Islam in China

Mapping of Islam by province of China according to a survey reported in 2010; there are an estimated 23 million Muslims or 1.7% of the total population.^[1]

The Sufi mausoleum (gongbei) of Ma Laichi in Linxia City, China.

Islam in China has existed through 1,400 years of continuous interaction with Chinese society.^[2] Currently, Muslims are a significant minority group in China. Hui Muslims are the majority Muslim group in China. The greatest concentration is in Xinjiang, with a significant Uyghur population. Lesser but significant populations reside in the regions of Ningxia, Gansu, and Qinghai.^[3] Various sources estimate different numbers of adherents with some sources indicating that 1.5-4% of the total population in China are Muslims.^[4] Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Sunni Muslim.^[3]

History

The Great Mosque of Xi'an, one of China's oldest mosques

Chinese Muslims have been in China for the last 1,400 years of continuous interaction with Chinese society.^[2] "Islam expanded gradually across the maritime and inland silk routes from the 7th to the 10th centuries through trade and diplomatic exchanges."^[5]

Introduction of Islam 616-18 AD

The Huaisheng Mosque is a mosque, whose construction is attributed to the Prophet Muhammad's second cousin, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas.

According to Chinese Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first introduced to China in 616-18 AD by Sahaba (companions) of Prophet Muhammad: Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, Sayid, Wahab ibn Abu Kabcha and another Sahaba.^[6] Wahab ibn abu Kabcha (Wahb abi Kabcha) may have been be a son of al-Harth ibn Abdul Uzza (also known as Abu Kabsha).^[7] It is noted in other accounts that Wahab Abu Kabcha reached Canton by sea in 629 CE.^[8]

Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas, along with three Sahabas, namely Suhayla Abuarja, Uwais al-Qarani, and Hassan ibn Thabit, returned to China from Arabia in 637 by the Yunan-Manipur-Chittagong route, then reached Arabia by sea.^[9] Some sources date the introduction of Islam in China to 650 AD, the third sojourn of Saad ibn abi Waqqas,^[10] when he was sent as an official envoy to Emperor Gaozong during Caliph Uthman's reign.^[11]

Tang dynasty

Guang Ta minaret, Huaisheng Mosque, Guangzhou, China. According to tradition, the mosque was founded in 627. The minaret was built in the 10th century. Photograph by Felice Beato, April 1860.

Earlier visits of Saad ibn abi Waqqas were noted in Arab accounts since it was a period of nascent Islam mixed with events of many hectic preaching and warfare. They (Sahabas) were more concerned with writings of verses of the Koran as revealed to Muhammad, and his sayings and ways of life. According to China Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first brought to China by an embassy led by Saad ibn abi Waqqas that was sent by Uthman, the third Caliph, (that was in 651, less than twenty years after the death of Muhammad) which are confusions with Saad ibn abi Waqqas's earlier visits. The embassy was led by Sa'ad ibn Abī Waqqās, the second cousin of Muhammad . Emperor Gaozong, the Tang emperor who received the envoy then ordered the construction of the Memorial mosque in Canton, the first mosque in the country, in memory of Muhammad.^[10][12]

While modern secular historians tend to say that there is no evidence for Waqqās himself ever coming to China,^[12] they do believe that Muslim diplomats and merchants came to Tang China within a few decades from the beginning of the Muslim Era.^[12] The Tang Dynasty's cosmopolitan culture, with its intensive contacts with Central Asia and its significant communities of (originally non-Muslim) Central and Western Asian merchants resident in Chinese cities, which helped the introduction of Islam.^[12] The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants.^[13] During the Tang and especially the Song eras, comparatively well-established, even if somewhat segregated, mercantile Muslim communities existed in the port cities of Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Hangzhou on China's southeastern seaboard, as well as in the interior centers such as Chang'an, Kaifeng, and Yangzhou.^[14] After critical analysis, it is evident that Saad ibn abi Waqqas and the three other Sahabas who were preaching from 616-18 were noticed by Emperor Wu-De by 618 AD. Guangzhou is home to four mosques, including the famous Huaisheng Mosque believed to have been built by Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, the second cousin of Muhammad. The city also has a grave believed to be that of ibn Abi Waqqas (father of Sa'd ibn abi Waqqas).^[15]

Islam was brought to China during the Tang dynasty by Arab traders, who were primarily concerned with trading and commerce. It was because of this low profile that the 845 anti-Buddhist edict during the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution said absolutely nothing about Islam.^[16] It seems that trade occupied the attention of the early Muslim settlers, coming and going between China and the West by the oversea or the overland routes.^[17][18]

Song dynasty

Puhaddin Mausoleum complex in Yangzhou

By the time of the Song Dynasty, Muslims had come to play a major role in the import/export industry.^[10][14] The office of Director General of Shipping was consistently held by a Muslim during this period.^[19] In 1070, the Song emperor Shenzong invited 5,300 Muslim men from Bukhara, to settle in China in order to create a buffer zone between the Chinese and the Liao empire in the northeast. Later on these men were settled between the Sung capital of Kaifeng and Yenching (modern day Beijing).^[20] They were led by Prince Amir Sayyid "So-fei-er" (his Chinese name) who was called the "father" of the Muslim community in China. Prior to him Islam was named by the Tang and Song Chinese as Dashi fa ("law of the Arabs").^[21] He renamed it to Huihui Jiao ("the Religion of the Huihui").^[22]

Tombs of Imam Asim and Mazaar of Zafar Sadiq

The tombs of Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun at Mount Lingshan, Quanzhou

"On the foothills of Mount Lingshan are the tombs of two of the four companions that Prophet Muhammad sent eastwards to preach Islam. Known as the "Holy Tombs," they house the companions Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun—their Chinese names, of course. The other two companions went to Guangzhou and Yangzhou." ^[23] The Imam Asim, also spelt Hashim, is said to have been one of the first Islamic missionaries in the region of China. He was a man of c.1000 CE in Hotan. The shrine site includes the reputed tomb of the Imam, a mosque, and several related tombs. ^[24] There is also a mazaar of Imam Zafar Sadiq.^[25]

Yuan dynasty

During the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), large numbers of Muslims settled in China. The Mongols, a minority in China, gave foreign immigrants, such as Muslims, Christians, and Jews from west Asia an elevated status over the native Han Chinese as part of their governing strategy, thus giving Muslims a heavy influence. Mongols recruited and forcibly relocated hundreds of thousands of Muslim immigrants from Western and Central Asia to help them administer their rapidly expanding empire.^[3] The Mongols used Persian, Arab and Buddhist Uyghur administrators, generically known as semu [色目]("various eye color")^[26] to act as officers of taxation and finance. Muslims headed many corporations in China in the early Yuan period.^[27] Muslim scholars were brought to work on calendar making and astronomy. The architect Yeheidie'erding (Amir al-Din) learned from Han architecture and helped to design the construction of the capital of the Yuan Dynasty, Dadu, otherwise known as Khanbaliq or Khanbaligh, the predecessor of present-day Beijing.^[28] The term Hui originated from the Mandarin "Huihui," a term first used in the Yuan Dynasty to describe Central Asian, Persian and Arab residents in China.^[12]

Jinan Great Southern Mosque was completed during the reign of Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan.

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asians to work as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to work as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara of Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.^[29]

Genghis Khan and his successors forbade Islamic practices like halal butchering, as well as other restrictions. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.^[30] Genghis Khan outright called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were affected by these laws and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher.^[31] Towards the end of the Yuan Dynasty, corruption and persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined the Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The founder of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, led Muslim generals like Lan Yu against the Mongols, whom they defeated in combat. Some Muslim communities had a name in Chinese which meant "baracks" or "thanks," which many Hui Muslims claim comes from the gratitude which Chinese people have towards them for their role in defeating the Mongols.^[32]

Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say “we do not eat Mongol food”. [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] “By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?” He thereupon made them eat. “If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime.” He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: “if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat”. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.^[33]

The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.

Ming dynasty

• 

  Hu Dahai was a Chinese Muslim general of the Hongwu Emperor.

• 

  Chinese Muslim explorer and admiral, Zheng He.

During the following Ming dynasty, Muslims continued to be influential around government circles. Six of Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang's most trusted generals are said to have been Muslim, including Lan Yu who, in 1388, led a strong imperial Ming army out of the Great Wall and won a decisive victory over the Mongols in Mongolia, effectively ending the Mongol dream to re-conquer China. During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng.^[34] Zhu Yuanzhang also wrote a praise of Islam, the The Hundred-word Eulogy. It was recorded that "His Majesty ordered to have mosques built in Xijing and Nanjing [the capital cities], and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong. His Majesty also personally wrote baizizan [a eulogy] in praise of the Prophet's virtues."^[35] Additionally, the Yongle Emperor hired Zheng He, perhaps the most famous Chinese of Muslim birth although at least in later life not a Muslim himself, to lead seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean from 1405 and 1433. However, during the Ming Dynasty, new immigration to China from Muslim countries was restricted in an increasingly isolationist nation. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by speaking Chinese and by adopting Chinese names and culture. Mosque architecture began to follow traditional Chinese architecture. This era, sometimes considered the Golden Age of Islam in China,^[36] also saw Nanjing become an important center of Islamic study.^[37]

Giraffe brought to China, by Zheng He's Treasure Fleet.

The achievements of Zheng He's 7th voyage.

Muslims in Ming dynasty Beijing were given relative freedom by the Chinese, with no restrictions placed on their religious practices or freedom of worship, and being normal citizens in Beijing. In contrast to the freedom granted to Muslims, followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Catholicism suffered from restrictions and censure in Beijing.^[38]

The Ming policy towards the Islamic religion was tolerant, while their racial policy towards ethnic minorities was of integration through forced marriage. Muslims were allowed to practice Islam, but if they were members of other ethnic groups they were required by law to intermarry, so Hui had to marry Han since they were different ethnic groups, with the Han often converting to Islam.

Integration was mandated through intermarriage by Ming law, ethnic minorities had to marry people of other ethnic groups. The Chinese during the Ming dynasty also tried to force foreigners like the Hui into marrying Chinese women.^[39] Marriage between upper class Han Chinese and Hui Muslims was low, since upper class Han Chinese men would both refuse to marry Muslim women, and forbid their daughters from marrying Muslim men, since they did not want to convert due to their upper class status. Only low and mean status Han Chinese men would convert if they wanted to marry a Hui woman. Ming law allowed Han Chinese men and women to not have to marry Hui, and only marry each other, while Hui men and women were required to marry a spouse not of their race.^[40][41][42]

The Hongwu Emperor decreed the building of multiple mosques throughout China in many locations. A Nanjing mosque was built by the Xuande Emperor.^[43]

An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.^{[44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52]} Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque. Central Asian women were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by a Muslim guard and Sayyid Hussein from Hami.^[53] The guard was Yu Yung and the women were Uighur.^[54] It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.^[55] The speculation of him becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched behavior along with his concubines of foreign origin.^[56][57] Muslim Central Asian girls were favored by Zhengde like how Korean girls were favored by Xuande.^[58] A Uighur concubine was kept by Zhengde.^[59] Foreign origin Uighur and Mongol women were favored by the Zhengde emperor.^[60] Tatar (Mongol) and Central Asian women were bedded by Zhengde.^[61] Zhengde received Central Asian Muslim Semu women from his Muslim guard Yu Yong: 錦衣衛都指揮同知於永致仕。特許其子承襲。指揮同知永色目人，善陰道秘戲得幸於豹房，左右皆畏避之。又言回回女晢潤瑳粲大勝中國，上悅之。時都督昌佐亦色目人，永矯旨索佐家回女善西域舞者十二人以進，又諷請召侯伯故色目籍家婦人入內教之，內外切齒。後上欲召永女入，永以鄰人白回子女充名以入，懼事覺，乃求致仕^{[62][63][64][65][66][67][68]} 你兒干 你兒幹 Ni'ergan was the name of one of his Muslim concubines.^[69][70]

When the Qing dynasty invaded the Ming dynasty in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists led by Muslim leaders Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Ma Shouying led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor. The Muslim Ming loyalists were crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin and Ding Guodong killed.

In Guangzhou, the national monuments known as "The Muslim's Loyal Trio" are the tombs of Ming loyalist Muslims who were martyred while fighting in battle against the Qing in the Manchu conquest of China in Guangzhou.^[71]

Qing dynasty

Painting depicting a Turkic Muslim from Altishahr, during the reign of the Qing dynasty.

The Qing dynasty (1644–1911) witnessed multiple revolts. The Qing rulers belonged to the Manchu, a minority in China.

When the Qing dynasty replaced the Ming dynasty starting in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin^[72] and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor.^[73] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay.^[74][75][76] The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt.^[77] After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged alleigance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.^[78] When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing.^[79] The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.

The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.^[80] Zhu Yu'ai, the Ming Prince Gui was accompanied by Hui refugees when he fled from Huguang to the Burmese border in Yunnan and as a mark of their defiance against the Qing and loyalty to the Ming, they changed their surname to Ming.^[81]

In Guangzhou, the national monuments known as "The Muslim's Loyal Trio" are the tombs of Ming loyalist Muslims who were martyred while fighting in battle against the Qing in the Manchu conquest of China in Guangzhou.^[71] The Ming Muslim loyalists were called "jiaomen sanzhong "Three defenders of the faith".^[81]

The Muslim revolt in the northwest occurred due to violent and bloody infighting between Muslim groups, the Gedimu, Khafiya, and Jahriyya. The rebellion in Yunnan occurred because of repression by Qing officials, resulting in five bloody Hui rebellions, most notably the Panthay Rebellion, which occurred in Yunnan province from 1855 to 1873, and the Dungan revolt, which occurred mostly in Xinjiang, Shensi and Gansu, from 1862 to 1877. The Manchu government ordered the execution of all rebels, killing a million people in the Panthay rebellion,^[82] several million in the Dungan revolt^[82]

The Hui Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan revolt.^[83]

Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or consequences from the Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."^[84]

However, many Muslims like Ma Zhan'ao, Ma Anliang, Dong Fuxiang, Ma Qianling, and Ma Julung defected to the Qing dynasty side, and helped the Qing general Zuo Zongtang exterminate the Muslim rebels. These Muslim generals belonged to the Khafiya sect, and they helped Qing massacre Jahariyya rebels. General Zuo moved the Han around Hezhou out of the area and relocated them as a reward for the Muslims there helping Qing kill other Muslim rebels.

In 1895, another Dungan Revolt (1895) broke out, and loyalist Muslims like Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang, Ma Guoliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang suppressed and massacred the rebel Muslims led by Ma Dahan, Ma Yonglin, and Ma Wanfu. A Muslim army called the Kansu Braves led by General Dong Fuxiang fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. They included well known generals like Ma Anliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang.

In Yunnan, the Qing armies exterminated only the Muslims who had rebelled and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.^[85]

Republic of China

Changchun mosque.

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Sun Yat-sen, who established the Republic of China, immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Man (Manchu), Meng (Mongol), Hui (Muslim),^{[n 1]} Tsang (Tibetan), and Miao peoples.

During the rule of the Kuomintang party, the Kuomintang appointed the Muslim warlords of the family known as the Ma clique as the Military Governors of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia. Bai Chongxi was a Muslim General and Defence Minister of China during this time.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese persecuted, killed, and raped Hui Muslims. Mosques were destroyed and in many provinces Hui were slaughtered by Japanese troops or bombed. During the Rape of Nanking the Mosques in Nanjing were flowing with dead bodies after the Japanese slaughters. Japanese smeared Hui Mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui girls to serve as sex slaves and destroyed the cemeteries of the Hui.^[86] Many Hui, Turkic Salar, Dongxiang, and Bonan Muslims fought in the war against Japan.

The Hui Muslim county of Dachang was subjected to slaughter by the Japanese.^[87]

On 10 February 1938, Legation Secretary of the German Embassy, Rosen, wrote to his Foreign Ministry about a film made in December by Reverend John Magee about the Nanking Massacre to recommend its purchase. Here is an excerpt from his letter and a description of some of its shots, kept in the Political Archives of the Foreign Ministry in Berlin. One of the victims killed by the Japanese was a Muslim (Mohammedan) whose name was Ha.

During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanking – which, by the way, continues to this day to a considerable degree – the Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Mission who has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness to the atrocities committed by the Japanese ... One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers in the Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, which continue even today.^[88]

On December 13, about 30 soldiers came to a Chinese house at #5 Hsing Lu Koo in the southeastern part of Nanking, and demanded entrance. The door was open by the landlord, a Mohammedan named Ha. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha's death, begging them not to kill anyone else. Mrs. Ha asked them why they killed her husband and they shot her. Mrs. Hsia was dragged out from under a table in the guest hall where she had tried to hide with her 1 year old baby. After being stripped and raped by one or more men, she was bayoneted in the chest, and then had a bottle thrust into her vagina. The baby was killed with a bayonet. Some soldiers then went to the next room, where Mrs. Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and her two daughters aged 16 and 14. They were about to rape the girls when the grandmother tried to protect them. The soldiers killed her with a revolver. The grandfather grasped the body of his wife and was killed. The two girls were then stripped, the elder being raped by 2–3 men, and the younger by 3. The older girl was stabbed afterwards and a cane was rammed in her vagina. The younger girl was bayoneted also but was spared the horrible treatment that had been meted out to her sister and mother. The soldiers then bayoneted another sister of between 7–8, who was also in the room. The last murders in the house were of Ha's two children, aged 4 and 2 respectively. The older was bayoneted and the younger split down through the head with a sword.^[89]

In 1937, during the Battle of Beiping–Tianjin the Chinese government was notified by Muslim General Ma Bufang of the Ma clique that he was prepared to bring the fight to the Japanese in a telegram message.^[90] Immediately after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Ma Bufang arranged for a cavalry division under the Muslim General Ma Biao to be sent east to battle the Japanese.^[91] Ethnic Turkic Salar Muslims made up the majority of the first cavalry division which was sent by Ma Bufang.^[92]

People's Republic of China

An ethnic Hui family celebrating Eid ul-Fitr in Ningxia.

During the Cultural Revolution, mosques along with other religious buildings were often defaced, destroyed or closed and copies of the Quran were destroyed along with temples, churches, Buddhist and Daoist monasteries, and cemeteries by the Red Guards.^[93] During that time, the government also constantly accused Muslims and other religious groups of holding "superstitious beliefs" and promoting "anti-socialist trends".^[94] The government began to relax its policies towards Muslims in 1978. When comparing persecution, Chinese Muslims say that the Soviet Union was worse in regards to its treatment of Islam than China during the "ten black years" (of the Cultural Revolution).^[95] Today, Islam is experiencing a modest revival and there are now^[96] many mosques in China. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nationwide Islamic associations have been organized to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims.^[97]

China banned a book titled "Xing Fengsu" ("Sexual Customs") which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest in 1989 after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese Hui Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book.^{[98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107]} The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs,^[108] Hui Muslim protestors who violently rioted by vandalizing property during the protests against the book were let off by the Chinese government and went unpunished while Uyghur protestors were imprisoned.^[109]

In 2007, anticipating the coming "Year of the Pig" in the Chinese calendar, depictions of pigs were banned from CCTV "to avoid conflicts with muslim minorities".^[110] This is believed to refer to China's population of 20 million Muslims (to whom pigs are considered "unclean").

Eid al-Adha at Jiangwan Mosque, Shanghai.

In response to the 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run Xinhua advocated limiting freedom of speech, while another state-run newspaper Global Times said the attack was "payback" for what it characterised as Western colonialism and accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations.^[111][112]

Different Muslim groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are placed specifically on Uyghurs in Xinjiang.^[113] Since the 1980s Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Muslim areas, only specifically excluding Xinjiang from allowing these schools because of separatist sentiment there.^[114]

Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the Communist party allows Hui Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam.^[115] China does not enforce the law against children attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang.^[116][117]

Hui Muslims who are employed by the state are allowed to fast during Ramadan unlike Uyghurs in the same positions, the amount of Hui going on Hajj is expanding, and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, while Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them and Uyghurs find it difficult to get passports to go on Hajj.^[118]

Hui religious schools are allowed a massive autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government even as he admitted to attending an event where Bin Laden spoke.^[119][120]

Uyghur views vary by the oasis they live in. China has historically favored Turpan and Hami. Uyghurs in Turfan and Hami and their leaders like Emin Khoja allied with the Qing against Uyghurs in Altishahr. During the Qing dynasty, China enfeoffed the rulers of Turpan and Hami (Kumul) as autonomous princes, while the rest of the Uyghurs in Altishahr (the Tarim Basin) were ruled by Begs.^[121] Uyghurs from Turpan and Hami were appointed by China as officials to rule over Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin. Turpan is more economically prosperous and views China more positively than the rebellious Kashgar, which is the most anti-China oasis. Uyghurs in Turpan are treated leniently and favourably by China with regards to religious policies, while Kashgar is subjected to controls by the government.^[122][123] In Turpan and Hami, religion is viewed more positively by China than religion in Kashgar and Khotan in southern Xinjiang.^[124] Both Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turn a blind eye to the law and allow religious Islamic education for Uyghur children.^[125][126] Celebrating at religious functions and going on Hajj to Mecca is encouraged by the Chinese government, for Uyghur members of the Communist party. From 1979-1989, 350 mosques were built in Turpan.^[127] Han, Hui, and the Chinese government are viewed much more positively by Uyghurs specifically in Turpan, with the government providing better economic, religious, and political treatment for them.^[128]

Tensions between Hui Muslims and Uyghurs arise because Hui troops and officials often dominated the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts.^[129] Xinjiang's Hui population increased by over 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4.4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1.7 percent. This dramatic increase in Hui population led inevitably to significant tensions between the Hui and Uyghur populations. Some Uyghurs in Kashgar remember that the Hui army at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China.^[130] Some Hui criticize Uyghur separatism and generally do not want to get involved in conflict in other countries.^[131] Hui and Uyghur live separately, attending different mosques.^[132]

The Uyghur militant organization East Turkestan Islamic Movement's magazine Islamic Turkistan has accused the Chinese "Muslim Brotherhood" (the Yihewani) of being responsible for the moderation of Hui Muslims and the lack of Hui joining jihadist groups in addition to blaming other things for the lack of Hui Jihadists, such as the fact that for more than 300 years Hui and Uyghurs have been enemies of each other, no separatist Islamist organizations among the Hui, the fact that the Hui view China as their home, and the fact that the "infidel Chinese" language is the language of the Hui.^[133][134]

An investigation by the Turkish Anadolu Agency which sent Turkish reporters into Xinjiang published its report and said that there was exaggeration on alleged restrictions and oppression, finding out that children and bearded men were able to go to Mosques but giving religious education to children is not allowed, while government employees experience issues with fasting but Uyghurs working in the private sector are allowed to fast, private citizens can fast and prayer is allowed.^[135]

Sects of Islam

There have been many occurrences of violent sectarian fighting between different Hui sects. Sectarian fighting between Hui sects led to the Jahriyya rebellion in the 1780s and the 1895 revolt. After a hiatus after the People's Republic of China came to power, sectarian in fighting resumed in the 1990s in Ningxia between different sects. Several sects refuse to intermarry with each other. One Sufi sect circulated an anti-Salafi pamphlet in Arabic.

Tibetan-Muslim sectarian violence

In Tibet, the majority of Muslims are Hui people. Hatred between Tibeans and Muslims stems from events during the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang's rule in Qinghai such as Ngolok rebellions (1917–49) and the Sino-Tibetan War, but in 1949 the Communists put an end to the violence between Tibetans and Muslims, however, new Tibetan-Muslim violence broke out after China engaged in liberalization. Riots broke out between Muslims and Tibetans over incidents such as bones in soups and prices of balloons, and Tibetans accused Muslims of being cannibals who cooked humans in their soup and of contaminating food with urine. Tibetans attacked Muslim restaurants. Fires set by Tibetans which burned the apartments and shops of Muslims resulted in Muslim families being killed and wounded in the 2008 mid-March riots. Due to Tibetan violence against Muslims, the traditional Islamic white caps have not been worn by many Muslims. Scarfs were removed and replaced with hairnets by Muslim women in order to hide. Muslims prayed in secret at home when in August 2008 the Tibetans burned the Mosque. Incidents such as these which make Tibetans look bad on the international stage are covered up by the Tibetan exile community. The repression of Tibetan separatism by the Chinese government is supported by Hui Muslims.^[136] In addition, Chinese-speaking Hui have problems with Tibetan Hui (the Tibetan speaking Kache minority of Muslims).^[137]

The main Mosque in Lhasa was burned down by Tibetans and Chinese Hui Muslims were violently assaulted by Tibetan rioters in the 2008 Tibetan unrest.^[138] Tibetan exiles and foreign scholars like ignore and do not talk about sectarian violence between Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims.^[139] The majority of Tibetans viewed the wars against Iraq and Afghanistan after 9/11 positively and it had the effect of galvanizing anti-Muslim attitudes among Tibetans and resulted in an anti-Muslim boycott against Muslim owned businesses.^[139]:17 Tibetan Buddhists propagate a false libel that Muslims cremate their Imams and use the ashes to convert Tibetans to Islam by making Tibetans inhale the ashes, even though the Tibetans seem to be aware that Muslims practice burial and not cremation since they frequently clash against proposed Muslim cemeteries in their area.^[139]:19

Since the Chinese government supports and backs up the Hui Muslims, the Tibetans deliberately attack the Hui Muslims as a way to demonstrate anti-government sentiment and because they have a background of sectarian violence against each other since Ma Bufang's rule due to their separate religions and ethnicity and Tibetans resent Hui economic domination.^[140]

People

Ethnic groups

Muslim, Bonan children.

Muslims live in every region in China.^[3] The highest concentrations are found in the northwest provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, and Ningxia, with significant populations also found throughout Yunnan province in southwest China and Henan province in central China.^[3] Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Muslim. The largest groups in descending order are Hui (9.8 million in year 2000 census, or 48% of the officially tabulated number of Muslims), Uyghur (8.4 million, 41%), Kazakh (1.25 million, 6.1%), Dongxiang (514,000, 2.5%), Kyrgyz (144,000), Uzbeks (125,000), Salar (105,000), Tajik (41,000), Bonan (17,000), and Tatar (5,000).^[3] However, individual members of traditionally Muslim groups may profess other religions or none at all. Additionally, Tibetan Muslims are officially classified along with the Tibetan people. Muslims live predominantly in the areas that border Central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia, i.e. Xinjiang, Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai, which is known as the "Quran Belt".^[141]

Number of Muslims in China

99 names of Allah, in Chinese Sini.

China is home to a large population of adherents of Islam. According to the CIA World Factbook, about 1–2% of the total population in China are Muslims.^[142] The 2000 census counts imply that there may be up to 20 million Muslims in China.^[143] A 2009 study done by the Pew Research Center, based on China's census, concluded there are 21,667,000 Muslims in China, accounting for 1.6% of the total population.^[10][144] According to the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), there are more than 21 million Muslims in the country. According to SARA there are approximately 36,000 Islamic places of worship, more than 45,000 imams, and 10 Islamic schools in the country.^[145] Within the next two decades from 2011, Pew projects a slowing down of Muslim population growth in China than in previous years, with Muslim women in China having a 1.7 fertility rate.^[146] Many Hui Muslims voluntarily limit themselves to one child in China since their Imams preach to them about the benefits of population control, the amount of children Hui in different areas are allowed to have varies between one and three children.^[147] Chinese family planning policy allows minorities including Muslims to have up to two children in urban areas, and three to four children in rural areas.

An early historical estimate of the Muslim population of the then Qing Empire belongs to the Christian missionary Marshall Broomhall. In his book, published in 1910, he produced estimates for each province, based on the reports of missionaries working there, who had counted mosques, talked to mullahs, etc. Broomhall admits the inadequacy of the data for Xinjiang, estimating the Muslim population of Xinjiang (i.e., virtually the entire population of the province at the time) in the range from 1,000,000 (based on the total population number of 1,200,000 in the contemporary Statesman's Yearbook) to 2,400,000 (2 million "Turki", 200,000 "Hasak", and 200,000 "Tungan", as per George Hunter). He uses the estimates of 2,000,000 to 3,500,000 for Gansu (which then also included today's Ningxia and parts of Qinghai), 500,000 to 1,000,000 for Zhili (i.e., Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei), 300,000 to 1,000,000 for Yunnan, and smaller numbers for other provinces, down to 1,000 in Fujian. For Mongolia (then, part of the Qing Empire) he takes an arbitrary range of 50,000 to 100,000.^[148] Summing up, he arrives to the grand total of 4,727,000 to 9,821,000 Muslims throughout the Qing Empire of its last years, i.e. just over 1-2% of the entire country's estimated population of 426,045,305.^{[149][150][151]} The 1920 edition of New International Yearbook: A Compendium of the World's Progress gave the number "between 5,000,000 and 10,000,000" as the total number of Muslims in the Republic of China.^[152]

Religious practices

Islamic education in China

Chinese Muslim students

Over the last twenty years a wide range of Islamic educational opportunities have been developed to meet the needs of China's Muslim population. In addition to mosque schools, government Islamic colleges, and independent Islamic colleges, a growing number of students have gone overseas to continue their studies at international Islamic universities in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and Malaysia.^[3] Qīngzhēn (清真) is the Chinese term for certain Islamic institutions. Its literal meaning is "pure truth."

Muslim groups

The vast majority of China's Muslims are Sunni Muslims. A notable feature of some Muslim communities in China is the presence of female imams.^[153][154] Islamic scholar Ma Tong recorded that the 6,781,500 Hui in China predominately followed the Orthodox form of Islam (58.2% were Gedimu a non-Sufi mainstream tradition that opposed unorthodoxy and religious innovation) mainly adhering to the Hanafi Madh'hab. However a large minority of Hui are members of Sufi groups. According to Tong, 21% Yihewani, 10.9% Jahriyya, 7.2% Khuffiya, 1.4% Qadariyya, and 0.7% Kubrawiyya.^[155] Shia Chinese Muslims are mostly Ismailis including Tajiks of the Tashkurgan and Sarikul areas of Xinjiang.

Chinese Muslims and the Hajj

It is known that Admiral Zheng He (1371–1435) and his Muslim crews had made the journey to Mecca and performed the Hajj during one of the former's voyages to the western ocean between 1401-1433.^[156] Other Chinese Muslims may have made the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in the following centuries; however, there is little information on this. General Ma Lin made a Hajj to Mecca.^[157] General Ma Fuxiang along with Ma Linyi sponsored Imam Wang Jingzhai when he went on hajj to Mecca in 1921.^[158] Yihewani Imam Hu Songshan went on Hajj in 1925.^[159] Briefly during the Cultural Revolution, Chinese Muslims were not allowed to attend the Hajj, and only did so through Pakistan, but this policy was reversed in 1979. Chinese Muslims now attend the Hajj in large numbers, typically in organized groups, with a record 10,700 Chinese Muslim pilgrims from all over the country making the Hajj in 2007.^[160]

Relations with non-Muslims

Early History

Qinghai Region

In their early history, Muslims residing in China had closer interactions with adherents of other various faiths. Historically, Islam and Confucianism were brought together in the Han Kitab. Muslims treated the works of Confucius with considerable respect highlighting the harmony between the two doctrines^[161] and their ethical norms.^[162] Jesuits and Muslims in the 16th century entered into a dialogue using each other’s ideas to engage with those outside Chinese territory.^[163] In 17th century, the population of Chinese Muslims expanded due to a large conversion of Chinese Jews to Islam.^[161] Another example of Chinese Muslims interacting with other faiths is how Muslim General Ma Bufang allowed polytheists to openly worship, and Christian missionaries to station themselves in Qinghai. General Ma and other high ranking Muslim generals even attended the Kokonuur Lake Ceremony where the God of the Lake was worshipped. During the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung and all participants bowed to a portrait of Kuomintang party founder Dr. Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat Sen). The God of the Lake was also bowed to, and offerings were given to him by the participants, including the Muslims.^[164] In addition, the tradition of foot-binding was practiced by both Muslim and non-Muslims communities and this shows the transcendence of greater Chinese culture across all communities of faith.^[164] In contemporary academia the study of the interactions of Muslims and Non-Muslims is a sparsely populated area.

Menghai in Yunnan

Some recent studies on the topic include a comparative study of Buddhists and Muslims living in the Menghai area of Yunnan, which shows these groups are working together in close communities. By speaking the connected languages of Dai and Paxdai, which are unique to these groups and their area, they rely on each other for communication with those outside their community and they are seen as having promising future living together.^[165]

Contemporary Relationships

Xinjiang Region

In the 21st century, relations between Chinese Muslims and non-Muslims have become increasingly strained. This can be seen in the predominantly Uyghur Muslim region of Xinjiang, where the Chinese government has banned students, teachers, and civil servants from fasting during the month of Ramadan.^[166] The Chinese authorities commented on the ban's implementation, saying that it was meant to protect the health of students and to help maintain state secularism.^[167] Uyghur rights groups blame the government for the ethnic tensions present in the area and for their systematic approach to eradicating Muslim identity in the region.^[166]

This discrimination faced by the Uyghurs has created feelings of alienation and resentment among the Uyghurs that has, in turn, fed into a growing Islamic radicalism in the area.^[168] Numbers of non-Muslim Han have skyrocketed in the region, as well, according to Uyghur American Association President Alim Seytoff, who claims that the proportion of non-Muslims has increased exponentially from 6.7 in 1949 to 40 percent in 2008. This has inevitably lead to greater ethnic tensions over jobs and resources.^[169] These ethnic tensions resulting from Uyghur persecution have had serious repercussions in China, as Uyghur extremists have carried out numerous violent acts across the country. For example, a bombing of a Beijing park in May 1997 killed one person, while a bombing of two buses in the same year killed another two people. Similarly, the Uyghur capital of Ürümqi in the Xinjiang region has been witness to multiple acts of terrorism, with over 30 such attacks happening in the name of Muslim and Tibetan separatist demands.^[170] By the early 21st century, the East Turkestan Islamic movement had been involved in 200 or more terrorist attacks resulting in 162 deaths and over 440 wounded.^[168] The actions taken by the government extend beyond banning Ramadan, however, and also include deciding which citizens can go to Mosque and which versions of the Qur'an are acceptable and accessible. Consequently, the Chinese government exercises considerable control over the Uyghur people.^[167] Uyghurs have aimed to overcome this domination through organizing secret meetings in people's homes, commonly referred to as Mashrap. The feelings of frustration experienced by this group, combined with localized gatherings who are influenced by the rise of Islamism abroad, has led to an increased reliance placed on religion and fundamentalism by the Uyghurs from government oppression.^[168]

Ningxia Region

The Uyghurs face far greater restrictions than Hui Muslims of the Ningxia region. The Hui people do not desire autonomy like their Uyghur counterparts, meaning that the extremist tendencies of certain Uyghurs do not affect the political standing of the Hui, who are content to live with their non-Muslim Han Chinese neighbours.^[170] Culturally and geographically, the Hui are closer to the non-Muslim Chinese and this has facilitated Hui assimilation. Many Hui have altered their Islamic beliefs and practices to be more compatible with the Han culture in which they live.^[170] Although the Uyghurs speak the Han language like the Hui and Han, they choose to speak their own Turkic dialect and write in Arabic.^[169] The Uyghur reject ideas of assimilation as they perceive themselves to be the indigenous people of the Xinjiang region, a name that was attributed to the Tarim Basin in the 18th century.^[170] The Xinjiang region neighbours Afghanistan and Pakistan. Uyghur refusal to assimilate means they continue to face state persecution.

Conflict between the Uyghur Muslims and the Chinese government is a key example of the tense relationship that exists in China not only between Muslims and non Muslims, but also between the different Muslim groups that live together in the country. The difference between Uyghur Muslims' refusal to assimilate and their Hui counterparts' adaptability has not only led to the Chinese government favouring the Hui for their passivity, but also puts the two Muslim groups at odds with each other.

Authorities have become increasingly concerned with the rise of Islamic factions in certain Chinese provinces, such as the East Turkestan Islamic Movement.^[168] China’s far-western region, Xinjiang, has experienced repeated violence and other acts of intimidation mobilized by the Uyghur, especially in 2014. There has been no particular target of these performances, however it has been speculated by Aljazeera to have been spurred by the economic marginalization and deculturalization the locals feel they have been subjected to.

Chinese Muslims and Islamism

It has been reported that there are more radical Chinese Muslims supporting the ISIS movement, not just in China but in Syria and Iraq as well. The Chinese media estimated that there are around 300 Chinese Muslims active in ISIS territories.^[171] Given a series of acts of violence claimed by the Uyghur in Xinjiang and the number who have joined ISIS abroad, there is support for ISIS being shown by a small faction of radical Chinese Muslims.^[172] Moving forward, the Chinese government has stated that it will not tolerate any form of terrorism and will work to “combat terrorist forces, including ETIM, [to] safeguard global peace, security and stability."^[173]

Representative bodies

Islamic Association of China

Islamic Association of China office in Beijing

The Islamic Association of China claims to represent Chinese Muslims nationwide. At its inaugural meeting on May 11, 1953, in Beijing, representatives from 10 nationalities of the People's Republic of China were in attendance.

China Islamic Association

In May 1953, the government set up the China Islamic Association, which was described as aiming to "help the spread of the Qur'an in China and oppose religious extremism". The association is to be run by 16 Islamic religious leaders who are charged with making "a correct and authoritative interpretation" of Islamic creed and canon.

It will compile and spread inspirational speeches and help imams improve themselves, and vet sermons made by clerics around the country. This latter function is probably the key job as far as the central government is concerned. It is worried that some clerics are using their sermons to spread sedition.

Some examples of the religious concessions granted to Muslims are:

• Muslim communities are allowed separate cemeteries
• Muslim couples may have their marriage consecrated by an Imam
• Muslim workers are permitted holidays during major religious festivals
• Chinese Muslims are also allowed to make the Hajj to Mecca, and more than 45,000 Chinese Muslims have done so in recent years.^[174]

Culture and heritage

The Niujie Mosque in Beijing

Although contacts and previous conquests have occurred before, the Mongol conquest of the greater part of Eurasia in the 13th century permanently brought the extensive cultural traditions of China, central Asia and western Asia into a single empire, albeit one of separate khanates, for the first time in history. The intimate interaction that resulted is evident in the legacy of both traditions. In China, Islam influenced technology, sciences, philosophy and the arts. In terms of material culture, one finds decorative motifs from central Asian Islamic architecture and calligraphy and the marked halal impact on northern Chinese cuisine.

Taking the Mongol Eurasian empire as a point of departure, the ethnogenesis of the Hui, or Sinophone Muslims, can also be charted through the emergence of distinctly Chinese Muslim traditions in architecture, food, epigraphy and Islamic written culture. This multifaceted cultural heritage continues to the present day.^[175]

Military

Muslims have often filled distinguished military positions, and many Muslims have joined the Chinese army.^[176] Muslims served extensively in the Chinese military, as both officials and soldiers. It was said that the Muslim Dongxiang and Salar were given to "eating rations", a reference to military service.^[177]

Islamic architecture in China

Id Kah Mosque

In Chinese, a mosque is called qīngzhēn sì (清真寺) or "pure truth temple." The Great Mosque of Xi'an (first established during the Tang era) and the Great Southern Mosque in Jinan, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, do not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, they follow traditional Chinese architecture. Mosques in western China incorporate more of the elements seen in mosques in other parts of the world. Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.^[178]

An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur; this applies to everything from palaces to mosques. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow; to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself.

On the foothills of Mount Lingshan are the tombs of two of the four companions that Muhammad sent eastwards to preach Islam. Known as the "Holy Tombs," they house the companions Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun—their Chinese names, of course. The other two companions went to Guangzhou and Yangzhou.^[179]

Chinese buildings may be built with bricks, but wooden structures are the most common; these are more capable of withstanding earthquakes, but are vulnerable to fire. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved; there are strict classifications of gable types, comparable with the classical orders of European columns.

As in all regions the Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style. China is renowned for its beautiful mosques, which resemble temples. However, in western China the mosques resemble those of the middle east, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of east and west. The mosques have flared Chinese-style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and minarets.^[178] The first mosque was the Great Mosque of Xian, or the Xian Mosque, which was created in the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century.^[180]

Halal food in China

A typical Muslim restaurant in Linxia City.

A halal meat store sign in Hankou, ca. 1934-1935.

Halal food has a long history in China. The arrival of Arabian and Persian merchants during the Tang and Song dynasties saw the introduction of the Muslim diet. Chinese Muslim cuisine adheres strictly to the Islamic dietary rules with mutton and lamb being the predominant ingredient. The advantage of Muslim cuisine in China is that it has inherited the diverse cooking methods of Chinese cuisine for example, braising, roasting, steaming, stewing and many more. Due to China's multicultural background Muslim cuisine retains its own style and characteristics according to regions.^[181]

Due to the large Muslim population in western China, many Chinese restaurants cater to Muslims or cater to the general public but are run by Muslims. In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants or food stalls typically run by migrants from Western China (e.g., Uyghurs), which offer inexpensive noodle soup. Lamb and mutton dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions. Commercially prepared food can be certified Halal by approved agencies. ^[182] In Chinese, halal is called qīngzhēn cài (清真菜) or "pure truth food." Beef and lamb slaughtered according to Islamic rituals is also commonly available in public markets, especially in North China. Such meat is sold by Muslim butchers, who operate independent stalls next to non-Muslim butchers.

Islamic finance in China

China and Chinese Muslim economists have a long tradition with Islamic finance. The latest official attempt is Bank of Ningxia; while Hong Kong as financial center is discussing intensively its role.^[183]

Calligraphy

Sini

Sini is a Chinese Islamic calligraphic form for the Arabic script. It can refer to any type of Chinese Islamic calligraphy, but is commonly used to refer to one with thick and tapered effects, much like Chinese calligraphy. It is used extensively in mosques in eastern China, and to a lesser extent in Gansu, Ningxia, and Shaanxi. A famous Sini calligrapher is Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang.

Xiao'erjing

A Chinese-Arabic-Xiaoerjing dictionary from the early days of the People's Republic of China.

Xiao'erjing (also Xiao'erjin or Xiaojing) is the practice of writing Sinitic languages such as Mandarin (especially the Lanyin, Zhongyuan, and Northeastern dialects) or the Dungan language in the Arabic script. It is used on occasion by many ethnic minorities who adhere to the Islamic faith in China (mostly the Hui, but also the Dongxiang, and the Salar), and formerly by their Dungan descendants in Central Asia.

Martial arts

There is a long history of Muslim development and participation at the highest level of Chinese wushu. The Hui started and adapted many of the styles of wushu such as bajiquan, piguazhang, and liuhequan. There were specific areas that were known to be centers of Muslim wushu, such as Cang County in Hebei Province. These traditional Hui martial arts were very distinct from the Turkic styles practiced in Xinjiang.^[184]

Literature

The Han Kitab was a collection of Chinese Islamic texts written by Chinese Muslim which synthesized Islam and Confucianism. It was written in the early 18th century during the Qing dynasty. Han is Chinese for Chinese, and kitab (ketabu in Chinese) is Arabic for book.^[185] Liu Zhi wrote his Han Kitab in Nanjing in the early 18th century. The works of Wu Sunqie, Zhang Zhong, and Wang Daiyu were also included in the Han Kitab.^[186]

The Han Kitab was widely read and approved of by later Chinese Muslims such as Ma Qixi, Ma Fuxiang, and Hu Songshan. They believed that Islam could be understood through Confucianism.

Education

A lot of Chinese students including male and females join International Islamic University, Islamabad to gain Islamic knowledge. For some Muslim groups in China, such as Hui and Salars minorities, coeducation is frowned upon; for some groups such as Uyghurs, it is not.^[187]

Famous Muslims in China

Explorers

Zheng He's voyages to secure the maritime routes, usher urbanization and assist in creating a common identity for trade in an ever increasing globalized world.

• Zheng He, mariner and explorer.
• Fei Xin, Zheng He's translator.
• Ma Huan, a companion of Zheng He.

• Generals from the Qing era:

  • Dong Fuxiang
  • Ma Julung
  • Ma Xinyi (late Qing dynasty)

• Generals in the Republic of China:

  • Ma Zhancang
  • Ma Fuyuan
  • Ma Ju-lung
  • Ma Zhanhai
  • Bai Chongxi
  • Ma Ching-chiang (Lt. General)

• Warlords of the Ma clique during the Republic of China era:

  • Ma Bufang
  • Ma Chung-ying
  • Ma Fuxiang
  • Ma Hongkui
  • Ma Dunjing (1910-2003)
  • Ma Hongbin
  • Ma Dunjing (1906-1972)
  • Ma Lin
  • Ma Qi
  • Ma Hu-shan
  • Ma Zhan'ao
  • Ma Qianling
  • Ma Fushou
  • Ma Fulu
  • Ma Anliang
  • Ma Guoliang
  • Ma Buqing
  • Ma Bukang
  • Ma Jiyuan
  • Ma Chengxiang
  • Ma Haiyan

• Generals from the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army):

  • Ma Sheng-kuei
  • Su Chin-shou
  • Pai Tzu-li

• Du Wenxiu, Ma Hualong and Ma Zhan'ao, leaders of the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan and the Muslim rebellion in northwestern China.
• Ma Shenglin, great-uncle of Ma Shaowu and rebel during the Panthay Rebellion.
• Liu Bin Di, Hui Kuomintang officer who died while fighting against Uyghur rebels during the Ili Rebellion.
• Ma Zhanshan, guerilla during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
• Ma Xiao, General (Liu Wenhui).
• Zuo Baogui (左寶貴; 1837–1894), Qing Muslim general from Shandong who died while defending Pingyang, Korea, from the Japanese.^{[188][189][190][191][192]}

Religious

• Liu Zhi (c. 1660 – c. 1739), Islamic author (Qing dynasty).
• Qi Jingyi (1656–1719), Sufi master who introduced the Qadiriyyah school to China.
• Ma Laichi (1681?-1766?), Sufi master who brought the Khufiyya Naqshbandi movement to China.
• Ma Mingxin (1719–1781), founder of the Jahriyya Naqshbandi movement.
• Ma Wanfu, founder of the Yihewani.
• Ma Qixi(1857–1914), founder of the Xidaotang.
• Ma Yuanzhang, Jahriyya Sufi leader.
• Wang Jingzhai, one of the four famous Imams of the Republican period
• Hu Songshan (1880–1956), Yihewani reformer and Chinese nationalist.

Scholars and writers

• Bai Shouyi, historian.
• Tohti Tunyaz, historian.
• Ma Zhu, Islamic scholar and Southern Ming loyalist.
• Yusuf Ma Dexin, first translator of the Qur'an into Chinese.
• Muhammad Ma Jian, author of the most popular Chinese translation of the Qur'an.
• Wang Daiyu, Master Supervisor of the Imperial Observatory (Ming dynasty).^[193]
• Zhang Chengzhi, contemporary author.
• Pai Hsien-yung, contemporary author, son of Bai Chongxi.

Officials

• Ma Xinyi, (馬新貽), official and a military general of the late Qing Dynasty in China.
• Ma Linyi Gansu Minister of Education
• Tang Kesan, representative of the Kuomintang in Xikang

Martial arts

• Ma Xianda, martial artist.
• Wang Zi-Ping, member of the The Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the "Boxers") during the Boxer Rebellion.
• Chang Tung Sheng, martial artist and Shuai jiao teacher.

Arts

• Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang, calligrapher.

See also

• Islamic Association of China
• Islam in Hong Kong
• Islam in Macau
• Islam in Taiwan
• The Hundred-word Eulogy
• Chinese Muslim cuisine
• Islam by country
• Religion in China
• Demographics of the People's Republic of China
• Christianity in China

Footnotes

1. Currently, "Hui" in Chinese refers to both Islamic and ethnic Hui Chinese. Previously, however, "Hui" referred to Islam and all Chinese Muslims, particularly ethnic Hui and Uyghurs.

Notes

1. Min Junqing. The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China. JISMOR, 8. 2010 Islam by province, page 29. Data from: Yang Zongde, Study on Current Muslim Population in China, Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010.
2. "The China Quarterly - Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism? - Cambridge Journals Online". cambridge.org.
3. Armijo 2006
4. "The World Factbook". cia.gov.
5. Dru C. Gladney wrote ISBN 1850653240
6. Dru C. Gladney, Muslim Tombs & Ethnic Folklore-Hui Identity, in The Journal of Asialso n Studies, California, vol.16, No.3, Aug. 1987, p. 498, p. 498 nt.8.
7. Safi-ur Rahman Al-Mubarakpuri, 2009, Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum: The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet, Madinah: Islamic University of Al-Madinah al-Munawwarah, page 72: The Prophet was entrusted to Halimah...Her husband was Al-Harith bin Abdul Uzza called Abi Kabshah, from the same tribe
8. Claude Philibert Dabry de Thiersant (1878). Le mahométisme en Chine et dans le Turkestan oriental (in French). Leroux.
9. Maazars in China-www.aulia-e-hind.com/dargah/Intl/Chin
10. BBC 2002, Origins
11. Abul-Fazl Ezzati, 1994, The Spread of Islam, Tehran: Ahlul Bayt World Assembly Publications, pp. 300,303, 333.
12. Lipman 1997, p. 25
13. Israeli 2002, p. 291
14. Lipman 1997, pp. 26–27
15. http://www.halaljournal.com/article/2829/traders-revive-islam-in-china
16. Herbert Allen Giles (1926). Confucianism and its rivals. Forgotten Books. p. 139. ISBN 1-60680-248-8. Retrieved 2011-12-14.
17. Frank Brinkley (1902). China: its history, arts and literature, Volume 2. Volumes 9-12 of Trübner's oriental series. BOSTON AND TOKYO: J.B.Millet company. pp. 149, 150, 151, 152. Retrieved 2011-12-14.Original from the University of California
18. Frank Brinkley (1904). Japan [and China]: China; its history, arts and literature. Volume 10 of Japan [and China]: Its History, Arts and Literature. LONDON 34 HENRIETTA STREET, W. C. AND EDINBURGH: Jack. pp. 149, 150, 151, 152. Retrieved 2011-12-14.Original from Princeton University
19. Ting 1958, p. 346
20. Israeli 2002, pp. 283–4
21. Israeli 2002, p. 283; Tashi or Dashi is the Chinese rendering of Tazi—the name the Persians used for the Arabs
22. Israeli 2002, p. 284
23. http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1158658465259&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture%2FACELayout
24. "Imam Asim Shrine and Ancient Tomb". wikimapia.org.
25. "Niya / Minfeng". Central Asia Traveler. Archived from the original on February 3, 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
26. Lipman 1997, p. 33
27. Bulliet et al. 2005
28. The Hui ethnic minority, People's Daily, retrieved 2010-09-19
29. BUELL, PAUL D. (1979). "SINO-KHITAN ADMINISTRATION IN MONGOL BUKHARA". Journal of Asian History. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 137–8. JSTOR 41930343.
30. Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
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•  This article incorporates text from The Moslem World, Volume 10, by Christian Literature Society for India, Hartford Seminary Foundation, a publication from 1920 now in the public domain in the United States.
•  This article incorporates text from Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8, by James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray, a publication from 1916 now in the public domain in the United States.

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External links

• Asia Times Online: China News - Islam with Chinese characteristics
• Islam in China
• islamawareness.net
• (Chinese) www.islamcn.net
• Islamic Architecture in China with lots of photographs
• A Sketch of the Islamic Law from 1796 China