Trinidad and Tobago

Coordinates: 11°N 61°W / 11°N 61°W / 11; -61

Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Together we aspire, Together we achieve"
Anthem: "Forged from the Love of Liberty"
CapitalPort of Spain
10°40′N 61°31′W / 10.667°N 61.517°W / 10.667; -61.517
Largest city San Fernando[1]
Official languages English
National language Trinidadian English
Spanish
French Creole
Bhojpuri (Hindi)
Ethnic groups (2011[2])
Religion
Demonym Trinidadian
Tobagonian
Trinbagonian
Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic
 •  President Anthony Carmona
 •  Prime Minister Keith Rowley
Legislature Parliament
 •  Upper house Senate
 •  Lower house House of Representatives
Independence
 •  from the United Kingdom 31 August 1962 
 •  Republic 1 August 1976 
Area
 •  Total 5,131 km2 (171st)
1,981 sq mi
 •  Water (%) negligible
Population
 •  July 2014 estimate 1,943,223[3] (159th)
 •  Density 254.4/km2
659.2/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2014 estimate
 •  Total $43.415 billion[4] (73)
 •  Per capita $32,139[4] (36th)
GDP (nominal) 2014 estimate
 •  Total $28.788 billion[4]
 •  Per capita $21,310[4]
Gini (2012)39.0[5]
medium
HDI (2014)Increase 0.772[6]
high · 64th
Currency Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TTD)
Time zone Atlantic Standard Time (UTC-4)
 •  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC-4)
Date format dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on the left
Calling code +1 -868
ISO 3166 code TT
Internet TLD .tt
a. Holiday celebrated on 24 September.

Trinidad and Tobago (i/ˈtrɪnᵻˌdæd ənd toʊˈbeɪɡoʊ/),[7] officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is a twin island country situated off the northern edge of South America mainland, lying 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) just off the coast of northeastern Venezuela and 130 kilometres (81 miles) south of Grenada. Bordering the Caribbean to the north, it shares maritime boundaries with other nations including Barbados to the northeast, Grenada to the northwest, Guyana to the southeast, and Venezuela to the south and west.[8][9] Trinidad and Tobago lies outside of the hurricane belt.

The island of Trinidad was a Spanish colony from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1498 to the capitulation of the Spanish Governor, Don José Maria Chacón, on the arrival of a British fleet of 18 warships on 18 February 1797.[10] During the same period, the island of Tobago changed hands among Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers, more times than any other island in the Caribbean. Trinidad and Tobago (remaining separate until 1889) were ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens.[11] The country Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence in 1962, becoming a republic in 1976.

Trinidad and Tobago is the third richest country by GDP (PPP) per capita in the Americas after the United States and Canada. Furthermore, it is recognised as a high income economy by the World Bank. Unlike most of the English-speaking Caribbean, the country's economy is primarily industrial,[12] with an emphasis on petroleum and petrochemicals. The country's wealth attributes to its large reserves and exploitation of oil and natural gas.[13][14] Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas.

Trinidad and Tobago is known for its Carnival and is the birthplace of steelpan, limbo, and the music styles of calypso, soca, Parang and chutney.

Etymology

Historian E. L. Joseph claimed that Trinidad's Amerindian name was Iere or "Land of the Humming Bird", derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, ierèttê or yerettê. However, Boomert claims that neither cairi nor caeri means hummingbird and tukusi or tucuchi does.[15] Others have reported that kairi and iere simply mean island. Christopher Columbus renamed it "La Isla de la Trinidad" ("The Island of the Trinity"), fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration.[16]

Tobago's cigar-like shape may have given it its Spanish name (cabaco, tavaco, tobacco) and possibly its Amerindian names of Aloubaéra (black conch) and Urupaina (big snail),[15] although the English pronunciation is /təˈbeɪɡoʊ/, rhyming with plumbago, sago, and "may go".

Geography

A map of Trinidad and Tobago.
Trinidad and Tobago's topography.

Trinidad and Tobago are islands situated between 10° 2' and 11° 12' N latitude and 60° 30' and 61° 56' W longitude. At the closest point, Trinidad is just 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from Venezuelan territory. Covering an area of 5,128 km2 (1,980 sq mi),[17] the country consists of the two main islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous smaller landforms – including Chacachacare, Monos, Huevos, Gaspar Grande (or Gasparee), Little Tobago, and St. Giles Island.

Trinidad is 4,768 km2 (1,841 sq mi) in area (comprising 93.0% of the country's total area) with an average length of 80 km (50 mi) and an average width of 59 kilometres (37 mi). Tobago has an area of about 300 km2 (120 sq mi), or 5.8% of the country's area, is 41 km (25 mi) long and 12 km (7.5 mi) at its greatest width.

Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and is thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America.[18]

Mayaro Beach in the south-eastern area of Trinidad.

The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains. The highest point in the country is found on the Northern Range at El Cerro del Aripo, which is 940 metres (3,080 ft) above sea level.

As the majority of the population live in the island of Trinidad, this is the location of most major towns and cities. There are four major municipalities in Trinidad: Port of Spain, the capital, San Fernando, Arima and Chaguanas. The main town in Tobago is Scarborough. Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of the East-West Corridor are the most fertile.

Geology

The Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands (East-West Corridor and Caroni Plains) consist of younger shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, with Miocene formations along the southern and eastern flanks. The Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift.

The Southern Lowlands consist of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels. These overlie oil and natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range forms the third anticlinal uplift. It consists of several chains of hills, most famous being the Trinity Hills. The rocks consist of sandstones, shales and siltstones and clays formed in the Miocene and uplifted in the Pleistocene. Oil sands and mud volcanoes are especially common in this area.

Climate

The climate is tropical. There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first five months of the year, and the rainy season in the remaining seven of the year. Winds are predominantly from the northeast and are dominated by the northeast trade winds. Unlike most of the other Caribbean islands, both Trinidad and Tobago have frequently escaped the wrath of major devastating hurricanes, including Hurricane Ivan, the most powerful storm to have passed close to the islands in recent history, in September 2004. In the Northern Range, the climate is often different in contrast to the sweltering heat of the plains below. With constant cloud and mist cover, and heavy rains in the mountains, the temperature is much cooler.

Record temperatures for Trinidad and Tobago are 39 °C (102 °F)[19] for the high in Port of Spain, and a low of 12 °C (54 °F).[20]

Biodiversity

Further information: Ecology of Trinidad and Tobago

Because Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, their biological diversity is unlike that of most other Caribbean islands, and has much in common with that of Venezuela. The main ecosystems are: coastal and marine (coral reefs, mangrove swamps, open ocean and seagrass beds); forest; freshwater (rivers and streams); karst; man-made ecosystems (agricultural land, freshwater dams, secondary forest); and savanna. On 1 August 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the 1992 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, and it has produced a biodiversity action plan and four reports describing the country's contribution to biodiversity conservation. The reports formally acknowledged the importance of biodiversity to the well-being of the country's people through provision of ecosystem services.[21]

Information about vertebrates is good, with 472 bird species (2 endemics), about 100 mammals, about 90 reptiles (a few endemics), about 30 amphibians (a few endemics), 50 freshwater fish and at least 950 marine fish.[22] Information about invertebrates is dispersed and very incomplete. About 650 butterflies,[22] at least 672 beetles (from Tobago alone)[23] and 40 corals[22] have been recorded.[22]

Although the list is far from complete, 1647 species of fungi, including lichens, have been recorded.[24][25][26] The true total number of fungi is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[27] A first effort to estimate the number of endemic fungi tentatively listed 407 species.[28]

Information about micro-organisms is dispersed and very incomplete. Nearly 200 species of marine algae have been recorded.[22] The true total number of micro-organism species must be much higher.

Thanks to a recently published checklist, plant diversity in Trinidad and Tobago is well documented with about 3,300 species (59 endemic) recorded.[22]

History

Trinidad

Pigeon Point in Tobago, one of the top tourist destinations in the country.

Both Trinidad and Tobago were originally settled by Amerindians of South American origin. Trinidad was first settled by pre-agricultural Archaic people at least 7,000 years ago, making it the earliest-settled part of the Caribbean. Ceramic-using agriculturalists settled Trinidad around 250 BC, and then moved further up the Lesser Antillean chain. At the time of European contact, Trinidad was occupied by various Arawakan-speaking groups including the Nepoya and Suppoya, and Cariban-speaking groups such as the Yao, while Tobago was occupied by the Island Caribs and Galibi.

Parlatuvier Bay, a popular tourist destination in Tobago.
The Chaconia (Warszewiczia coccinea) is the national flower of Trinidad and Tobago.

Christopher Columbus encountered the island of Trinidad on 31 July 1498. Antonio de Sedeño, a Spanish soldier intent on conquering the island of Trinidad, landed on its southwest coast with a small army of men in the 1530s as a means of controlling the Orinoco and subduing the Warao. Sedeño and his men fought the native Carib Indians on many occasions, and subsequently built a fort. Cacique Wannawanare (Guanaguanare) granted the St Joseph area to Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen in 1592, and then withdrew to another part of the island.[15] San José de Oruña (St Joseph) was established by Antonio de Berrío on this land. Sir Walter Raleigh, searching for the long-rumored "City of Gold" in South America, arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595 and soon attacked San José and captured and interrogated de Berrío, obtaining much information from him and from the cacique Topiawari.

The Arena Massacre or Arena Uprising took place on 1 December 1699 in Trinidad. It resulted in the death of several hundred Amerindians, Roman Catholic priests connected with the mission of San Francisco de los Arenales and the Spanish Governor José de León y Echales and all but one member of his party. Amerindians tied to the Church's encomienda at the mission at Arena revolted, killing the priests and desecrating the church. They then ambushed the governor and his party, who were on their way to visit the church. Among those killed in the governor's party was Fr. Juan Mazien de Sotomayor, O.P., missionary priest to the Nepuyo villages of Cuara, Tacarigua and Arauca.

In the 1700s, Trinidad belonged as an island province to the Viceroyalty of New Spain together with Central America, present-day Mexico and Southwestern United States.[29] However, Trinidad in this period was still mostly forest, populated by a few Spaniards with their handful of slaves and a few thousand Amerindians.[29] Spanish colonisation in Trinidad remained tenuous. Because Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada, was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from the Spanish king Charles III on 4 November 1783.

This Cédula de Población was more generous than the first of 1776, and granted free lands to Roman Catholic foreign settlers and their slaves in Trinidad willing to swear allegiance to the Spanish king.[30] The land grant was 30 fanegas (13 hectares/32 acres) for each free man, woman and child and half of that for each slave brought. As a result, Scots, Irish, German, Italian and English families arrived. Protestants benefited from Governor Don José María Chacon's generous interpretation of the law.

During the French Revolution, French planters with their slaves, free coloureds and mulattos from neighbouring islands of Martinique, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Dominica migrated to Trinidad, where they established an agriculture-based economy (sugar and cocoa).[29] These new immigrants established local communities in Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin,[31] Cascade, Carenage and Laventille. Trinidad's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, from just under 1,400 in 1777.

By 1797 the population of Port of Spain had increased from under 3,000 to 10,422 in five years, and consisted of people of mixed race, Spaniards, Africans, French republican soldiers, retired pirates and French nobility.[29] The total population of Trinidad was 17,718, of which 2,151 were of European ancestry, 4,476 were "free blacks and people of colour", 10,009 were slaves and 1,082 Amerindians.

In 1797, General Sir Ralph Abercromby and his squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of Chaguaramas during the invasion of Trinidad. The Spanish Governor Chacón decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad thus became a British crown colony, with a French-speaking population and Spanish laws.[29] The conquest and formal ceding of Trinidad in 1802 led to an influx of settlers from England and the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. The sparse settlement and slow rate of population increase during Spanish rule and even after British rule made Trinidad one of the less-populated colonies of the West Indies with the least developed plantation infrastructure.[32] Under British rule, new estates were created and slave importation increased to facilitate development of the land into highly profitable sugarcane estates, but mass importation of slaves was still limited and hindered, arguably by abolitionist efforts in Britain.[32][33]

The Abolitionist movement[32] and the decreased economic viability of slavery as a means of procuring labour[33] both resulted in the abolition of slavery in 1833 via the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 (citation 3 & 4 Will. IV c. 73), which was followed by the substitution of an "apprenticeship" period. This was also abolished in 1838, with full emancipation being granted on 1 August. An overview of the populations statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80% of slave owners having less than 10 slaves each.[33]:84–85

In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.[34] Upon emancipation, therefore, the plantation owners were in severe need of labour, and the British filled this need by instituting a system of indentureship. Various nationalities were contracted under this system, including Chinese, Portuguese and Indians. Of these, the Indians were imported in the largest numbers, starting from 1 May 1845, when 225 Indians were brought in the first shipment to Trinidad on the Fatel Rozack, a Muslim-owned vessel.[35] Indentureship of the Indians lasted from 1845 to 1917, during which more than 147,000 Indians were brought to Trinidad to work on sugarcane plantations.[36]

They added what was initially the second-largest population grouping to the young nation, and their labour developed previously underdeveloped plantation lands. The indentureship contract was exploitative, such that historians including Hugh Tinker were to call it "a new system of slavery". People were contracted for a period of five years with a daily wage (25 cents in the early twentieth century), after which they were guaranteed return passage to India. Coercive means were often used to obtain labourers, however, and the indentureship contracts were soon extended to 10 years after the planters complained they were losing their labour too early.[32]

In lieu of the return passage, the British authorities soon began offering portions of land to encourage settlement; however, the numbers of people who did receive land grants is unclear.[37] Indians entering the colony were also subject to particular crown laws which segregated them from the rest of Trinidad's population, such as the requirement that they carry a pass with them once off the plantations, and that if freed, they carry their "Free Papers" or certificate indicating completion of the indenture period.[38] The ex-Indentureds came to constitute a vital and significant section of the population, as did the ex-slaves.

The cacao (cocoa) crop also contributed greatly to the economic earnings in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After the collapse of the cacao crop (due to disease and the Great Depression), petroleum increasingly came to dominate the economy. Petroleum was discovered in 1857.[39] The collapse of the sugarcane industry concomitant with the failure of the cocoa industry resulted in widespread depression among the rural and agricultural workers in Trinidad, and encouraged the rise of the Labour movement in the 1920–1930 period. This was led by Tubal Uriah "Buzz" Butler, who, in combination with his Indian partners (notably Adrian Cola Rienzi), aimed to unite the working class and agricultural labour class to achieve a better standard of living for all, as well as to hasten the departure of the British. This effort was severely undermined by the British Home Office and by the British-educated Trinidadian elite, many of whom were descended from the plantocracy themselves. They instigated a vicious race politicking in Trinidad aimed at dividing the class-based movement on race-based lines, and they succeeded, especially since Butler's support had collapsed from the top down. The Depression and the rise of the oil economy led to changes in the social structure. By the 1950s, petroleum had become a staple in Trinidad's export market, and was responsible for a growing middle class among all sections of the Trinidad population.

Tobago

A view from Pigeon Point, Tobago over to Nomansland.

Columbus reported seeing Tobago on the distant horizon in 1498, naming it Bellaforma, but did not land on the island.[40] The present name of Tobago is thought to be a corruption of its old name, "Tobaco".[16]

The Dutch and the Courlanders (people from the small duchy of Courland and Semigallia in modern-day Latvia) established themselves in Tobago in the 16th and 17th centuries and produced tobacco and cotton. Over the centuries, Tobago changed hands between Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers. Britain consolidated its hold on both islands during the Napoleonic Wars, and they were combined into the colony of Trinidad and Tobago in 1889.[39]

As a result of these colonial struggles, Amerindian, Spanish, French and English place names are all common in the country. African slaves and Chinese, Indian, Tamil and free African indentured labourers, as well as Portuguese from Madeira, arrived to supply labour in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Emigration from Barbados and the other Lesser Antilles, Venezuela, Syria and Lebanon also impacted on the ethnic make-up of the country. Tobago is approximately 25 minutes fly time from Piarco International Airport, Trinidad and by boat approximately 3 hours 30 minutes.

Independence

Trinidad and Tobago gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 31 August 1962.[39] Elizabeth II remained head of state as Queen of Trinidad and Tobago. Eric Williams, a noted Caribbean historian, widely regarded as "The Father of The Nation," was the first Prime Minister; he served from 1956, before independence, until his death in 1981.

The presence of American military bases in Chaguaramas and Cumuto in Trinidad during World War II profoundly changed the character of society. In the post-war period, the wave of decolonisation that swept the British Empire led to the formation of the West Indies Federation in 1958 as a vehicle for independence. Chaguaramas was the proposed site for the federal capital. The Federation dissolved after the withdrawal of Jamaica, and the government chose to seek independence on its own.

In 1976, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, though it retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as its final Court of Appeal. Between the years 1972 and 1983, the republic profited greatly from the rising price of oil, as the oil-rich country increased its living standards greatly. In 1990, 114 members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen, led by Yasin Abu Bakr, formerly known as Lennox Phillip, stormed the Red House (the seat of Parliament), and Trinidad and Tobago Television, the only television station in the country at the time, and held the country's government hostage for six days before surrendering.

Since 2003, the country has entered a second oil boom, a driving force which the government hopes to use to turn the country's main export back to sugar and agriculture. Great concern was raised in August 2007 when it was predicted that this boom would last only until 2018. Petroleum, petrochemicals and natural gas continue to be the backbone of the economy. Tourism and the public service are the mainstay of the economy of Tobago, though authorities have begun to diversify the island.[41] The bulk of tourist arrivals on the islands are from Western Europe.

The country is also a recognised transhipment point for illegal narcotics, with the cocaine distribution from the South American continent to the United States Eastern seaboard. With the most recent seizure of $100 million US dollar shipment by United States Authorities on 17 January 2014.[42]

Politics

The Red House: Trinidad and Tobago's Parliament Buildings 2008 (undergoing renovations).

Trinidad and Tobago is a republic with a two-party system and a bicameral parliamentary system based on the Westminster System. The head of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the President, currently Anthony Carmona. The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Keith Rowley. The President is elected by an Electoral college consisting of the full membership of both houses of Parliament.

The Prime Minister is elected from the results of a general election which takes place every five years. The President is required to appoint the leader of the party who in his opinion has the most support of the members of the House of Representatives to this post; this has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the previous election (except in the case of the 2001 General Elections). Tobago also has its own elections, separate from the general elections. In these elections, members are elected and serve in the Tobago House of Assembly.

Parliament consists of the Senate (31 seats) and the House of Representatives (41 seats).[43] The members of the Senate are appointed by the president. Sixteen Government Senators are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, six Opposition Senators are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and nine Independent Senators are appointed by the President to represent other sectors of civil society. The 41 members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for a maximum term of five years in a "first past the post" system.

Political culture

The President's House Trinidad.

From 24 December 2001 to 24 May 2010, the governing party has been the People's National Movement (PNM) led by Patrick Manning; the Opposition party was the United National Congress (UNC) led by Basdeo Panday. Another recent party was the Congress of the People, or COP, led by Winston Dookeran. Support for these parties appears to fall along ethnic lines with the PNM consistently obtaining a majority of Afro-Trinidadian vote, and the UNC gaining a majority of Indo-Trinidadian support. COP gained 23% of the votes in the 2007 general elections but failed to win a seat. Prior to 24 May 2010, the PNM held 26 seats in the House of Representatives and the UNC Alliance (UNC-A) held 15 seats, following elections held on 5 November 2007.

Basdeo Panday became the first Indo-Trinidadian prime minister in 1995.

After two and a half years, Prime Minister Patrick Manning dissolved Parliament in April 2010, and called a general election on 24 May 2010. After these general elections, the new governing coalition is the People's Partnership led by Kamla Persad-Bissessar. Persad-Bissessar and "the People's Partnership" wrested power from the Patrick Manning-led PNM, taking home 29 seats to the PNM's 12 seats, based on preliminary results.

Business culture

It is estimated that 20% – 30% of measured GDP represents the hidden economy.[44] Within the Trinidadian and Tobagonian business structure illicit activities and licit activities work side by side, with many business and political organisations being funded by institutionalised drug smugglers. Within Trinidad and Tobago there are two main drug cartels, the Syrian/Lebanese drug cartels and the Indo Trinidadian drug cartels. The Syrian Lebanese drug cartels are the longest tenured drug cartel on the islands, having ridden the wave of cocaine exportation from the 1970s to the current day. The Syrian Drug Cartels control the vast sway of financing and business interest on the island and exhibit monopolistic tendencies which limit free market policies in insurance, health, finance, heavy and light manufacturing, and land distribution.[45]

Foreign relations

Modern Trinidad and Tobago maintains close relations with its Caribbean neighbours and major North American and European trading partners. As the most industrialised and second-largest country in the English-speaking Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago has taken a leading role in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and strongly supports CARICOM economic integration efforts. It also is active in the Summit of the Americas process and supports the establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, lobbying other nations for seating the Secretariat in Port of Spain.

As a member of CARICOM, Trinidad and Tobago strongly backed efforts by the United States to bring political stability to Haiti, contributing personnel to the Multinational Force in 1994. After its 1962 independence, Trinidad and Tobago joined the United Nations and Commonwealth of Nations. In 1967, it became the first Commonwealth country to join the Organization of American States (OAS). In 1995, Trinidad played host to the inaugural meeting of the Association of Caribbean States and has become the seat of this 35-member grouping, which seeks to further economic progress and integration among its states.

In international forums, Trinidad and Tobago has defined itself as having an independent voting record, but often supports US and EU positions.

Military

Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard members during a practice exercise at Staubles Bay in Chaguaramas for the arrival of Prince Charles in 2008.

The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force (TTDF) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It consists of the Regiment, the Coast Guard, the Air Guard and the Defence Force Reserves. Established in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago's independence from the United Kingdom, the TTDF is one of the largest military forces in the English-speaking Caribbean.

Its mission statement is to "defend the sovereign good of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, contribute to the development of the national community and support the State in the fulfillment of its national and international objectives". The Defence Force has been engaged in domestic incidents, such as the 1990 Coup Attempt, and international missions, such as the United Nations Mission in Haiti between 1993 and 1996.

Administrative divisions

Trinidad is split into 14 regional corporations and municipalities, consisting of 9 regions and 5 municipalities, which have a limited level of autonomy. The various councils are made up of a mixture of elected and appointed members. Elections are due to be held every three years, but have not been held since 2003, four extensions having been sought by the government. The island of Tobago is governed by the Tobago House of Assembly:

Regional corporations and municipalities of Trinidad and Tobago

Economy

A proportional representation of Trinidad and Tobago's exports.
The oil refinery at Pointe-à-Pierre.

Trinidad and Tobago is one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the Caribbean and is listed in the top 40 (2010 information) of the 70 High Income countries in the world. Its GNI per capita of US$20,070[46] (2014 GNI at Atlas Method) is one of the highest in the Caribbean.[47] In November 2011, the OECD removed Trinidad and Tobago from its list of Developing Countries.[48] Trinidad's economy is strongly influenced by the petroleum industry. Tourism and manufacturing are also important to the local economy. Tourism is a growing sector, although not as proportionately important as in many other Caribbean islands. Agricultural products include citrus and cocoa.

Recent growth has been fuelled by investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical, aluminium, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning. Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources but it also supplies manufactured goods, notably food, beverages, and cement, to the Caribbean region.

Oil and gas account for about 40% of GDP and 80% of exports, but only 5% of employment. The country is also a regional financial centre, and the economy has a growing trade surplus.[17] The expansion of Atlantic LNG over the past six years created the largest single-sustained phase of economic growth in Trinidad and Tobago. It has become the leading exporter of LNG to the United States, and now supplies some 70% of US LNG imports.[49]

Trinidad and Tobago has transitioned from an oil-based economy to a natural gas based economy. In 2007, natural gas production averaged 4 billion cubic feet per day (110,000,000 m3/d), compared with 3.2×10^6 cu ft/d (91,000 m3/d) in 2005. In December 2005, the Atlantic LNG's fourth production module or "train" for liquefied natural gas (LNG) began production. Train 4 has increased Atlantic LNG's overall output capacity by almost 50% and is the largest LNG train in the world at 5.2 million tons/year of LNG.

Trinidad and Tobago, in an effort to undergo economic transformation though diversification formed InvesTT in 2012 to serve as the country's sole investment promotion agency. This agency is aligned to the Ministry of Trade and Industry and is to the be the key agent in growing the country's non-oil and gas sectors significantly and sustainably.[50]

Trinidad and Tobago's infrastructure is good by regional standards. The international airport in Trinidad was expanded in 2001. There is an extensive network of paved roads with several good four and six lane highways including one controlled access expressway. The Ministry of Works estimates that an average Trinidadian spends about four hours in traffic per day. Emergency services are reliable, but may suffer delays in rural districts. Private hospitals are available and reliable. Utilities are fairly reliable in the cities. Some areas, however, especially rural districts, still suffer from water shortages.

Communications Infrastructure

Trinidad and Tobago has a well developed communications sector. The Telecommunications and Broadcasting sectors generated an estimated TT$5.63 billion(US$0.88 billion) in 2014, which as a percentage of GDP equates to 3.1 percent. This represented a 1.9 percent increase in total revenues generated by this industry compared to last year. Of total telecommunications and broadcasting revenues, mobile voice services accounted for the majority of revenues with TT$2.20 billion (39.2 percent). This was followed by Internet services which contributed TT$1.18 billion or 21.1 percent. The next highest revenue earners for the industry were Fixed Voice services and Pay TV services whose contributions totalled TT$0.76 billion and TT$0.70 billion respectively (13.4 percent and 12.4 percent). International voice services was next in line, generating, TT$0.27 billion 4.7 percent) in revenues. Free-to Air radio and television services contributed TT$0.18 billion and TT$0.13 billion respectively (3.2 percent and 2.4 percent). Finally, other contributors included “other revenues”and “leased line services” with earnings of TT$0.16 billion and TT$0.05 billion respectively, with 2.8 percent and 0.9 percent.[51]

There are several providers for each segment of the telecommunications market. Fixed Lines Telephone service is provided by TSTT and Columbus Communications operating as Flow; cellular service is provided by TSTT (operating as Bmobile) and Digicel whilst internet service is provided by TSTT, Flow, Digicel, Green Dot and Lisa Communications.

Transport

An intersection of Churchill–Roosevelt Highway & Uriah Butler Highway, 2009.

The transport system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of a dense network of highways and roads across both major islands, ferries connecting Port of Spain with Scarborough and San Fernando, and international airports on both islands. The Uriah Butler Highway and Churchill Roosevelt Highway links the nation together. Public transportation options on land are public buses, private taxis and minibuses. By sea, the options are inter-island ferries and inter-city water taxis.[52]

The island of Trinidad is served by Piarco International Airport located in Piarco. It was opened on 8 January 1931. Elevated at 17.4 metres (57 ft) above sea level it comprises an area of 680 hectares (1,700 acres) and has a runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). The airport consists of two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal. The older South Terminal underwent renovations in 2009 for use as a VIP entrance point during the 5th Summit of the Americas. The North Terminal was completed in 2001, and consists of[53] 14 second-level aircraft gates with jetways for international flights, two ground-level domestic gates and 82 ticket counter positions.

Piarco International Airport was voted the Caribbean's leading airport for customer satisfaction and operational efficiency at the prestigious World Travel Awards (WTA),[54] held in the Turks and Caicos in 2006.[55] In 2008 the passenger throughput at Piarco International Airport was approximately 2.6 million.

Piarco International Airport is the seventh busiest airport in the Caribbean and the third busiest in the English-speaking Caribbean, after Sangster International Airport and Lynden Pindling International Airport.

As of December 2006, nineteen international airlines operated out of Piarco and offered flights to twenty-seven international destinations. Caribbean Airlines, the national airline, operates its main hub at the Piarco International Airport and services the Caribbean, the United States, Canada and South America. The airline is wholly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. After an additional cash injection of US$50 million, the Trinidad and Tobago government acquired the Jamaican airline Air Jamaica on 1 May 2010, with a 6–12 month transition period to follow.[56]

Caribbean Airlines, the national and state-owned airline of Trinidad and Tobago, is the largest in the Caribbean. After the acquisition of the now defunct Air Jamaica, it became the largest airline and was voted as the Caribbean's leading airline.

The Island of Tobago is served by the A.N.R. Robinson International Airport in Crown Point Tobago. This airport has regular services to North America and Europe. There are regular flights between the two islands, with fares being heavily subsidised by the Government

Demographics

Ethnic groups

The ethnic composition of Trinidad and Tobago reflects a history of conquest and immigration.[57] While the earliest inhabitants were of Amerindian heritage, since the 20th century the two dominant groups in the country were those of South Asian and of African heritage. Indo-Trinidadians make up the country's largest ethnic group (approximately 37.6%). They are primarily descendants from indentured workers from India, brought to replace freed African slaves who refused to continue working on the sugar plantations. Through cultural preservation some residents of Indian descent continue to maintain traditions from their ancestral homelands.

Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonians make up the country's second largest ethnic group, with approximately 36.3% of the population identifying as being of African descent. People of African background were brought to the island as slaves as early as the 16th century. 24.4% of the population identified in the 2011 census as being of "mixed" ethnic heritage. There are small but significant minorities of people of European, Chinese, and Levantine (Syrian/Lebanese) descent.

Languages

English is the country's official language (the local variety of standard English is Trinidadian English or more properly, Trinidad and Tobago Standard English, abbreviated as "TTSE"), but the main spoken language is either of two English-based creole languages (Trinidadian Creole or Tobagonian Creole), which reflects the Amerindian, European, African, and Asian heritage of the nation. Both creoles contain elements from a variety of African languages; Trinidadian English Creole, however, is also influenced by French and French Creole (Patois).[58] Spanish is estimated to be spoken by around 5% of the population[59] and has been promoted by recent governments as a "first foreign language".

Some of the early Indian arrivals to the island speak Bhojpuri, though native speakers of the language decreased over time. Currently very few residents of Indian background continue to speak languages from their ancestral homelands. Attempts are being made to preserve the Bhojpuri language in the country, including the promotion of an Indo-Trinidadian musical form called Pichakaree, which is typically sung in a mixture of English, Hindi and Bhojpuri.

The indigenous languages were Yao on Trinidad and Karina on Tobago, both Cariban, and Shebaya on Trinidad, which was Arawakan.

Religion

Religion in Trinidad and Tobago (2011 census)[60]
Religion Percent
Christianity
  
 63.4%
Hinduism
  
 18.1%
None/not shared
  
 13.3%
Islam
  
 5.0%

Many different religions are practised in Trinidad and Tobago. According to the 2011 Census[61] Roman Catholics were the largest religious group in Trinidad and Tobago with 21.60% of the total population. Hindus were the second largest group with 18.15% whilst the Pentecostal/Evangelical/Full Gospel denomination was the third largest group with 12.02% of the population. Significantly, respondents who did not state a Religious affiliation represented 11.1% of the population. The remaining population is made of – Baptist-Spiritual Shouter (5.67%), Anglican (5.67%), Islam (4.97%), Seventh Day Adventist (4.09%), Presbyterian/Congregational (2.49%), None (2.18%), Jehovah's Witness (1.47%), Baptist-Other (1.21%), Orisha (0.9%), Methodist (0.65%), Rastafarian (0.27%) and Moravian (0.27%).

Two African syncretic faiths, the Shouter or Spiritual Baptists and the Orisha faith (formerly called Shangos, a less than complimentary term) are among the fastest growing religious groups.

Similarly, there is a noticeable increase in numbers of evangelical and fundamentalist churches usually lumped as "Pentecostal" by most Trinidadians (although this designation is often inaccurate).

A small Jewish community exists on the islands, and several Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Taoism are followed by the Chinese community. There is also a small Baha'i community.

Education

Children generally start pre-school at two and a half years but this is not mandatory. They are however, expected to have basic reading and writing skills when they commence primary school. Students proceed to a primary school at the age of five years. Seven years are spent in primary school. The seven classes of primary school consists of First Year and Second Year, followed by Standard One through Standard Five. During the final year of primary school, students prepare for and sit the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) which determines the secondary school the child will attend.

Students attend secondary school for a minimum of five years, leading to the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) examinations, which is the equivalent of the British GCSE O levels. Children with satisfactory grades may opt to continue high school for a further two-year period, leading to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE), the equivalent of GCE A levels. Both CSEC and CAPE examinations are held by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). Public Primary and Secondary education is free for all, although private and religious schooling is available for a fee.

Tertiary education for tuition costs are provided for via GATE (The Government Assistance for Tuition Expenses), up to the level of the bachelor's degree, at the University of the West Indies (UWI), the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT), the University of the Southern Caribbean (USC), the College of Science, Technology and Applied Arts of Trinidad and Tobago (COSTAATT) and certain other local accredited institutions. Government also currently subsidizes some Masters programmes. Both the Government and the private sector also provide financial assistance in the form of academic scholarships to gifted or needy students for study at local, regional or international universities.

Culture

Members of a Costume band parade on the streets of Port of Spain during its pre-Lenten Carnival

Trinidad and Tobago claims two Nobel Prize-winning authors, V. S. Naipaul and St Lucian-born Derek Walcott (who founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop, working and raising a family in Trinidad for much of his career). Designer Peter Minshall is renowned not only for his Carnival costumes but also for his role in opening ceremonies of the Barcelona Olympics, the 1994 Football World Cup, the 1996 Summer Olympics, and the 2002 Winter Olympics, for which he won an Emmy Award.

Geoffrey Holder (brother of Boscoe Holder) and Heather Headley are two Trinidad-born artists who have won Tony Awards for theatre. Holder also has a distinguished film career, and Headley has won a Grammy Award as well. Recording artists Billy Ocean and Nicki Minaj are also Trinidadian. Interestingly, three actors who appeared on Will Smith's sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air are of Trinidadian descent: Tatyana Ali and Alfonso Ribeiro were series regulars as Will's cousins Ashley and Carlton, respectively, while Nia Long played Will's girlfriend Lisa. Foxy Brown, Dean Marshall, Sommore, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Gabrielle Reece, pop singer Haddaway, Tracy Quan, Mike Bibby, Lauryn Williams, Fresh Kid Ice, and Roy Hibbert are all of Trinidadian descent.[62]

Trinidad and Tobago also has the distinction of being the smallest country to have two Miss Universe titleholders and the first black woman ever to win: Janelle Commissiong in 1977, followed by Wendy Fitzwilliam in 1998; the country has also had one Miss World titleholder, Giselle LaRonde.

Music

Further information: Music of Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago is the birthplace of calypso music and the steelpan, which is widely claimed in Trinidad and Tobago to be the only acoustic musical instrument invented during the 20th century.[63][64][65] Trinidad is also the birthplace of Soca music, Chutney music, Parang, and Carnival (in the form that has been widely copied in the Caribbean and around the world). The diverse cultural and religious background also allows for many festivities and ceremonies throughout the year such as Carnival, Diwali, and Eid festivities.[66]

Sports

Hasely Crawford won the first Olympic gold medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the men's 100 metre dash in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Nine different athletes from Trinidad and Tobago have won twelve medals at the Olympics, beginning with a silver medal in weightlifting, won by Rodney Wilkes in 1948,[67] and most recently, a gold medal by Keshorn Walcott in the men's javelin throw in 2012. Ato Boldon has won the most Olympic and World Championship medals for Trinidad and Tobago in athletics, with eight in total – four from the Olympics and four from the World Championships. Boldon is the only world champion Trinidad and Tobago has produced to date in athletics. He won the 1997 200 m sprint World Championship in Athens. Swimmer George Bovell III won a bronze medal in the men's 200 m IM in 2004.

Also in 2012 Lalonde Gordon competed in the XXX Summer Olympics where he won a Bronze Medal in the 400 meters, being surpassed by Luguelin Santos of the Dominican Republic and Kirani James of Grenada. Keshorn Walcott (as stated above) came first in javelin and earned a gold medal, making him the second Trinidadian in the country's history to receive one. This also makes him the first Western athlete in 40 years to receive a gold medal in the javelin sport, and the first athlete from Trinidad and Tobago to win a gold medal in a field event in the Olympics. Sprinter Richard Thompson is also from Trinidad and Tobago. He came second place to Usain Bolt in the Beijing Olympics in the 100m with a time of 9.89s.

Cricket

Cricket is one of the most popular sports of Trinidad and Tobago, with intense inter-island rivalry with its Caribbean neighbours. Trinidad and Tobago is represented at Test cricket, One Day International as well as Twenty20 cricket level as a member of the West Indies team. The national team plays at the first-class level in regional competitions. Trinidad and Tobago along with other islands from the Caribbean co-hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Brian Lara, world record holder for the most runs scored both in a Test and in a First Class innings and other records, was born in a small town of Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago and is often referred to as the Prince of Port of Spain or simply the Prince. This legendary West Indian batsman is widely regarded as one of the best batsmen ever to have played the game, and is one of the most famous sporting icons in the country.

Football

The men's national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup for the first time by beating Bahrain in Manama on 16 November 2005, making them the smallest country ever (in terms of population) to qualify. The team, coached by Dutchman Leo Beenhakker, and led by Tobagonian-born captain Dwight Yorke, drew their first group game – against Sweden in Dortmund, 0–0, but lost the second game to England on late goals, 0–2. They were eliminated after losing 2–0 to Paraguay in the last game of the Group Stage. Prior to the 2006 World Cup qualification, Trinidad and Tobago came agonisingly close in a controversial qualification campaign for the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Following the match, the referee of their critical game against Haiti was awarded a lifetime ban for his actions.[68] Trinidad and Tobago again fell just short of qualifying for the World Cup in 1990, needing only a draw at home against the United States but losing 1–0.[69] Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship, and hosted the 2010 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup.

The TT Pro League is the country's primary football competition and is the top level of the Trinidad and Tobago football league system. The Pro League serves as a league for professional football clubs in Trinidad and Tobago. The league began in 1999 as part of a need for a professional league to strengthen the country's national team and improve the development of domestic players. The first season took place in the same year beginning with eight teams.

Basketball

Basketball is commonly played in Trinidad and Tobago in colleges, universities and throughout various urban basketball courts. Its national team is one of the most successful teams in the Caribbean. At the Caribbean Basketball Championship it won four straight gold medals from 1986–1990.

Other sports

Netball has long been a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago, although it has declined in popularity in recent years. At the Netball World Championships they co-won the event in 1979, were runners up in 1987, and second runners up in 1983.

Rugby is played in Trinidad and Tobago and continues to be a popular sport, and horse racing is regularly followed in the country.

There is also the Trinidad and Tobago national baseball team which is controlled by the Baseball/Softball Association of Trinidad and Tobago, and represents the nation in international competitions. The team is a provisional member of the Pan American Baseball Confederation.

There are a number of 9 and 18-hole golf courses on Trinidad and Tobago. The most established is the St Andrews Golf Club, Maraval in Trinidad (commonly referred to as Moka), and there is a newer course at Trincity, near Piarco Airport called Millennium Lakes. There are 18-hole courses at Chaguramas and Point-a-Pierre and 9-hole courses at Couva and St Madeline. Tobago has two 18-hole courses. The older of the two is at Mount Irvine, with the Magdalena Hotel & Golf Club (formerly Tobago Plantations) being built more recently.

Although a minor sport, bodybuilding is of growing interest in Trinidad and Tobago. Heavyweight female bodybuilder Kashma Maharaj is of Trinidadian descent.

National symbols

The Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.
The Coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago

Flag

The flag was chosen by the Independence committee in 1962. Red, black and white symbolise the warmth of the people, the earth and water respectively.[70][71]

Coat of arms

The coat of arms was designed by the Independence committee, and features the scarlet ibis (native to Trinidad), the cocrico (native to Tobago) and hummingbird. The shield bears three ships, representing both the Trinity, and the three ships that Columbus sailed.[70]

Orders and decorations

There are five categories and thirteen classes of National Awards:[72]

National songs

The National Anthem of the twin-island state is "Forged From The Love of Liberty".[73][74]

Other national songs include 'God Bless Our Nation'[75] and "Our Nation's Dawning".[76]

National birds

The national birds for Trinidad and Tobago are the scarlet ibis and the cocrico. The Scarlet Ibis is kept safe by the government by living in the Caroni Bird Sanctuary which was set up by the government for the protection of these birds. While the Cocrico is more indigenous to the island of Tobago and are more likely to be seen in the forest.[77]

National instrument

The national instrument of Trinidad and Tobago is the Steelpan which was created in Trinidad and Tobago.[78]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 2011 Census, Page 45 Table 1b;2011 National census. cso.gov.tt
  2. ↑ Bethel, Camille. (20 February 2013) Census: Mixed population on the rise | Trinidad Express Newspaper | News. Trinidadexpress.com. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  3. ↑ "Trinidad and Tobago". The World Factbook. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Trinidad and Tobago". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  5. ↑ Carla, By. (12 March 2013) Allowing govt to manage better | Trinidad Express Newspaper | Business Express. Trinidadexpress.com. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  6. ↑ "2015 Human Development Report" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
  7. ↑ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach, James Hartmann and Jane Setter, eds., English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2
  8. ↑ "Treaty between the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and the Republic of Venezuela on the delimitation of marine and submarine areas, 18 April 1990" (PDF). The United Nations. Retrieved 13 April 2009.
  9. ↑ "The 1990 Accord Replaces the 1942 Paris Treaty". Trinidad and Tobago News. Retrieved 13 April 2009.
  10. ↑ Carmichael, pp. 40–42.
  11. ↑ Carmichael, p. 52.
  12. ↑ "Trinidad and Tobago Country brief". The World Bank. Retrieved September 2008.
  13. ↑ "Trinidad and Tobago profile – Overview". BBC News. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  14. ↑ List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
  15. 1 2 3 Boomert, Arie. Trinidad, Tobago and the Lower Orinoco Interaction Sphere: An archaeological/ethnohistorical study. Universiteit Leiden, 2000, ISBN 90-90-13632-0
  16. 1 2 Hart, Marie. (1965). The New Trinidad and Tobago, p. 13. London and Glasgow: Collins. Reprint 1972.
  17. 1 2 "Background note Trinidad and Tobago". US Department of State. 16 December 2011. Retrieved August 2009.
  18. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Trinidad and Tobago
  19. ↑ "August Climate History for Port-of-spain | Trinidad and Tobago". Myweather2.com. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  20. ↑ "January Climate History for Port-of-spain | Trinidad and Tobago". Myweather2.com. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  21. ↑ "Country Profile – Trinidad and Tobago". Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Fourth National Report of Trinidad and Tobago to the Convention on Biological Diversity" (PDF). Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
  23. ↑ Peck, S.B.; J. Cook & J.D. Hardy Jr (2002). "Beetle fauna of the island of Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies". Insecta Mundi 16: 9–23. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
  24. ↑ Baker, R.E.D.; W.T. Dale (1951). "Fungi of Trinidad and Tobago". Mycological Papers 33: 1–121.
  25. ↑ Dennis, R.W.G. "Fungus Flora of Venezuela and Adjacent Countries". Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1970.
  26. ↑ "Cybertruffle's Robigalia – Observations of fungi and their associated organisms". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  27. ↑ Kirk, P.M., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.W. and Stalpers, J. (2008) Dictionary of the Fungi. Edn 10. CABI
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  29. 1 2 3 4 5 Besson, Gerard (27 August 2000). "Land of Beginnings – A historical digest", Newsday Newspaper.
  30. ↑ Besson, Gerard A. (20 December 2007). The Caribbean History Archives – The Royal Cedula of 1783. Paria Publishing Co. Ltd. The Spanish also gave many incentives to lure settlers to the island, including exemption from taxes for ten years and land grants in accordance with the terms set out in the Cédula. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
  31. ↑ "Paramin: a Forgotten World". discovertnt.com.
  32. 1 2 3 4 Brereton, Bridget (1981). A History of Modern Trinidad 1783–1962. London: Heinemann Educational Books ISBN 0-435-98116-1
  33. 1 2 3 Williams, Eric (1962). History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago. London: Andre Deutsch.
  34. ↑ Meighoo, Kirk (2008). "Ethnic Mobilisation vs. Ethnic Politics: Understanding Ethnicity in Trinidad and Tobago Politics". Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 46 (1): 101–127. doi:10.1080/14662040701838068.
  35. ↑ "1845: The Indians and indentureship". Trinicenter.com. 8 August 1999. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  36. ↑ Deen, Shamshu (1994). Solving East Indian Roots in Trinidad. Freeport Junction. H.E.M. Enterprise. ISBN 976-8136-25-1
  37. ↑ Tinker, Hugh (1991). A New System of Slavery: Export of Indian Labour Overseas (1830–1920). Hansib Publishing (Caribbean) Ltd. ISBN 1-870518-18-7
  38. ↑ Mohammed, Patricia (2002). Gender Negotiations Among Indians in Trinidad 1917–1947. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-96278-8
  39. 1 2 3 "Railroad Map of Trinidad". World Digital Library. 1925. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  40. ↑ Carmichael, p. 14.
  41. ↑ "Business Branches Out". Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  42. ↑ Trinidad Express Newspapers: | $600 million in cocaine from T&T seized at U.S port. Trinidadexpress.com (17 January 2014). Retrieved on 2015-11-05.
  43. ↑ "Trinidad News". Trinidadexpress.com. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  44. ↑ "Measuring the Size of the Hidden Economy in Trinidad & Tobago, 1973–1999" (PDF).
  45. ↑ Figueira, Daurius. Cocaine and Heroin Trafficking in the Caribbean: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and Guyana. iUniverse Inc. p. 232. ISBN 0595336329.
  46. ↑ Planning, Family. (30 September 2015) Trinidad and Tobago | Data. Data.worldbank.org. Retrieved on 2015-11-05.
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  48. ↑ Gopie, Rajiv. (3 November 2011) Are we developed? | Trinidad Express Newspaper | Commentaries. Trinidadexpress.com. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  49. ↑ "US Energy Information Administration – LNG". Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  50. ↑ "Agency Focus" (PDF). Tradelinks: 10. January 2013.
  51. ↑ Annual Market Report 2014. Telecommunications Authority of Trinidad and Tobago
  52. ↑ "Government of Trinidad and Tobago Information Services press release on water taxis". News.gov.tt. 30 December 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  53. ↑ "Airport Authority of Trinidad and Tobago – Welcome to Piarco Airport". Archived from the original on 3 May 2011.
  54. ↑ "World Travel Awards". World Travel Awards. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  55. ↑ "World Travel Award votes Piarco International Caribbean's Leading Airport". 12 October 2006.
  56. ↑ Daraine Luton, Caribbean Airlines to re-hire 1,000 workers. The Jamaica Gleaner, (29 April 2010). Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  57. ↑ "Trouble in paradise". BBC News. (1 May 2002).
  58. ↑ Jo-Anne Sharon Ferreira. THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC SITUATION OF TRINIDAD & TOBAGO. University of the West Indies. unb.br
  59. ↑ Maria Grau Perejoan, María Pilar Gea Monera. el ESPAÑOL EN TRINIDAD Y TOBAGO. cervantes.es
  60. ↑ 2011 National census. cso.gov.tt
  61. ↑ 2011 Population and Housing Census Demographic Report. Government of Trinidad and Tobago
  62. ↑ "In Brief: Trinidad & Tobago, History & Society". Discover Trinidad & Tobago Travel Guide. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  63. ↑ "20th Century Percussion". h2g2.com. 24 November 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  64. ↑ Hill, Donald R. (1993) Calypso Calaloo: Early Carnival Music in Trinidad. ISBN 0-8130-1221-X. University Press of Florida. 2nd Edition: Temple University Press (2006) ISBN 1-59213-463-7. pp. 8–10, 203–209. See also p. 284, n. 1.
  65. ↑ Quevedo, Raymond (Atilla the Hun). 1983. Atilla's Kaiso: a short history of Trinidad calypso. (1983). University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad. pp. 2–14.
  66. ↑ "Culture (Trinidad)". Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  67. ↑ "Trinidad and Tobago's Olympic Medal Winners". National Library of Trinidad and Tobago.
  68. ↑ "Trinidad and Tobago Sport". National Library of Trinidad and Tobago.
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  70. 1 2 "Trinidad and Tobago government website". Gov.tt. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  71. ↑ National Symbols of Trinidad and Tobago. National Library of Trinidad and Tobago
  72. ↑ "Events and Ceremonies – About the Awards". Office of the President of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
  73. ↑ National Songs of Trinidad and Tobago. National Library of Trinidad and Tobago
  74. ↑ National anthem of Trinidad and Tobago
  75. ↑ "Embassy of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago – National Songs". Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  76. ↑ National Songs of Trinidad and Tobago. National Library of Trinidad and Tobago
  77. ↑ "Trinidad & Tobago National Birds". tntisland.com.
  78. ↑ "Home". ttconnect.gov.tt.

Cited sources

Further reading

External links

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