List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire | |
---|---|
Imperial | |
| |
Suleiman I (1520–1566) | |
Details | |
Style | His Imperial Majesty[a] |
First monarch | Osman Gazi (1281–1326) |
Last monarch | Mehmed VI (1918–1922) |
Formation | 27 July 1299 |
Abolition | 1 November 1922 |
Residence |
|
Appointer | Hereditary |
The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish: Osmanlı padişahları), made up solely of the members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned from Hungary in the north to Somalia in the south, and from Algeria in the west to Iran in the east. Administered at first from the city of Bursa, the empire's capital was moved to Edirne in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I, and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.[1]
The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend; nevertheless, most modern scholars agree that the empire came into existence around 1299 and that its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I Khan (leader) of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.[3]
State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. The sultan was at the apex of the hierarchical Ottoman system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic شریعت şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (Turkish: Allah'ın yeryüzündeki gölgesi), (Arabic: ظل الله في العالم zill Allah fi'l-alem) and "caliph on the earth" (Persian: خلیفه روی زمین khalife-i ru-yi zemin).[4] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[5] Ertuğrul served as the elected leader of the Ottomans from 1230 until his death in 1281. In 1281, Ertuğrul's son, Osman, became elected leader of the Ottomans. From 1299 until his death in 1326, Osman served as Osman I "Sultan of the Ottoman Empire."
After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles Caesar (قیصر Qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[4][6][7] as well as the caliph of Islam. Following the conquest of Egypt in 1517, Selim I furthered strengthened the claim of caliphal authority.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[8] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[9]
Although theocratic and absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[5] From the 17th century onwards, the empire entered into a long-term period of stagnation, during which the sultans were much enfeebled. Many of them ended up being deposed by the powerful Janissary corps. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[10] women of the Imperial Harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the Valide Sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[11]
The declining powers of the sultans are evidenced by the difference in reign lengths between early sultans and later ones. Suleiman I, who ruled the empire when it was at its zenith in the 16th century, had a reign of 46 years, the longest in Ottoman history. Mehmed Murad V, who ruled in the late 19th-century period of decline, had the shortest reign on record: he was in power for just 93 days before being deposed. Constitutionalism was only established during the reign of Murad V's successor, Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[12] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2009, the head of the House of Osman and pretender to the defunct Ottoman throne has been Bayezid Osman, a great-grandson of Abdülmecid I.[13]
List of sultans
The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. When a sultan's reign did not end through a natural death, the reason is indicated in bold. For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.[14] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[15] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[16]
The official full style of the Ottoman Sultans was:
- 'Ala Hazrat-i-Aqdas-i-Hümayun (اعلی حضرت اقدس همایون, His Sacred and Imperial Majesty) Sultan (سلطان) N.N. Khan (خان),
- Padishah (پادشاه), i.e. Emperor,
- Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman (شاه خاندان آل عثمان), i.e. Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman,
- Sultan us-Selatin (سلطان السلاطین), i.e. Sultan of Sultans,
- Khakan (خاقان), i.e. Khan of Khans,
- Amir ül-Mü'minin ve Khalifeh ül-Rasul Rabb al-A’alimin (امیر المؤمنین و خلیفه الرسول رب العالمین), i.e. Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe,
- Khâdim ül-Haramayn ush-Sharifayn (خادم الحرمین الشریفین), i.e. Custodian of the Two Noble Sanctuaries (i.e. the Holy Cities of Mecca, and Medina),
- Qayser-i Rûm (قیصر روم), i.e. Caesar of the Roman Empire (or the Grecian Ceasar)
- Padişah-i thalath şehireha-i Qostantiniyye, Edirne ve Hüdavendigâr, ül şehireyn-i Dimaşq ve Qahira, tamam Azerbayjan, Mağrib, Barqah, Kayravan, Haleb, ül-‘Iraq-i ‘Arab vel ‘Ajam, Basra, ül-dulan-i Lahsa, Rakka, Musul, Partiyye, Diyârbekir, Kilikiyye, ül vilâyatun-i Erzurum, Sivas, Adana, Karaman, Van, Barbariyye, Habeş, Tunus, Trablus-i Garb, Şam, Kıbrıs, Rodos, Girit, ül vilâyet-i Mora, ül Bahr-i Sefid vel Bahr-i Siyah ve i-swahil, Anadolu, Rumeli, Bagdâd, Kurdistân, Yunanistan, Türkistan, Tatariyye, Çerkesyye, ül mintaqateyn-i Kabarda, Gürjistan, ül-Deşt-i Qipçaq, tamam ül-mamlikat-i Tatar, Kefe ve tamam ül-etraf, Bosna, ül şehir ve hisar-i Belgrat, ül vilâyet-i Sırbistan bil tamam ül-hisareha ve şehireha, tamam Arnaut, tamam Eflâk ve Boğdan, ve tamam ül-mustamlak vel-hududeha, ve muteaddit mamalekat ve şehireha, i.e. Emperor of The Three Cities of Constantinople, Adrianople and Bursa, and of the Cities of Damascus and Cairo, of all Azerbaijan, of the Magreb, of Barca, of Kairouan, of Aleppo, of the Arabic and the Persian Iraq, of Basra, of Al-Hasa strip, of Ar Raqqah, of Mosul, of Diyarbakır, of Cilicia, of the provinces of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, Van, of Barbara, of Abyssinia, of Tunisia, of Tripoli-of-the-West (Tripolitania), of Sham, of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of Crete, of the province of Morea, of the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and also their coasts, of Anatolia, Rumelia, Baghdad, Kurdistan, Greece, Turkistan, Tartary, Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Georgia, of the steppe of Kypchaks, of the whole realm of the Tatars, of Kefe and of all the neighboring regions, of Bosnia, of the City and Fort of Belgrade, of the province of Serbia, with all the castles and cities, of all Albania, of all Eflak and Bogdania, as well as all the dependencies and borders, and many other countries and cities.
№ | Sultan | Portrait | Reigned from | Reigned until | Tughra | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
— | Emir Gazi Ertuğrul Bey ارطغرل غازی Amîr Ghazi – The Esquire (1191–1281) |
1230 | 1281 | — [c] |
| |
— | Emir Gazi Osman Bey عثمان بن ارطغرل Amîr Fakhr ud-din Othman-Al Ghazi – The Esquire (1258–1324) |
1281 | 1299 | — [c] |
| |
Rise of the Ottoman Empire (27 July 1299 – 20 July 1402) | ||||||
1 | Osman I GHAZI (The Warrior) BEY (The Esquire) KARA (lit. The Land or The Black for his bravery) |
27 July 1299 | 29 July 1326 | — [c] |
| |
2 | Orhan GHAZI (The Warrior) BEY (The Esquire) |
29 July 1326 | 1362 |
| ||
3 | Murad I SULTAN-İ AZAM (The Most Exalted Sultan) HÜDAVENDİGÂR - Khodāvandgār (The devotee of God) ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)[19][b] |
1362 | 15 June 1389 |
| ||
4 | Bayezid I SULTAN-İ RÛM (Sultan of the Roman Empire) YILDIRIM (The Thunderbolt) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
15 June 1389 | 20 July 1402 |
| ||
Ottoman Interregnum (20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413) | ||||||
5 | Mehmed I ÇELEBİ (The Affable) KİRİŞÇİ (lit. The Bowstring Maker for his support) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
5 July 1413 | 26 May 1421 |
| ||
6 | Murad II KOCA (The Great) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
25 June 1421 | 1444 |
| ||
7 | Mehmed II FATİH (The Conqueror) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
1444 | 1446 |
| ||
— | Murad II KOCA (The Great) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
1446 | 3 February 1451 | |||
Growth of the Ottoman Empire (29 May 1453 – 11 November 1606) | ||||||
— | Mehmed II HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)[b] QAYSER-İ RÛM (Caesar of the Roman Empire) FATİH (The Conqueror) |
3 February 1451 | 3 May 1481 |
| ||
8 | Bayezid II VELÎ (The Saint) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
19 May 1481 | 25 April 1512 |
| ||
9 | Selim I YAVUZ (The Strong) Hadim'ul Haramain'ish-Sharifain (Servant of Mecca and Medina) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
25 April 1512 | 21 September 1520 |
| ||
10 | Suleiman I MUHTEŞEM (The Magnificent) or
KANÛNÎ (The Lawgiver) |
30 September 1520 | 6 or 7 September 1566 |
| ||
11 | Selim II SARI (The Blond) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
29 September 1566 | 21 December 1574 |
| ||
12 | Murad III HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
22 December 1574 | 16 January 1595 |
| ||
13 | Mehmed III ADLÎ (The Just) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
27 January 1595 | 20 or 21 December 1603 |
| ||
Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire (11 November 1606 – 26 January 1699) | ||||||
14 | Ahmed I BAKHTÎ (The Fortunate) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
21 December 1603 | 22 November 1617 |
| ||
15 | Mustafa I DELİ (The Deranged) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
22 November 1617 | 26 February 1618 |
| ||
16 | Osman II GENÇ (The Young) ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
26 February 1618 | 19 May 1622 |
| ||
— | Mustafa I DELİ (The Deranged) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
20 May 1622 | 10 September 1623 |
| ||
17 | Murad IV SAHİB-Î KIRAN The Conqueror of Baghdad GHAZI (The Warrior) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
10 September 1623 | 8 or 9 February 1640 |
| ||
18 | Ibrahim DELİ (The Arrage) The Conqueror of Crete ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
9 February 1640 | 8 August 1648 |
| ||
19 | Mehmed IV AVCI (The Hunter) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
8 August 1648 | 8 November 1687 |
| ||
20 | Suleiman II GHAZI (The Warrior) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
8 November 1687 | 22 June 1691 |
| ||
21 | Ahmed II KHAN GHAZI (The Warrior Prince) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
22 June 1691 | 6 February 1695 |
| ||
22 | Mustafa II GHAZI (The Warrior) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
6 February 1695 | 22 August 1703 |
| ||
Decline of the Ottoman Empire (26 January 1699 – 9 January 1792) | ||||||
23 | Ahmed III Tulip Era Sultan GHAZI (The Warrior) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
22 August 1703 | 1 or 2 October 1730 |
| ||
24 | Mahmud I GHAZI (The Warrior) KAMBUR (The Hunchback) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
2 October 1730 | 13 December 1754 |
| ||
25 | Osman III SOFU (The Devout) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
13 December 1754 | 29 or 30 October 1757 |
| ||
26 | Mustafa III YENİLİKÇİ (The First Innovative) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
30 October 1757 | 21 January 1774 |
| ||
27 | Abdülhamid I Abd ūl-Hāmīd (The Servant of God) ISLAHATÇI (The Improver) GHAZI (The Warrior) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
21 January 1774 | 6 or 7 April 1789 |
| ||
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire[e] (9 January 1792 – 1 November 1922) | ||||||
28 | Selim III BESTEKÂR (The Composer) NİZÂM-Î (Regulative - Orderly) ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
7 April 1789 | 29 May 1807 |
| ||
29 | Mustafa IV HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
29 May 1807 | 28 July 1808 |
| ||
30 | Mahmud II İNKILÂPÇI (The Reformer) GHAZI (The Warrior) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
28 July 1808 | 1 July 1839 |
| ||
31 | Abdülmecid I TANZİMÂTÇI (The Strong Reformist or The Advocate of Reorganization) GHAZI (The Warrior) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
1 July 1839 | 25 June 1861 |
| ||
32 | Abdülaziz I BAHTSIZ (The Unfortunate) ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd) HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
25 June 1861 | 30 May 1876 |
| ||
33 | Mehmed Murad V HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
30 May 1876 | 31 August 1876 |
| ||
34 | Abdülhamid II Ulû Sultân Abd ūl-Hāmīd Khan (The Sublime Khan) |
31 August 1876 | 27 April 1909 |
| ||
35 | Mehmed V REŞÂD (Rashād) (The True Path Follower) |
27 April 1909 | 3 July 1918 |
| ||
36 | Mehmed VI VAHDETTİN (Wāhīd ād-Dīn) (The Unifier of Religion (Islam)
or
The Oneness of Islam) |
4 July 1918 | 1 November 1922 |
| ||
Republican Caliphate (1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924) | ||||||
— | Abdülmecid II HALİFE (Caliph of Islam) |
18 November 1922 | 3 March 1924 | — [c] |
||
Interregnum period (1402–1413)
№ | Sultan | Portrait | Reigned from | Reigned until | Tughra | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ottoman Interregnum[d] (20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413) | ||||||
— | İsa Çelebi The Co-Sultan of Anatolia |
1403–1405 (Sultan of the Western Anatolian Territory) |
1406 | — |
| |
— | Emir (Amir) Süleyman Çelebi The First Sultan of Rumelia |
20 July 1402 | 17 February 1411[60] | — |
| |
— | Musa Çelebi The Second Sultan of Rumelia |
18 February 1411 | 5 July 1413[62] | — |
| |
— | Mehmed Çelebi The Sultan of Anatolia |
1403–1406 (Sultan of the Eastern Anatolian Territory) 1406–1413 (The Sultan of Anatolia) |
5 July 1413 | — |
|
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sultans of the Ottoman Empire. |
- Ottoman Empire
- Ottoman Dynasty
- Line of succession to the Ottoman throne
- Ottoman Emperors family tree
- The Ottomans: Europe's Muslim Emperors
- Ottoman family tree (more detailed)
- Tuğra-Sultan's Signature
- List of Valide Sultans
- List of Ottoman Grand Viziers
- List of admirals in the Ottoman Empire
- List of Ottoman Kaptan Pashas
Notes
- a1 2 : The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultan-i azam (سلطان اعظم, the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan.[65] Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.[66] The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:[67]
"Sovereign of The Sublime House of Osman, Sultan es Selatin (Sultan of Sultans), Khakhan (Khakan of the Khans), Commander of the faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the lord of the Universe, Custodian of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Kouds (Jerusalem), Padishah of The Three Cities of Istanbul (Constantinople), Edirne (Adrianople) and Bursa, and of the Cities of Châm (Damascus) and Cairo (Egypt), of all Azerbaijan, of the Magreb, of Barkah, of Kairouan, of Alep, of the Arab and Persian Iraq, of Basra, of El Hasa strip, of Raka, of Mosul, of Parthia, of Diyâr-ı Bekr, of Cilicia, of the provinces of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, of Van, of Barbaria, of Habech (Abyssinia), of Tunisia, of Tripoli, of Châm (Syria), of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of Crete, of the province of Morea (Peloponnese), of Bahr-i Sefid (Mediterranean Sea), of Bahr-i Siyah (Black Sea), of Anatolia, of Rumelia (the European part of the Empire), of Bagdad, of Kurdistan, of Greece, of Turkestan, of Tartary, of Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Gorjestan (Georgia), of the steppe of Kipchaks, of the whole country of the Tatars, of Kefa (Feodosiya) and of all the neighbouring regions, of Bosnia, of the City and Fort of Belgrade, of the province of Sirbistan (Serbia), with all the castles and cities, of all Arnaut, of all Eflak (Wallachia) and Bogdania (Moldavia), as well as all the dependencies and borders, and many others countries and cities"
- b1 2 3 : The Ottoman Caliphate was one of the most important positions held by rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty. The caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Murad I acquired the title of caliph during his reign (1362 to 1389), and Selim I later strengthened the caliphal authority during his conquest of Egypt in 1516-1517, after the last Abbasid in Cairo, Al-Mutawakkil III, surrendered to him. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as during the reign of Murad I (1362–1389), who brought most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and established the title of sultan in 1383. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty officialised the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia.[68] From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, vainly inciting the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdülhamid II was by far the Ottoman sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as Sumatra.[69] He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4).[70]
- c1 2 : Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered, although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul bin Gündüz Alp" has been identified.[71] Abdülmecid II, the last Ottoman caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a religious and royal figurehead.
- d^ : The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (Turkish: Fetret Devri), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.[72]
- e^ : The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya.[56] This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 18 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdülmecid II, the then crown prince, as caliph.[73] The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President.[74] Although Abdülmecid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of caliph until the office of the caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.[70] Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.[75]
References
- ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 21
- ↑ Glazer 1996, "The Ottoman Empire"
- ↑ Glazer 1996, "War of Independence"
- 1 2 Findley 2005, p. 115
- 1 2 Glazer 1996, "Ottoman Institutions"
- ↑ Toynbee 1974, pp. 22–23
- ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 20
- ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 93
- ↑ d'Osman Han 2001, "Ottoman Padishah Succession"
- ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 90
- ↑ Peirce, Leslie. "The sultanate of women". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 2007-12-03. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
- ↑ Glazer 1996, "External Threats and Internal Transformations"
- ↑ Bardakçı, Murat (25 September 2009). "Şehzadenin ardından basın öyle hatalar yaptı ki..." (in Turkish). Haberturk.com. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
- ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 91
- ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 92
- ↑ Karateke 2005, pp. 37–54
- 1 2 "Sultan Osman Gazi". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan Orhan Gazi". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard (1995). The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 320. ISBN 9780521223102. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
- ↑ "Sultan Murad Hüdavendigar Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan Yıldırım Beyezid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan Mehmed Çelebi Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- 1 2 "Sultan II. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- 1 2 "Chronology: Sultan II. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-04-07.
- ↑ "Fatih Sultan Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ Kafadar 1996, p. xix
- ↑ "Chronology: Fatih Sultan Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Bayezid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Yavuz Sultan Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan III. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan III. Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan I. Ahmed". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- 1 2 "Sultan I. Mustafa". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Osman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan IV. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan İbrahim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan IV. Mehmed". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Süleyman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Ahmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan III. Ahmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan I. Mahmud Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan III. Osman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan III. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan I. Abdülhamit Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan III. Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan IV. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Mahmud Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan Abdülmecid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan Abdülaziz Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan V. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan II. Abdülhamid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ "Sultan V. Mehmed Reşad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- 1 2 "Sultan VI. Mehmed Vahdettin Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 13
- ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 17
- ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 14
- ↑ Nicholae Jorga: Geschishte des Osmanichen (Trans :Nilüfer Epçeli) Vol 1 Yeditepe yayınları, İstanbul,2009,ISBN 975-6480 17 3 p 314
- ↑ Nicholae Jorga: Geschishte des Osmanichen (Trans :Nilüfer Epçeli) Vol 1 Yeditepe yayınları, İstanbul, 2009, ISBN 975-6480 17 3 p 314
- ↑ Joseph von Hammer:Osmanlı Tarihi cilt I (condensation: Abdülkadir Karahan), Milliyet yayınları, İstanbul. p 58-60.
- ↑ Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 p 74-75
- ↑ Joseph von Hammer:Osmanlı Tarihi cilt I (condensation: Abdülkadir Karahan), Milliyet yayınları, İstanbul. p. 58-60.
- ↑ Peirce 1993, pp. 158–159
- ↑ M'Gregor, J. (July 1854). "The Race, Religions, and Government of the Ottoman Empire". The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art. Vol. 32 (New York: Leavitt, Trow, & Co.). p. 376. OCLC 6298914. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
- ↑ Ozgen, Korkut. "The Ottomans History". TheOttomans.org. Archived from the original on 2008-01-11. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). "Ottomans". The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. pp. 349–351. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. OCLC 52611080. Retrieved 2009-05-02.
- ↑ Quataert 2005, pp. 83–85
- 1 2 Toprak 1981, pp. 44–45
- ↑ Mensiz, Ercan. "About Tugra". Tugra.org. Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ↑ Sugar 1993, pp. 23–27
- ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 54
- ↑ Glazer 1996, "Table A. Chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms"
- ↑ Steffen, Dirk (2005). "Mehmed VI, Sultan". In Tucker, Spencer. World War I: Encyclopedia. Volume. III: M–R. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 779. ISBN 978-1-85109-420-2. OCLC 162287003. Retrieved 2009-05-02.
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External links
- "Website of the 700th Anniversary of the Ottoman Empire". Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- "Official website of the immediate living descendants of the Ottoman Dynasty". Retrieved 2009-02-06.
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Rulers of the Ottoman Empire 1299–1922 |
Sultanate abolished Powers transferred to The Presidents of Turkey |
Sunni Islam titles | ||
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Preceded by Abbasid Dynasty in Cairo |
Holders of the Caliphate 1453–1924 |
Ottoman Caliphate abolished |
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