. 1 2 3 4 5 Levy, Mark. "Eastern European Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 908–918.
  58. 1 2 3 4 Steiner, Fred; Martin Marks. "Film music". New Grove Dictionary of Music, Volume II: E – K.
  59. Paul C. Echols. "Early-music revival". The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, Volume II: E-K. pp. 2–6.
  60. Coleman, p. 71.
  61. Hansen, p. 271.
  62. Laing, Dave. "Rack Jobber". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 562.
  63. Miller, p. 61.
  64. Miller, pp. 69–73.
  65. Lankford, p. 81
  66. Darden, p. 236.
  67. Campbell, Patricia Sheehan and Rita Klinger, "Learning", pp. 274–287, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  68. 1 2 3 4 Bergey, Barry, "Government and Politics", pp. 288–303, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  69. 1 2 3 4 5 Monson, Ingrid. "Jazz". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 650–666.
  70. Levy, Mark; Carl Rahkonen and Ain Haas. "Scandinavian and Baltic Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 866–881.
  71. Clarke, p. 210.
  72. 1 2 Hilts, Janet; David Buckley and John Shepherd. "Crime". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 189–196.
  73. Bird, p. 90.
  74. Crawford, p. 729.
  75. Miller, pp. 79–80.
  76. 1 2 Crawford, p. 765.
  77. Bastian, Vanessa. "Instrument Manufacture". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 526–529.
  78. Horn, David. "Bibliographies". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 7–11.
  79. Crawford, p. 766.
  80. 1 2 3 Southern, p. 504.
  81. Miller, pp. 42–43
  82. 1 2 3 Moore, p. xv.
  83. Miller, pp. 73–74, 78.
  84. Southern, p. 518.
  85. Darden, p. 224.
  86. Keeling, Richard. "California". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 412–419.Herzog, George (1928). "The Yuman Musical Style". Journal of American Folklore 41 (160): 183–231. doi:10.2307/534896. and Nettl, Bruno (1954). North American Indian Musical Styles. Philadelphia: American Folklore Society.
  87. 1 2 3 4 Loza, Steven. "Hispanic California". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 734–753.
  88. Crawford, p. 762.
  89. Crawford, p. 767.
  90. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Post, Jennifer C., Neil V. Rosenberg and Holly Kruse, "Snapshot: How Music and Place Intertwine", pp. 153–172, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
  91. Darden, p. 208.
  92. 1 2 3 Reyna, José R. "Tejano Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 770–782.
  93. 1 2 3 4 5 Music Moments, Hyphen.
  94. Crawford, p. 734.
  95. Miller, p. 88.
  96. Southern, p. 520.
  97. 1 2 Strachan, Robert; Marion Leonard. "Popular Music in Film". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 318–322.
  98. Miller, p. 98.
  99. Miller, p. 105.
  100. Miller, pp. 110–113.
  101. Miller, pp. 114–118.
  102. Miller, p. 123
  103. Miller, pp. 123–126.
  104. 1 2 Lankford, p. xiii.
  105. Lankford, p. 15.
  106. Lankford, p. 79.
  107. 1 2 3 Burnim, Mellonee V. "Religious Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  108. Southern, p. 412.
  109. 1 2 3 4 Kassabian, Anahid, "Film", pp. 202–205, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  110. Levine, Victoria Lindsay; Judith A. Gray. "Musical Interactions". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 480–490., Howard, James H. (1955). "The Pan-Indian Culture of Oklahoma". Scientific Monthly 18 (5): 215–220.
  111. Reyes, Adelaida. "IDentity, Diversity, and Interaction". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 504–518.Baker, Theodore (1881). Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden. Leipzig: Breitkopf u. Härtel.
  112. 1 2 Horn, David. "Histories". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 31–38.
  113. 1 2 3 4 5 Sheehy, Daniel; Steven Loza. "Overview". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 718–733.
  114. Chase, p. 606
  115. "Robert McFerrin Sr., First Black Male Soloist at Metropolitan Opera, Dies at 85", PlayBillArts.
  116. Bird, p. 354.
  117. 1 2 Southern, p. 607.
  118. Horn, David. "Encyclopedias". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 20–25.
  119. Marlowe, Robert J. "Tally Recording Studio". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. p. 676.
  120. Crawford, pp. 685–686.
  121. Crawford, p. 732.
  122. Miller, p. 130.
  123. Cohen, Sara; Marion Leonard. "Gender and Sexuality". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 231–237.
  124. Miller, pp. 132–133.
  125. Miller, p. 137.
  126. 1 2 Laing, Dave; Olivier Julien and Catherine Budent. "Television Shows". The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 474–476.
  127. Laing, Dave. "Record Clubs". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 563–564.
  128. Keightley, Keir. "Cover Version". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 614–616.
  129. Hinkle-Turner, p. 15.
  130. Crawford, p. 774.
  131. Miller, p. 158.
  132. Lankford, p. 66.
  133. Spitzer, Nick. "The 100 most important American musical works of the 20th century — Blue Suede Shoes". NPR 100. National Public Radio. Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  134. Southern, p. 490.
  135. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Colwell, Richard; James W. Pruett and Pamela Bristah. "Education". New Grove Dictionary of Music. pp. 11–21.
  136. Crawford, p. 743.
  137. Crawford, p. 769.
  138. Crawford, pp. 770–771.
  139. Miller, pp. 140–142.
  140. Miller, pp. 145–146. Miller attributes the statement "that teenage pop listeners... for television programs" to "ABC programming vice president Ted Fetter".
  141. Miller, p. 160.
  142. Laing, Dave. "Oldie". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 557.
  143. 1 2 Cockrell, Dale and Andrew M. Zinck, "Popular Music of the Parlor and Stage", pp. 179–201, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  144. Darden, pp. 231–232.
  145. 1 2 3 Stillman, Amy Ku'uleialoha. "Polynesian Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1047–1053.
  146. Chase, p. 518.
  147. Garofalo, Reebee. "American Bandstand". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 440.
  148. Southern, p. 481.
  149. 1 2 Crawford, p. 697.
  150. 1 2 Adinolfi, Francesco. "Exoticism". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 220–223.
  151. Pruter, Robert; Paul Oliver and The Editors. "Chicago". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. Retrieved July 9, 2008.
  152. Rumble, John W. "Bradley Film and Recording Studios/Bradley's Barn". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 650–651.
  153. Malone and Stricklin, p. 130.
  154. Crawford, p. 799.
  155. Lankford, p. 27.
  156. Lankford, p. 94.
  157. Lankford, p. 96.
  158. 1 2 3 4 5 Kealiinohomoku, Joann W. and Mary Jane Warner, "Dance", pp. 206–226, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  159. 1 2 3 Pegley, Karen and Rob Haskins, "Snapshot: Two Forms of Electronic Music", pp. 250–255, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  160. Evans, David. "Blues". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 637–649.
  161. 1 2 Levy, Mark. "Central European Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 884–903.
  162. Peterson, Richard; Will Straw and Dave Laing. "Television". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 471–474.
  163. Miller, p. 147.
  164. Miller, p. 149.
  165. Miller, p. 161.
  166. Miller, p. 162.
  167. 1 2 3 4 Haskins, Rob, "Orchestral and Chamber Music in the Twentieth Century", pp. 173–178, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  168. Gooding, Erik D. (440–450). "Plains". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  169. 1 2 3 Diamond, Beverly; Barbara Benary. "Indonesian Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1011–1023.
  170. 1 2 Southern, p. 566.
  171. 1 2 Buckley, David. "Halls of Fame/Museums". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 29–31.
  172. Laing, Dave; John Shepherd. "Trade Organizations". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 569–570.
  173. Théberge, Paul. "Mono". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. p. 437.
  174. Laing, Dave. "Awards". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 533–535.
  175. Crawford, p. 705.
  176. Crawford, p. 744.
  177. Crawford, pp. 794–795.
  178. Fitzgerald, Jon. "Motown". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 742–743.
  179. Hinkle-Turner, p. 16.
  180. 1 2 Miller, p. 164.
  181. Strachan, Robert; Marion Leonard. "Film and Television Documentaries". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 26–29.
  182. Laing, Dave; John Shepherd. "Plugging". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 560–561.
  183. Lankford, p. 74.
  184. Stanbridge, Alan. "Englewood Cliffs Studios". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 659–660.
  185. Lankford, p. 86.
  186. Southern, p. 515.
  187. Norfleet, Dawn M. "Hip-Hop and Rap". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 692–704.
  188. Trimillos, Ricardo D. "Filipino Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1024–1027.
  189. Chase, pp. 519–520.
  190. Komara, p. 442.
  191. Lankford, pp. 71–73.
  192. 1 2 Gedutis, p. 160.
  193. Miller, pp. 168–170
  194. Lankford, p. 67 (emphasis in original).
  195. Lankford, p. 123.
  196. Southern, p. 472.
  197. Bird, p. 52.
  198. 1 2 3 4 Maultsby, Portia K.; Mellonee V. Burnin and Susan Oehler. "Overview". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 572–591.
  199. Koskoff, p. 333.
  200. Chase, p. 629.
  201. Miller, p. 185. (This claim is in quotes in Miller, but is not specifically cited.)
  202. Miller, p. 185 (emphasis in original).
  203. Lankford, p. 116.
  204. "Opening the Gates for Black Opera Singers", New York Times.
  205. Bird, p. 32.
  206. Malone and Stricklin, p. 149.
  207. Bogdanov, p. 153.
  208. Southern, pp. 481–482
  209. Southern, p. 498.
  210. Gedutis, p. 200.
  211. 1 2 U.S. Army Bands.
  212. Allmusic: The Valadiers.
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  214. Crawford, p. 698.
  215. Crawford, p. 795.
  216. Lankford, p. 111, Emphasis in original.
  217. Lankford, pp. 125–126.
  218. Lankford, pp. 131–132.
  219. Cohen, p. 265.
  220. Lankford, p. 138–139.
  221. Lankford, p. 145.
  222. Darden, p. 270.
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  226. Murray, p. 265.
  227. Linehan, Andrew. "Soundcarrier". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 359–366.
  228. 1 2 Théberge, Paul. "Amplifier". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 505–506.
  229. Koskoff, p. 131.
  230. Crawford, p. 788.
  231. Crawford, p. 797.
  232. Lankford, ix-x
  233. Lankford, pp. 147–148.
  234. Lankford, p. 149.
  235. 1 2 Chase, p. 627.
  236. Lankford, p. 158.
  237. Lankford, p. 165.
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  239. Darden, p. 271.
  240. 1 2 3 Maultsby, Portia K.; Isaac Kalumbu. "African American Studies". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 47–54.
  241. Neal, Mark Anthony. "Black Studies". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 56–59.
  242. 1 2 Lindberg, Ulf; Gestur Gudmundsson, Morten Michelsen and Hans Weisethaunet. "Popular Music Criticism". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 304–308.
  243. Slobin, Mark. "Jewish Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 933–945.
  244. Southern, p. 430.
  245. Southern, p. 482.
  246. 1 2 3 Buckley, David; John Shepherd and Berndt Ostendorf. "Death". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 200–204.
  247. Crawford, p. 800.
  248. Miller, pp. 227–228 (emphasis in original).
  249. Lankford, p. 162.
  250. Malone and Stricklin, p. 123.
  251. Koskoff, p. 266.
  252. Chase, p. 520.
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  254. Crawford, p. 745 (emphasis in original).
  255. Bird, p. 419.
  256. 1 2 3 Crawford, p. 809.
  257. Crawford, pp. 825–826; Quote is cited to Philip Glass from Duckworth, William (1995). Talking Music: Conversations with John Cage, Philip Glass, Laurie Anderson, and Five Generations of American Experimental Composers. New York: Schirmer.
  258. Crawford, pp. 825–826.
  259. Darden, p. 247.
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  261. 1 2 Sonneborn, D. Atesh. "Snapshot: Sufi Music and Dance". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1042–1046.
  262. Buckley, David; John Shepherd. "Drugs and Addiction". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 210–213.
  263. Crawford, p. 695.
  264. Koskoff, pp. 31–32.
  265. Lankford, p. 181
  266. Mitchell, p. 136
  267. Crawford, gp. 790.
  268. Lankford, p. xv.
  269. Miller, pp. 222–223.
  270. Miller, p. 237.
  271. Lankford, pp. 172–174, 176.
  272. Lankford, p. 188.
  273. Bird, p. 213.
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  275. Southern, p. 388.
  276. Bloom, p. 168; "The Blues in Archway Road". Anarchy (5): 129–133. 1965.
  277. 1 2 Cusic, p. 127.
  278. Garner, Ken. "Programming". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 449–451.
  279. 1 2 Borwick, John. "Eight-Track Cartridge". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 510.
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  282. Lankford, p. 129.
  283. Smith, Gordon, "Place", pp. 142–152, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  284. Horn, David; David Buckley. "War and Armed Conflict". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 389–395.
  285. Miller, Terry E. "Overview". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 948–956.
  286. Gates and Appiah, og. 1550.
  287. 1 2 Southern, p. 505.
  288. Keightley, Keir. "Concept Album". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. p. 614.
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  290. Miller, pp. 260–262.
  291. 1 2 Buckley, David; John Shepherd and David Horn. "Venues". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 420–425.
  292. 1 2 3 W. Willett, Ralph. "Music Festivals". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 281–284.
  293. Miller, p. 261.
  294. Miller, p. 262.
  295. Miller, pp. 289–290.
  296. John Shepherd and David Buckley, Janet. "Groupies". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 237–238.
  297. Maultsby, Portia K. "Funk". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. p. 681. The quote is from Fred Wesley, in an appearance on a British television special, Lenny Henry En De Funk
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  300. Crawford, pp. 826–827.
  301. Darden, p. 262.
  302. Cowdery, James R. and Anne Lederman, "Blurring the Boundaries of Social and Musical Identities", pp. 322–333, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  303. Levine, Victoria Lindsay. "Southeast". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 466–471.
  304. Fikentscher, Kai. "Disco and House Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 687–691.
  305. 1 2 Averill, Gage. "Haitian and Franco-Caribbean Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 802–807.
  306. Goertzen, Christopher. "English and Scottish Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 831–841.
  307. Cohen, Sara; Marion Leonard. "Feminism". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 74–76.
  308. Leyshon, Andrew. "Geography". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 78–80.
  309. Leonard, Marian; Robert Strachan. "Authenticity". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 164–166.
  310. Shepherd, John; Franco Fabbri and Marion Leonard. "Style". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 417–419.
  311. Keightley, Keir. "Album Cover". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 613–614.
  312. Mark Deming, Blue Cheer review, Allmusic.
  313. JBHE Foundation, p. 122.
  314. Darden, p. 10.
  315. Chase, p. 540.
  316. Bird, p. 287.
  317. Bird, p. 28, Bird actually calls it "the premier music festival in the United States" (emphasis in original).
  318. Crawford, p. 747.
  319. Crawford, p. 751.
  320. Krasnow, Carolyn H. and Dorothea Hast, "Snapshot: Two Popular Dance Forms", pp. 227–234, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  321. Darden, p. 274.
  322. Buckley, David; Dave Laing. "Alcohol". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 149–152.
  323. Peraino, p. 290.
  324. Darden, p. 294.
  325. Tribe, p. 14.
  326. Strachan, Robert; Marion Leonard. "Popular Music Journals". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 42–43.
  327. Southern, p. 487.
  328. Maultsby, Portia K. "Funk". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 681–686.
  329. Dawson, Jim. "Wally Heider Recording Studio". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 679–680.

Further reading

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