Alpha-synuclein

Synuclein, alpha (non A4 component of amyloid precursor)
PDB rendering based on 1xq8[1].
Available structures PDB Ortholog search: PDBe, RCSB List of PDB id codes 1XQ8​, 2JN5​, 2KKW​, 2M55​, 2X6M​, 3Q25​, 3Q26​, 3Q27​, 3Q28​, 3Q29​, 4BXL​, 4R0U​, 4R0W​
Identifiers
Symbols	SNCA ; NACP; PARK1; PARK4; PD1
External IDs	OMIM: 163890 MGI: 1277151 HomoloGene: 293 ChEMBL: 6152 GeneCards: SNCA Gene
Gene ontology Molecular function • magnesium ion binding • fatty acid binding • copper ion binding • calcium ion binding • protein binding • phospholipid binding • microtubule binding • ferrous iron binding • zinc ion binding • oxidoreductase activity • kinesin binding • protein domain specific binding • histone binding • identical protein binding • alpha-tubulin binding • cysteine-type endopeptidase inhibitor activity involved in apoptotic process • phospholipase binding • transcription regulatory region DNA binding • dynein binding • protein N-terminus binding • tau protein binding • beta-tubulin binding • phosphoprotein binding • phospholipase D inhibitor activity Cellular component • extracellular region • extracellular space • nucleus • nuclear outer membrane • cytoplasm • mitochondrion • mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I • lysosome • rough endoplasmic reticulum • Golgi apparatus • cytosol • ribosome • plasma membrane • cell cortex • synaptic vesicle • actin cytoskeleton • membrane • inclusion body • cell junction • axon • growth cone • platelet alpha granule membrane • terminal bouton • fibril • perinuclear region of cytoplasm Biological process • negative regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter • microglial cell activation • positive regulation of receptor recycling • negative regulation of protein phosphorylation • positive regulation of neurotransmitter secretion • fatty acid metabolic process • neutral lipid metabolic process • phospholipid metabolic process • activation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic process • mitochondrial membrane organization • aging • adult locomotory behavior • response to iron(II) ion • regulation of phospholipase activity • negative regulation of platelet-derived growth factor receptor signaling pathway • regulation of glutamate secretion • regulation of dopamine secretion • negative regulation of microtubule polymerization • receptor internalization • protein destabilization • response to magnesium ion • negative regulation of transporter activity • response to lipopolysaccharide • negative regulation of monooxygenase activity • positive regulation of peptidyl-serine phosphorylation • response to interferon-gamma • cellular response to oxidative stress • negative regulation of histone acetylation • regulation of locomotion • dopamine biosynthetic process • response to drug • mitochondrial ATP synthesis coupled electron transport • regulation of macrophage activation • positive regulation of apoptotic process • negative regulation of apoptotic process • negative regulation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic process • extracellular fibril organization • negative regulation of neuron apoptotic process • cellular response to fibroblast growth factor stimulus • positive regulation of endocytosis • negative regulation of exocytosis • negative regulation of dopamine metabolic process • behavioral response to cocaine • regulation of long-term neuronal synaptic plasticity • synaptic vesicle endocytosis • synapse organization • regulation of acyl-CoA biosynthetic process • positive regulation of release of sequestered calcium ion into cytosol • dopamine uptake involved in synaptic transmission • negative regulation of dopamine uptake involved in synaptic transmission • negative regulation of serotonin uptake • negative regulation of norepinephrine uptake • calcium ion homeostasis • oxidation-reduction process • regulation of excitatory postsynaptic membrane potential • long-term synaptic potentiation • positive regulation of inositol phosphate biosynthetic process • negative regulation of thrombin receptor signaling pathway • response to interleukin-1 • cellular response to copper ion • cellular response to epinephrine stimulus • positive regulation of protein serine/threonine kinase activity • negative regulation of mitochondrial electron transport, NADH to ubiquinone • positive regulation of glutathione peroxidase activity • positive regulation of hydrogen peroxide catabolic process • regulation of synaptic vesicle recycling • regulation of reactive oxygen species biosynthetic process Sources: Amigo / QuickGO
RNA expression pattern
More reference expression data
Orthologs
Species	Human	Mouse
Entrez	6622	20617
Ensembl	ENSG00000145335	ENSMUSG00000025889
UniProt	P37840	O55042
RefSeq (mRNA)	NM_000345	NM_001042451
RefSeq (protein)	NP_000336	NP_001035916
Location (UCSC)	Chr 4: 89.72 – 89.84 Mb	Chr 6: 60.73 – 60.83 Mb
PubMed search

Alpha-synuclein is a protein that is abundant in the human brain.^[2] Smaller amounts are found in the heart, muscles, and other tissues.^[2] In the brain, alpha-synuclein is found mainly at the tips of nerve cells (neurons) in specialized structures called presynaptic terminals.^[2] Within these structures, alpha-synuclein interacts with phospholipids^[3] and proteins.^[2] Presynaptic terminals release chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, from compartments known as synaptic vesicles. The release of neurotransmitters relays signals between neurons and is critical for normal brain function.^[2]

Although the function of alpha-synuclein is not well understood, studies suggest that it plays a role in maintaining a supply of synaptic vesicles in presynaptic terminals by clustering synaptic vesicles.^[4] It may also help regulate the release of dopamine, a type of neurotransmitter that is critical for controlling the start and stop of voluntary and involuntary movements.^[2]

The human alpha-synuclein protein is made of 140 amino acids and is encoded by the SNCA gene.^[5][6][7] An alpha-synuclein fragment, known as the non-Abeta component (NAC) of Alzheimer's disease amyloid, originally found in an amyloid-enriched fraction, was shown to be a fragment of its precursor protein, NACP.^[5] It was later determined that NACP was the human homologue of Torpedo synuclein. Therefore, NACP is now referred to as human alpha-synuclein.

Tissue expression

Alpha-synuclein is a synuclein protein of unknown function primarily found in neural tissue, making up as much as 1% of all proteins in the cytosol of brain cells.^[8] It is predominantly expressed in the neocortex, hippocampus, substantia nigra, thalamus, and cerebellum. It is predominantly a neuronal protein, but can also be found in the neuroglial cells. In melanocytic cells, SNCA protein expression may be regulated by MITF.^[9]

It has been established that alpha-synuclein is extensively localized in the nucleus of mammalian brain neurons, suggesting a role of alpha-synuclein in the nucleus.^[10] Synuclein is however found predominantly in the presynaptic termini, in both free or membrane-bound forms,^[11] with roughly 15% of synuclein being membrane-bound in any moment in neurons.^[12]

Recently, it has been shown that alpha-synuclein is localized in neuronal mitochondria.^[13][14] Alpha-synuclein is highly expressed in the mitochondria in olfactory bulb, hippocampus, striatum and thalamus, where the cytosolic alpha-synuclein is also rich. However, the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are two exceptions, which contain rich cytosolic alpha-synuclein but very low levels of mitochondrial alpha-synuclein. It has been shown that alpha-synuclein is localized in the inner membrane of mitochondria, and that the inhibitory effect of alpha-synuclein on complex I activity of mitochondrial respiratory chain is dose-dependent. Thus, it is suggested that alpha-synuclein in mitochondria is differentially expressed in different brain regions and the background levels of mitochondrial alpha-synuclein may be a potential factor affecting mitochondrial function and predisposing some neurons to degeneration.^[14]

At least three isoforms of synuclein are produced through alternative splicing.^[15] The majority form of the protein, and the one most investigated, is the full-length protein of 140 amino acids. Other isoforms are alpha-synuclein-126, which lacks residues 41-54 due to loss of exon 3; and alpha-synuclein-112,^[16] which lacks residue 103-130 due to loss of exon 5.^[15]

Structure

Alpha-synuclein in solution is considered to be an intrinsically disordered protein, i.e. it lacks a single stable 3D structure.^[17] As of 2014, an increasing number of reports suggest, however, the presence of partial structures or mostly structured oligomeric states in the solution structure of alpha-synuclein even in the absence of lipids. This trend is also supported by a large number of single molecule (optical tweezers) measurements on single copies of monomeric alpha-synuclein as well as covalently enforced dimers or tetramers of alpha-synuclein.^[18]

Function

Alpha-synuclein is specifically upregulated in a discrete population of presynaptic terminals of the brain during a period of acquisition-related synaptic rearrangement.^[19] It has been shown that alpha-synuclein significantly interacts with tubulin,^[20] and that alpha-synuclein may have activity as a potential microtubule-associated protein, like tau.^[21]

Recent evidence suggests that alpha-synuclein functions as a molecular chaperone in the formation of SNARE complexes.^[22][23] In particular, it simultaneously binds to phospholipids of the plasma membrane via its N-terminus domain and to synaptobrevin-2 via its C-terminus domain, with increased importance during synaptic activity.^[24] Indeed, there is growing evidence that alpha-synuclein is involved in the functioning of the neuronal Golgi apparatus and vesicle trafficking.^[25]

Apparently, alpha-synuclein is essential for normal development of the cognitive functions. Knock-out mice with the targeted inactivation of the expression of alpha-synuclein show impaired spatial learning and working memory.^[26]

Interaction with lipid membranes

Experimental evidence has been collected on the interaction of alpha-synuclein with membrane and its involvement with membrane composition and turnover. Yeast genome screening has found that several genes that deal with lipid metabolism play a role in alpha-synuclein toxicity.^[27] Conversely, alpha-synuclein expression levels can affect the viscosity and the relative amount of fatty acids in the lipid bilayer.^[28]

Alpha-synuclein is known to directly bind to lipid membranes, associating with the negatively charged surfaces of phospholipids.^[28] Alpha-synuclein forms an extended helical structure on small unilamellar vesicles.^[29] A preferential binding to small vesicles has been found.^[30] The binding of alpha-synuclein to lipid membranes has complex effects on the latter, altering the bilayer structure and leading to the formation of small vesicles.^[31] Alpha-synuclein has been shown to bend membranes of negatively charged phospholipid vesicles and form tubules from large lipid vesicles.^[32] Using cryo-EM it was shown that these are micellar tubes of ~5-6 nm diameter.^[33] Alpha-synuclein has also been shown to form lipid disc-like particles similar to apolipoproteins .^[34] Studies have also suggested a possible antioxidant activity of alpha-synuclein in the membrane.^[35]

Photomicrographs of regions of substantia nigra in a patient showing Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites in various magnifications

Sequence

Alpha-synuclein primary structure is usually divided in three distinct domains:

• Residues 1-60: An amphipathic N-terminal region dominated by four 11-residue repeats including the consensus sequence KTKEGV. This sequence has a structural alpha helix propensity similar to apolipoproteins-binding domains^[36]
• Residues 61-95: A central hydrophobic region which includes the non-amyloid-β component (NAC) region, involved in protein aggregation^[5]
• Residues 96-140: a highly acidic and proline-rich region which has no distinct structural propensity

Autoproteolytic activity

The use of high-resolution ion-mobility mass spectrometry (IMS-MS) on HPLC-purified alpha-synuclein in vitro has shown alpha-synuclein to be autoproteolytic (self-proteolytic), generating a variety of small molecular weight fragments upon incubation.^[37] The 14.46 kDa protein was found to generate numerous smaller fragments, including 12.16 kDa (amino acids 14-133) and 10.44 kDa (40-140) fragments formed through C- and N-terminal truncation and a 7.27 kDa C-terminal fragment (72-140). The 7.27 kDa fragment, which contains the majority of the NAC region, aggregated considerably faster than full-length alpha-synuclein. It is possible that these autoproteolytic products play a role as intermediates or cofactors in the aggregation of alpha-synuclein in vivo.

Clinical significance

Positive α-Synuclein staining of a Lewy body from a patient who had Parkinson's disease.

Classically considered an unstructured soluble protein, unmutated α-synuclein forms a stably folded tetramer that resists aggregation.^[38] This observation, though reproduced and extended by several labs,^[39][40][41] is still a matter of debate in the field due to conflicting reports.^[42][43][44] Nevertheless, alpha-synuclein aggregates to form insoluble fibrils in pathological conditions characterized by Lewy bodies, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and multiple system atrophy.^[45][46] These disorders are known as synucleinopathies. Alpha-synuclein is the primary structural component of Lewy body fibrils. Occasionally, Lewy bodies contain tau protein;^[47] however, alpha-synuclein and tau constitute two distinctive subsets of filaments in the same inclusion bodies.^[48] Alpha-synuclein pathology is also found in both sporadic and familial cases with Alzheimer's disease.^[49]

The aggregation mechanism of alpha-synuclein is uncertain. There is evidence of a structured intermediate rich in beta structure that can be the precursor of aggregation and, ultimately, Lewy bodies.^[50] A single molecule study in 2008 suggests alpha-synuclein exists as a mix of unstructured, alpha-helix, and beta-sheet-rich conformers in equilibrium. Mutations or buffer conditions known to improve aggregation strongly increase the population of the beta conformer, thus suggesting this could be a conformation related to pathogenic aggregation.^[51] Among the strategies for treating synucleinopathies are compounds that inhibit aggregation of alpha-synuclein. It has been shown that the small molecule cuminaldehyde inhibits fibrillation of alpha-synuclein.^[52] The Epstein-Barr virus has been implicated in these disorders.^[53]

In rare cases of familial forms of Parkinson's disease, there is a mutation in the gene coding for alpha-synuclein. Five point mutations have been identified thus far: A53T,^[54] A30P,^[55] E46K,^[56] H50Q,^[57] and G51D.^[58] Genomic duplication and triplication of the gene appear to be a rare cause of Parkinson's disease in other lineages, although more common than point mutations.^[59] Hence certain mutations of alpha-synuclein may cause it to form amyloid-like fibrils that contribute to Parkinson's disease.

Certain sections of the alpha-synuclein protein may play a role in the tauopathies.^[60]

A prion form of the protein alpha-synuclein may be a causal agent for the disease multiple system atrophy.^[61][62][63]

Events in α-synuclein toxicity.^[64]

Antibodies against alpha-synuclein have replaced antibodies against ubiquitin as the gold standard for immunostaining of Lewy bodies.^[65] The central panel in the figure to the right shows the major pathway for protein aggregation. Monomeric α-synuclein is natively unfolded in solution but can also bind to membranes in an α-helical form. It seems likely that these two species exist in equilibrium within the cell, although this is unproven. From in vitro work, it is clear that unfolded monomer can aggregate first into small oligomeric species that can be stabilized by β-sheet-like interactions and then into higher molecular weight insoluble fibrils. In a cellular context, there is some evidence that the presence of lipids can promote oligomer formation: α-synuclein can also form annular, pore-like structures that interact with membranes. The deposition of α-synuclein into pathological structures such as Lewy bodies is probably a late event that occurs in some neurons. On the left hand side are some of the known modifiers of this process. Electrical activity in neurons changes the association of α-synuclein with vesicles and may also stimulate polo-like kinase 2 (PLK2), which has been shown to phosphorylate α-synuclein at Ser129. Other kinases have also been proposed to be involved. As well as phosphorylation, truncation through proteases such as calpains, and nitration, probably through nitric oxide (NO) or other reactive nitrogen species that are present during inflammation, all modify synuclein such that it has a higher tendency to aggregate. The addition of ubiquitin (shown as a black spot) to Lewy bodies is probably a secondary process to deposition. On the right are some of the proposed cellular targets for α-synuclein mediated toxicity, which include (from top to bottom) ER-golgi transport, synaptic vesicles, mitochondria and lysosomes and other proteolytic machinery. In each of these cases, it is proposed that α-synuclein has detrimental effects, listed below each arrow, although at this time it is not clear if any of these are either necessary or sufficient for toxicity in neurons.

Protein-protein interactions

Alpha-synuclein has been shown to interact with

• Dopamine transporter,^[66][67]
• Parkin (ligase),^[68][69]
• Phospholipase D1,^[70]
• SNCAIP,^{[71][72][73][74]}
• Tau protein.^[75][76]
• Beta amyloid^[77]

See also

• Synuclein
• Contursi Terme - the village in Italy where a mutation in the α-synuclein gene led to a family history of Parkinson's disease

References

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Further reading

• Blakeslee S (2002-05-27). "In Folding Proteins, Clues to Many Diseases -". New York Times.
• Polymeropoulos MH, Lavedan C, Leroy E, Ide SE, Dehejia A, Dutra A, Pike B, Root H, Rubenstein J, Boyer R, Stenroos ES, Chandrasekharappa S, Athanassiadou A, Papapetropoulos T, Johnson WG, Lazzarini AM, Duvoisin RC, Di Iorio G, Golbe LI, Nussbaum RL (Jun 1997). "Mutation in the alpha-synuclein gene identified in families with Parkinson's disease". Science 276 (5321): 2045–7. doi:10.1126/science.276.5321.2045. PMID 9197268.
• Neumann M, Kahle PJ, Giasson BI, Ozmen L, Borroni E, Spooren W, Müller V, Odoy S, Fujiwara H, Hasegawa M, Iwatsubo T, Trojanowski JQ, Kretzschmar HA, Haass C (Nov 2002). "Misfolded proteinase K-resistant hyperphosphorylated alpha-synuclein in aged transgenic mice with locomotor deterioration and in human alpha-synucleinopathies". The Journal of Clinical Investigation 110 (10): 1429–39. doi:10.1172/JCI15777. PMC 151810. PMID 12438441.
• George JM (2001). "The synucleins". Genome Biology 3 (1): REVIEWS3002. doi:10.1186/gb-2001-3-1-reviews3002. PMC 150459. PMID 11806835.
• Lavedan C (Sep 1998). "The synuclein family". Genome Research 8 (9): 871–80. doi:10.1101/gr.8.9.871. PMID 9750188.
• Ozawa T, Wakabayashi K, Oyanagi K (Feb 2002). "[Recent progress in the research of multiple system atrophy with special references to alpha-synuclein and suprachiasmatic nucleus]". Nō to Shinkei = Brain and Nerve 54 (2): 111–7. PMID 11889756.
• Cole NB, Murphy DD (2002). "The cell biology of alpha-synuclein: a sticky problem?". Neuromolecular Medicine 1 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1385/NMM:1:2:95. PMID 12025860.
• Iwatsubo T (Jun 2002). "[alpha-synuclein and Parkinson's disease]". Seikagaku. The Journal of Japanese Biochemical Society 74 (6): 477–82. PMID 12138709.
• Trojanowski JQ, Lee VM (Oct 2002). "Parkinson's disease and related synucleinopathies are a new class of nervous system amyloidoses". Neurotoxicology 23 (4-5): 457–60. doi:10.1016/S0161-813X(02)00065-7. PMID 12428717.
• Alves da Costa C (Feb 2003). "Recent advances on alpha-synuclein cell biology: functions and dysfunctions". Current Molecular Medicine 3 (1): 17–24. doi:10.2174/1566524033361690. PMID 12558071.
• Ma QL, Chan P, Yoshii M, Uéda K (Apr 2003). "Alpha-synuclein aggregation and neurodegenerative diseases". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 5 (2): 139–48. PMID 12719631.
• Di Rosa G, Puzzo D, Sant'Angelo A, Trinchese F, Arancio O (Oct 2003). "Alpha-synuclein: between synaptic function and dysfunction". Histology and Histopathology 18 (4): 1257–66. PMID 12973692.
• Baptista MJ, Cookson MR, Miller DW (Feb 2004). "Parkin and alpha-synuclein: opponent actions in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease". The Neuroscientist 10 (1): 63–72. doi:10.1177/1073858403260392. PMID 14987449.
• Kim S, Seo JH, Suh YH (May 2004). "Alpha-synuclein, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease". Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 10 Suppl 1: S9–13. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2003.11.005. PMID 15109581.
• Sidhu A, Wersinger C, Vernier P (May 2004). "alpha-Synuclein regulation of the dopaminergic transporter: a possible role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease". FEBS Letters 565 (1-3): 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2004.03.063. PMID 15135042.
• Vekrellis K, Rideout HJ, Stefanis L (Aug 2004). "Neurobiology of alpha-synuclein". Molecular Neurobiology 30 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1385/MN:30:1:001. PMID 15247485.
• Chiba-Falek O, Nussbaum RL (2004). "Regulation of alpha-synuclein expression: implications for Parkinson's disease". Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 68: 409–15. doi:10.1101/sqb.2003.68.409. PMID 15338643.
• Pankratz N, Foroud T (Apr 2004). "Genetics of Parkinson disease". NeuroRx 1 (2): 235–42. doi:10.1602/neurorx.1.2.235. PMC 534935. PMID 15717024.
• Singleton AB (Aug 2005). "Altered alpha-synuclein homeostasis causing Parkinson's disease: the potential roles of dardarin". Trends in Neurosciences 28 (8): 416–21. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2005.05.009. PMID 15955578.
• Yu S, Uéda K, Chan P (2005). "Alpha-synuclein and dopamine metabolism". Molecular Neurobiology 31 (1-3): 243–54. doi:10.1385/MN:31:1-3:243. PMID 15953825.
• Lee HG, Zhu X, Takeda A, Perry G, Smith MA (Jul 2006). "Emerging evidence for the neuroprotective role of alpha-synuclein". Experimental Neurology 200 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.04.024. PMID 16780837.
• Giorgi FS, Bandettini di Poggio A, Battaglia G, Pellegrini A, Murri L, Ruggieri S, Paparelli A, Fornai F (2006). "A short overview on the role of alpha-synuclein and proteasome in experimental models of Parkinson's disease". Journal of Neural Transmission. Supplementum 70 (70): 105–9. doi:10.1007/978-3-211-45295-0_17. PMID 17017516.

External links

• Media related to alpha synuclein at Wikimedia Commons
• alpha-Synuclein at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)